16
The
Human
Body:
An Orientation
17
The Human Body: An Orientation
Unit Front Page
(See reference page 21 for directions)
18
The Human Body: An Orientation
This checklist will serve as your “study guide” to help you prepare for
your exams. At the end of this unit, you will:
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Know how to use my Interactive Notebook.
Be familiar with some of the frequently used Greek and Latin roots in scientific
terms. Demonstrate how Greek and Latin roots can be linked together with at
least 10 examples. Define the roots in your examples.
Be able to write to demonstrate you knowledge of a concept. To do this, you will
clearly be able to define and explain concepts. You will need to make claims and
defend your claims with evidence based on your own knowledge, contextual clues
from readings, and images.
Explain the differences between anatomy and physiology, their relationship to
each other, and describe their subdivisions. Define the principle of
complementarity.
Explain and name the different levels of structural organization that make up a
human body and explain their relationship.
List the 11 organ systems of the body, identify their organs, and briefly explain
the major function(s) of each system.
Be able to identify how different organ systems work cooperatively. For example,
if you are taking a test, which organ systems are involved and why?
Identify the characteristics of living things. What defines if an organism is alive?
Explain the survival needs of the body.
Define and explain the importance of homeostasis. Compare and contrast
negative and positive feedback systems that maintain homeostasis. Be able to
provide examples of positive and negative feedback.
Describe the anatomical position and describe body orientation and direction.
Explain how body orientation and direction is used to “navigate the body.”
Define and identify Regional Body Terms. (ex. Cranial, carpel, popliteal, etc.)
Locate and name the body cavities and their subdivisions. List the major organs
contained within each cavity.
Define and label parts of serous membranes and indicate its function. Explain the
difference between visceral and parietal membranes and what is in between
them. Be able to name different serous membranes based on its location.
Name the nine regions and four quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity. List the
organs contained in each region and/or quadrant.
Explain the various body planes. If you needed to be able to view both lungs to
check for abnormalities, what body plane would you scan and why?
Roots, Prefixes and Suffixes I will understand and recognize in words
are:
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Ana-, cyto-, epi-, gastr-, histo-, homeo-, hypo-, lumbus-, meta-, org-, para-,
parie-, peri-, viscus-, corona-, venter-ology, -chondro-, -stasis, -tomy, -pathy
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Figure A: Label each of the following organ systems
____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
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Reading Guide: Chapter 1
Human Body: An Orientation
Instructions: The specific instructions for various activities in the reading guide
can be found on reference pages 12 – 20 and the grading rubrics can be found
on reference pages 31. Refer to these pages carefully, as you will be completing
reading guides all throughout this year. Since reading guides are a type of
formative assessment, they are graded on completion, follow-through with
guidelines, and quality.
1. Read Pgs. 2 – 3, 2nd column of your textbook.
Write a GIST for An Overview of Anatomy and Physiology on page 24 of your intNB. Don’t
forget to write the terms you use for your gist in the “cue” column and to underline the
terms within your GIST in your writing. Your GIST must explain concepts. If you forgot
how to write a GIST, the directions can be found on reference page 31.
2. Read pages. 3 –4 on Levels of Structural Organization, and Figure 1.3 Summary of the
body’s organ systems on pages 6 – 7 of your textbook.
Label the organ systems on the opposite page 20 of your intNB, Figure A
3. Read pages 4 – 8 in your textbook.
Write a GIST on Maintaining Life on page 24 of your intNB. Do this below the first GIST on
the Overview of Anatomy and Physiology. Don’t forget to title your GIST Maintaining Life
and write the terms you use for your gist in the “cue” column. Underline the terms within
your GIST in your writing. If you need more space, go onto page 24.
4. Read pages 8 – 11 of your textbook on Homeostasis .
Fill in the Venn Diagram on page 22 of this intNB, comparing and contrasting positive and
negative homeostatic feedback mechanisms. Name at least 4 ways that the feedback
mechanisms are different and at least 2 commonalities.
5. Read pages 12 – 15 in your textbook on Language of Anatomy.
Create a five and six tab notebook foldable of the “Orientation and Directional Terms”. Use
the information on page 13, Table 1.1. for your foldable. On the front of the card, next to
the illustration, write out the term associated with the illustration and write the definition on
the back. Glue or tape these tabs neatly onto page 23 of your intNB.
6. On pages 26 and 27 of your intNB, create Cornell Notes vocabulary sheet of the regional
terms. Use Figure 1.7 from page 14 of your text. The correct regional terms are given on
the left “cue” column of your notes. Fill in the proper definition for each regional body term.
7. Read page 15, bottom of 1st column – to page 19 in your textbook.
Write a GIST on Body Cavities & Membranes on page 25 of your intNB.
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Homeostasis
Positive Feedback
Negative Feedback
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Orientation and Directional Terms (Tabs)
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Reading Guide Chapter 1
GIST 1
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
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Regional Body Terms Vocabulary Sheet
1. Nasal
Nose
2. Oral
3. Cervical
4. Acromial
5. Axillary
6. Abdominal
7. Brachial
8. Antecubital
9. Antebrachial
10. Pelvic
11. Carpal
12. Pollex
13. Palmar
14. Digital
15. Pubic
16. Patellar
17. Crural
18. Pedal
19. Tarsal
20. Frontal
21. Orbital
22. Buccal
23. Mental
24. Sternal
25. Thoracic
26. Mammary
27. Umbilical
28. Coxal
29. Inguinal
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Regional Body Terms Vocabulary Sheet
30. Femoral
31. Fibular or peroneal
33. Hallux
34. Cephalic
35. Manus
36. Otic
37. Occipital
38. Vertebral
39. Scapular
40. Dorsal
41. Olecranal
42. Lumbar
43. Sacral
44. Gluteal
45. Perineal
46. Popliteal
47. Sural
48. Calcaneal
49. Plantar
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Practicing Common Core writing
Your teacher will show you an image on the screen. Examine this image and the
subject. Since body systems never work in isolation, explain which body
systems are involved at this particular moment and why.
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Aug 8, 2008 |By Luis P. Villarreal
Are Viruses Alive?
Although viruses challenge our concept of what "living" means, they are vital
members of the web of life
In an episode of the classic 1950s television comedy The Honeymooners,
Brooklyn bus driver Ralph Kramden loudly explains to his wife, Alice, “You know
that I know how easy you get the virus.” Half a century ago even regular folks
like the Kramdens had some knowledge of viruses—as microscopic bringers of
disease. Yet it is almost certain that they did not know exactly what a virus was.
They were, and are, not alone.
For about 100 years, the scientifi c community has repeatedly changed its
collective mind over what viruses are. First seen as poisons, then as life-forms,
then biological chemicals, viruses today are thought of as being in a gray area
between living and nonliving: they cannot replicate on their own but can do so
in truly living cells and can also affect the behavior of their hosts profoundly.
The categorization of viruses as nonliving during much of the modern era of
biological science has had an unintended consequence: it has led most
researchers to ignore viruses in the study of evolution. Finally, however,
scientists are beginning to appreciate viruses as fundamental players in the
history of life.
Coming to Terms
It is easy to see why viruses have been diffi cult to pigeonhole. They seem to
vary with each lens applied to examine them. The initial interest in viruses
stemmed from their association with diseases—the word “virus” has its roots in
the Latin term for “poison.” In the late 19th century researchers realized that
certain diseases, including rabies and foot-and-mouth, were caused by particles
that seemed to behave like bacteria but were much smaller. Because they were
clearly biological themselves and could be spread from one victim to another
with obvious biological effects, viruses were then thought to be the simplest of
all living, gene-bearing life-forms.
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Their demotion to inert chemicals came after 1935, when Wendell M. Stanley
and his colleagues, at what is now the Rockefeller University in New York City,
crystallized a virus— tobacco mosaic virus—for the fi rst time. They saw that it
consisted of a package of complex biochemicals. But it lacked essential systems
necessary for metabolic functions, the biochemical activity of life. Stanley
shared the 1946 Nobel Prize— in chemistry, not in physiology or medicine—for
this work.
Further research by Stanley and others established that a virus consists of
nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat that may also shelter viral
proteins involved in infection. By that description, a virus seems more like a
chemistry set than an organism. But when a virus enters a cell (called a host
after infection), it is far from inactive. It sheds its coat, bares its genes and
induces the cell’s own replication machinery to reproduce the intruder’s DNA or
RNA and manufacture more viral protein based on the instructions in the viral
nucleic acid. The newly created viral bits assemble and, voilà, more virus arises,
which also may infect other cells.
These behaviors are what led many to think of viruses as existing at the border
between chemistry and life. More poetically, virologists Marc H. V. van
Regenmortel of the University of Strasbourg in France and Brian W. J. Mahy of
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have recently said that with their
dependence on host cells, viruses lead “a kind of borrowed life.” Interestingly,
even though biologists long favored the view that viruses were mere boxes of
chemicals, they took advantage of viral activity in host cells to determine how
nucleic acids code for proteins: indeed, modern molecular biology rests on a
foundation of information gained through viruses.
Molecular biologists went on to crystallize most of the essential components of
cells and are today accustomed to thinking about cellular constituents—for
example, ribosomes, mitochondria, membranes, DNA and proteins—as either
chemical machinery or the stuff that the machinery uses or produces. This
exposure to multiple complex chemical structures that carry out the processes
of life is probably a reason that most molecular biologists do not spend a lot of
time puzzling over whether viruses are alive. For them, that exercise might
seem equivalent to pondering whether those individual subcellular constituents
are alive on their own. This myopic view allows them to see only how viruses
co-opt cells or cause disease. The more sweeping question of viral contributions
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to the history of life on earth, which I will address shortly, remains for the most
part unanswered and even unasked.
To Be or Not to Be
The seemingly simple question of whether or not viruses are alive, which my
students often ask, has probably defied a simple answer all these years because
it raises a fundamental issue: What exactly defines “life?” A precise scientific
definition of life is an elusive thing, but most observers would agree that life
includes certain qualities in addition to an ability to replicate. For example, a
living entity is in a state bounded by birth and death. Living organisms also are
thought to require a degree of biochemical autonomy, carrying on the metabolic
activities that produce the molecules and energy needed to sustain the
organism. This level of autonomy is essential to most definitions.
Viruses, however, parasitize essentially all biomolecular aspects of life. That is,
they depend on the host cell for the raw materials and energy necessary for
nucleic acid synthesis, protein synthesis, processing and transport, and all other
biochemical activities that allow the virus to multiply and spread. One might
then conclude that even though these processes come under viral direction,
viruses are simply nonliving parasites of living metabolic systems. But a
spectrum may exist between what is certainly alive and what is not.
A rock is not alive. A metabolically active sack, devoid of genetic material and
the potential for propagation, is also not alive. A bacterium, though, is alive.
Although it is a single cell, it can generate energy and the molecules needed to
sustain itself, and it can reproduce. But what about a seed? A seed might not be
considered alive. Yet it has a potential for life, and it may be destroyed. In this
regard, viruses resemble seeds more than they do live cells. They have a certain
potential, which can be snuffed out, but they do not attain the more
autonomous state of life.
Another way to think about life is as an emergent property of a collection of
certain nonliving things. Both life and consciousness are examples of emergent
complex systems. They each require a critical level of complexity or interaction
to achieve their respective states. A neuron by itself, or even in a network of
nerves, is not conscious—whole brain complexity is needed. Yet even an intact
human brain can be biologically alive but incapable of consciousness, or “braindead.” Similarly, neither cellular nor viral individual genes or proteins are by
themselves alive. The enucleated cell is akin to the state of being brain-dead, in
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that it lacks a full critical complexity. A virus, too, fails to reach a critical
complexity. So life itself is an emergent, complex state, but it is made from the
same fundamental, physical building blocks that constitute a virus. Approached
from this perspective, viruses, though not fully alive, may be thought of as
being more than inert matter: they verge on life.
In fact, in October, French researchers announced findings that illustrate afresh
just how close some viruses might come. Didier Raoult and his colleagues at the
University of the Mediterranean in Marseille announced that they had sequenced
the genome of the largest known virus, Mimivirus, which was discovered in
1992. The virus, about the same size as a small bacterium, infects amoebae.
Sequence analysis of the virus revealed numerous genes previously thought to
exist only in cellular organisms. Some of these genes are involved in making the
proteins encoded by the viral DNA and may make it easier for Mimivirus to coopt host cell replication systems. As the research team noted in its report in the
journal Science, the enormous complexity of the Mimivirus’s genetic
complement “challenges the established frontier between viruses and parasitic
cellular organisms.”
Impact on Evolution
Debates over whether to label viruses as living lead naturally to another
question: Is pondering the status of viruses as living or nonliving more than a
philosophical exercise, the basis of a lively and heated rhetorical debate but with
little real consequence? I think the issue is important, because how scientists
regard this question infl uences their thinking about the mechanisms of
evolution.
Viruses have their own, ancient evolutionary history, dating to the very origin of
cellular life. For example, some viral- repair enzymes—which excise and
resynthesize damaged DNA, mend oxygen radical damage, and so on— are
unique to certain viruses and have existed almost unchanged probably for
billions of years.
Nevertheless, most evolutionary biologists hold that because viruses are not
alive, they are unworthy of serious consideration when trying to understand
evolution. They also look on viruses as coming from host genes that somehow
escaped the host and acquired a protein coat. In this view, viruses are fugitive
host genes that have degenerated into parasites. And with viruses thus
32
dismissed from the web of life, important contributions they may have made to
the origin of species and the maintenance of life may go unrecognized. (Indeed,
only four of the 1,205 pages of the 2002 volume The Encyclopedia of
Evolution are devoted to viruses.)
Of course, evolutionary biologists do not deny that viruses have had some role
in evolution. But by viewing viruses as inanimate, these investigators place
them in the same category of infl uences as, say, climate change. Such external
infl uences select among individuals having varied, genetically controlled traits;
those individuals most able to survive and thrive when faced with these
challenges go on to reproduce most successfully and hence spread their genes
to future generations.
But viruses directly exchange genetic information with living organisms—that is,
within the web of life itself. A possible surprise to most physicians, and perhaps
to most evolutionary biologists as well, is that most known viruses are
persistent and innocuous, not pathogenic. They take up residence in cells,
where they may remain dormant for long periods or take advantage of the cells’
replication apparatus to reproduce at a slow and steady rate. These viruses
have developed many clever ways to avoid detection by the host immune
system— essentially every step in the immune process can be altered or
controlled by various genes found in one virus or another.
Furthermore, a virus genome (the entire complement of DNA or RNA) can
permanently colonize its host, adding viral genes to host lineages and ultimately
becoming a critical part of the host species’ genome. Viruses therefore surely
have effects that are faster and more direct than those of external forces that
simply select among more slowly generated, internal genetic variations. The
huge population of viruses, combined with their rapid rates of replication and
mutation, makes them the world’s leading source of genetic innovation: they
constantly “invent” new genes. And unique genes of viral origin may travel,
finding their way into other organisms and contributing to evolutionary change.
Data published by the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium
indicate that somewhere between 113 and 223 genes present in bacteria and in
the human genome are absent in well-studied organisms—such as the
yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster and the
nematode Caenorhabditis elegans—that lie in between those two evolutionary
33
extremes. Some researchers thought that these organisms, which arose after
bacteria but before vertebrates, simply lost the genes in question at some point
in their evolutionary history. Others suggested that these genes had been
transferred directly to the human lineage by invading bacteria.
My colleague Victor DeFilippis of the Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute of the
Oregon Health and Science University and I suggested a third alternative:
viruses may originate genes, then colonize two different lineages—for example,
bacteria and vertebrates. A gene apparently bestowed on humanity by bacteria
may have been given to both by a virus.
In fact, along with other researchers, Philip Bell of Macquarie University in
Sydney, Australia, and I contend that the cell nucleus itself is of viral origin. The
advent of the nucleus— which differentiates eukaryotes (organisms whose cells
contain a true nucleus), including humans, from prokaryotes, such as bacteria—
cannot be satisfactorily explained solely by the gradual adaptation of prokaryotic
cells until they became eukaryotic. Rather the nucleus may have evolved from a
persisting large DNA virus that made a permanent home within prokaryotes.
Some support for this idea comes from sequence data showing that the gene for
a DNA polymerase (a DNAcopying enzyme) in the virus called T4, which infects
bacteria, is closely related to other DNA polymerase genes in both eukaryotes
and the viruses that infect them. Patrick Forterre of the University of Paris-Sud
has also analyzed enzymes responsible for DNA replication and has concluded
that the genes for such enzymes in eukaryotes probably have a viral origin.
From single-celled organisms to human populations, viruses affect all life on
earth, often determining what will survive. But viruses themselves also evolve.
New viruses, such as the AIDS-causing HIV-1, may be the only biological
entities that researchers can actually witness come into being, providing a realtime example of evolution in action.
Viruses matter to life. They are the constantly changing boundary between the
worlds of biology and biochemistry. As we continue to unravel the genomes of
more and more organisms, the contributions from this dynamic and ancient
gene pool should become apparent. Nobel laureate Salvador Luria mused about
the viral infl uence on evolution in 1959. “May we not feel,” he wrote, “that in
the virus, in their merging with the cellular genome and reemerging from them,
we observe the units and process which, in the course of evolution, have
created the successful genetic patterns that underlie all living cells?” Regardless
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of whether or not we consider viruses to be alive, it is time to acknowledge and
study them in their natural context—within the web of life.
35
Figure 1: Levels of Organization
36
Date_______________
Chapter 1: The Human Body, An Orientation
37
Body Systems Foldables
38
39
Body Systems Foldables
40
41
Figure 2: Label the orientation and direction in the diagram below
42
Figure 6: Label the Body Planes
Frontal Planes are also called
______________________.
The oblique plane is
______________________.
The difference between a sagittal
and mid-sagittal plane is
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Figure 7: Label the nine abdominal regions, serosa membranes, and
synovial cavity
Serous Membranes
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45
Figure 8: Body Cavities
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47
Banana Dissection
Banana Dissection Sketches:
I. Cross Section of Inferior Piece
Annotation:
II. Sagittal Section of The Smallest Superior Piece
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Banana Dissection
Planes and directions are practiced using fruit and toothpicks.
Be careful with the surgical instruments. Read and follow the instructions very carefully.
Materials:
Knives
Marker
Colored toothpicks
Bananas
Rulers
Banana:
1. Cut the banana on a transverse plane.
2. On the superior portion, make a cut on the sagittal plane.
3. Place a blue toothpick on the most lateral side of your largest superior piece.
4. Draw the cross section of your inferior piece.
5. Draw the sagittal section of your smallest superior piece.
6. Place a yellow toothpick on the most superior portion of your banana on the midline.
7. Place an X on the right inferior posterior portion of your banana, 2 cm from the most
caudal portion or area.
8. On the inferior piece, make an incision along the midline, moving in the inferior
direction on the posterior side, 2 cm deep and 2 cm long.
9. Place a red toothpick on the anterior face on any point on the left side of the inferior
piece.
10. Make an oblique cut on the superior piece, 1 cm from the right cranial side and 1 cm
from the caudal left side.
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Body Orientation Group Quiz
1. Describe how a body would be divided by each of the following types of planes:
A. Frontal (Coronal)
B. Midsagittal
C. Sagittal
D. Transverse
2. Identify the correct directional term to complete the following statements.
A. The liver is ___________ to the diaphragm.
B. Fingers are located_____________ to the wrist bones.
C. The skin on the dorsal surface of your body is said to be located on your_____________
surface.
D. The great (big) toe is ________________ to the little toe.
E. The skin on your leg is ________________ to the muscle tissue in your leg.
F. When you float face down in a pool, you are lying on your _________________ surface.
G. The lungs and the heart are located _____________________ to the abdominal organs.
3. Identify which cavity each of the following organs are in. Give the most specific term.
A. Heart
__________________
G. Lungs
________________
B. Liver
__________________
H. Spleen
________________
C. Intestines
__________________
I. Kidneys
________________
D. Spinal Cord
__________________
J. Stomach
________________
E. Brain
__________________
K. Urinary Bladder ________________
F. Sex Organs
__________________
L. Pancreas
________________
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Body Orientation Group Quiz
4. Fill in the blank completing the analogy.
A. anterior is to ventral as posterior is to ____________________________
B. superficial is to external as deep is to
____________________________
C. cranial is to caudal as superior is to
____________________________
D. medial is to lateral as proximal is to
____________________________
5. Match the organs with the cavity they are in.
CAVITY ORGAN
1.____ cranial cavity
A. stomach
2.____ spinal cavity
B. reproductive organs
3.____ thoracic cavity
C. brain
4.____ abdominal cavity
D. small intestines
5.____ pelvic cavity
E. urinary bladder
F. spinal cord
G. liver, gallbladder, pancreas and spleen
H. lung
6. Match the abdominal region with the descriptive term:
1. ______ Iliac/inguinal
A. “on top of” the stomach
2. ______ Epigastric
B. near the belly button
3. ______ Lumbar/lateral
C. “under or below” the stomach
4. ______ hypochondriac
D. below the ribs
5. ______ Umbilical
E. near the large bones of spinal cord
6. ______ hypogastric/pelvic
F. near the groin
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Body Orientation Group Quiz
7. Label the following image with the correct Directional Terms.
52
Body Orientation Group Quiz
8. Label the following image with the correct planes.
53
Design an Experiment: Homeostasis
Introduction: Homeostasis means maintaining a relatively constant state of the body’s
internal environment. The term used to describe a pattern of response to restore the
body to normal stable level is termed negative feedback. When a stimulus
(environment change) is met by a response that reverses (negates) the trend of the
stimulus, it is negative feedback. As a result the internal environment is returned to
normal. When a stimulus (environment change) is met by a response that promotes
the trend of the stimulus, it is positive feedback.
Pulse rate is constantly checked by receptors throughout your body. A stimulus such as
elevated pulse rate leads to a reaction by an organ making the response. An
appropriate response will return the pulse rate to normal, using negative feedback
mechanisms.
Purpose: To observe the amount of time it takes for homeostasis to return your body’s
pulse rate to normal after vigorous activity.
I. Problem:
Independent Variable (IV): the variable that the experimenter deliberately changes
to test the dependent variable. Often denoted as (x), or the cause of the change.
Dependent Variable (DV): the change that is observed and recorded as data as a
result of the independent variable. Often denoted as (y), or the effect of the change.
II. Hypothesis:
54
Design an Experiment: Homeostasis
III. Experimental Procedure/Materials: List the steps. Circle the materials you
need within the steps as you write them out. Number of repetitions?
Control Group (comparison group, which could be negative or positive)
Experimental Group (test group)
Constants (what you maintain consistently the same amongst your control and
experimental groups).
Variables beyond our control
55
Design an Experiment: Homeostasis
IV. Results: What kind of data? Quantified or Qualified? How would you
record your data? Create a sample data table here. Graph, if appropriate.
Individual Data
Collective Data
56
Design an Experiment: Homeostasis
Title:
Y=
X=
V. Conclusion:
57
Chapter 1
Unit Packet
58
59
60
1.1 – 1.4 on pgs. 88-89
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62
63
64
65
66
67
Label each anterior anatomical region, then color the regions, so that each region can be
distinguishable from another.
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69
Label each posterior anatomical region, then color the regions, so that each region can be
distinguishable from one another.
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71
72
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The Human Body: An Orientation
Unit Concept Map (see reference page 20 for directions)
76
Summary of One Objective
Choose one student objective from the start of the unit (page 19) and thoroughly explain
the objective question in your writing. Use the vocabulary that was included in your concept
map. Be specific with your language to communicate your understanding of the unit.
Underline or highlight vocabulary words that were incorporated in your summary.
-- OR –
Write a summary of the unit by thoroughly explaining the interrelationship between the
terms that were used in the concept map. It is important that you define concepts in your
explanation and include the vocabulary that was in your concept map. Underline or
highlight the vocabulary words that were incorporated into your summary.
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