Policy Brief
Hosting the 2010 World Cup:
What have we learned? Some South
African Reflections
June, 2012
Research Group of Urban Development and Sustainability
BRICS Policy Center / Centro de Estudos e Pesquisa BRICS
Policy Brief
Hosting the 2010 World Cup:
What have we learned? Some South
African Reflections
June, 2012
Research Group of Urban Development and Sustainability
BRICS Policy Center / Centro de Estudos e Pesquisa BRICS
BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
1. Introduction
industries: Tiger Woods’ combined annual
income for 2003 was US $ 76.6 million,
A remarkable consequence of the
while Bhutan’s GDP amounted to US $ 68
growing salience of the BRICS in the
million,
global
basketball,
economy
is
the
coincidental
whilst
the
multiyear
American
football
European
are also being hosted in these new
surpass the GDP’s of countries like
centres of economic power. The 2008
Botswana or Belize and the franchise
Olympics
FIFA
values of leading clubs like Real Madrid,
Football
Manchester United or the New York
Association) World Cup in South Africa
Yankees are larger than the GDP of many
and the 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2016
developing
(Federation
China,
the
Internationale
2010
de
Olympics Games in Brazil, the 2014
contracts
and
frequency with which major sports events
in
soccer
baseball,
countries
Honduras or Paraguay
like
regularly
Zambia,
1
Olympics in Sochi, Russia and finally the
Despite the economic significance
XIX Commonwealth Games in India in
2010 are cases in point. Of course, given
of
the potential economies of scale in many
frequency
of these states, but especially in ‘monster
increasing competition to host them. state
countries’ like Brazil, India and China, and
elites’ appetite to embark on the costly
the consumptive capacity of their middle
process of both bidding and if successful,
classes
of
actually hosting major or even mega-
disposable income towards the global
events are driven in part by the perceived
leisure market and no less so in relation to
need to appropriate these events as a
the political economy of sport, major
means
sports events and its associated industries
awareness of the state on the assumption
with both forward and backward linkages.
that the kind of publicity only such events
Consider the following as indicative of the
can generate on an unprecedented scale
size of these increasingly transnational
will further enmesh the state into the
entails
growing
sources
mega-sports
of
and
events,
the
their
growing
seemingly
generating
interest
ever-
and
3
BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
financial,
productive
and
consumptive
accrued
considerable
prestige
from
dynamics of the international political
hosting a major sport event, since the late
economy and will be verifiable through
twentieth
promising
imperatives behind it have become ever
trade
and
tourism
figures,
student exchanges, conventions, major art
century,
the
economic
more significant.
and cultural festivals, film and advertising
processes,
culinary
competitions,
This policy brief provides a brief
gay
pride festivals, and major rock concerts. Of
glimpse
course, as certain destinations become
contradictions that often emerge in the
more sought after, it heightens their
run-up to, and the hosting of, mega-events
capacity and appeal to host even more
in ‘rising powers’ of the South. The focus
events in future. The success with which
is on South Africa’s hosting of the 2010
states and specifically cities, ‘plug into’
Soccer World Cup, concluding with brief
capital’s
and
reflections on similarities and differences
enhance prospects for the development of
with Brazil’s bid to host the World Cup in
post-Fordist industries in the advanced
2014 and the Olympics in 2016. Both
developed
countries
circulatory
but
processes,
even
de-industrialising
into
the
represent
complexities
the
possibility
and
of
sectors of the developing world, also helps
massive new markets – more so in the
to attract and ferment growing numbers of
Brazilian case – juxtaposed against glaring
what Florida has termed ‘the creative
(and especially in the South African case)
2
scientists,
growing inequalities. These issues will be
engineers, architects, poets, designers
examined according to three analytical
and
those
dimensions. Firstly, questions of identity
involved in high-tech industries that, in
and how these are constructed; secondly,
turn, impact upon urban and regional
debates about the costs and benefits of
development and hence heighten the
hosting
international allure of the cities in which
extent to which non-state actors such as
they live. In short, nearly all states beyond
FIFA abrogate states’ sovereignty, even if
those
only for the two to three week duration of a
class’ .
These
university
consist
of
professors
traditionally
classified
and
as
‘least
developed’, compete in various ways –
mega-events
and
finally,
the
tournament.
akin to brightly coloured anemone’s on the
ocean floor - for whatever possibilities
2. Constructing identity
there may be to entice various types of
capital by enhancing their international
The concept of marketing power helps
appeal3.Whilst key cities have always
relate both the domestic and international
4
BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
dimensions
whereby
are
When South Africa began bidding
constructed and projected during mega-
for the World Cup, its 2003 bid book,
sports events. As a kind of two-level game
loudly proclaimed the then president,
marketing power internally, the concept
Thabo Mbeki’s vision of the bid as being ‘a
refers to attempts by state elites to shore-
resolve to ensure that the twenty first
up political legitimacy, reinforce a sense of
century unfolds as a century of growth and
national
development in Africa’.6 Even the FIFA
identity
identities
and
placate
those
constituencies adversely affected by the
Inspection
growing internationalization of domestic
awarding the event to South Africa would
issue areas. In other words, hosting mega-
assist in unifying the country.
events
that
with this pan-Africanist theme, the official
accrue from an intensified connection to
slogan of the 2010 FIFA World Cup has
demonstrate
the
benefits
Report
contended
7
that
In keeping
the global economy. Marketing power also
been called ‘Ke Nako’ meaning “it’s time”.
serves an external political purpose since
8
state elites justify the huge costs of
destination
hosting an event on the basis of its
contributor to every sphere of human
potential to ‘export’ the country and ‘put it
endeavour’, whilst the official mascot of
on the world map’. However as state and
the 2010 FIFA World Cup, ‘Zakumi’ is a
business elites seek to enhance their
leopard whose name comprises of ‘ZA’
legitimacy by prevailing on the states’
which represents South Africa and ‘kumi’
sources of marketing power, these efforts
translates into the number ten in various
can often exacerbate or expose divisions,
languages across Africa.
disputes and some exceptional cases
FIFA, the mascot represents the people,
even impact upon these elites’ lack of
geography and spirit of South Africa, and
legitimacy and/or inefficiency. Moreover in
personifies in essence the 2010 FIFA
the context of the hard earned glare of the
World Cup. Ironically, the mascot was
global
events
marred in controversy. Not only was it not
generate, embarrassments are concealed
being manufactured in South Africa, but
4
with greater difficulty . In short, generating
reportedly in a Chinese factory – linked to
marketing power is not without risk, since
FIFA’s branding company, Global Brands
political or social embarrassments may
Group (GBG) – where workers toiled
also diminish rather than boost a state’s
under poor working conditions. Moreover,
media
prestige.
5
attention
these
The slogan celebrates Africa as the
the
factory,
of
‘humanity
Shangai
9
and
as
a
According to
Fashion
Plastic
Products, was ‘contracted by a South
African licensee company that is owned by
5
BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
a member of Parliament from the African
National Congress’.
10
Africa as an African state.
an
outbreak
of
11
In May 2008
xenophobic
attacks
occurred in Alexandria Township, on the
Nowhere
of
outskirts of Johannesburg and spread
commercial marketing and appeals to
countrywide, leaving over 40 people dead
South African national identity as crudely
and some 16 000 displaced.
obvious
widely
in
is
the
the
slew
confluence
of
television
publicised
12
attacks,
These
fuelled
commercials aired in the last weeks’ run
perceptions of a tainted image, and the
up to the World Cup kick-off. In fact, so
anticipation
tightly is the depiction of South African
attendance figures for the the2010 FIFA
sports fans and commercial products and
World Cup, not only from North America
services interwoven that it becomes very
and Europe – where concerns about crime
difficult to conceive of the South African
even prompted the German coach to insist
World Cup identity in the absence of its
that his players use bullet proof vests
many
The
when leaving their hotel – but also
mobile
amongst football supporters from other
products
television
and
sponsors.
commercial
telecommunications
for
giant,
Vodacom,
of
much
African countries.
13
lower
visitor
More recently, the
enitled ‘Jan and Elton: Bafana Bling’ is a
mayor of the Western Cape municipality of
case in point. Featuring two men rapping
Theewaterskloof (between Cape Town
and enveloped in commensurate ‘bling’
and Mossel Bay), suggested displaced
attire, the two rappers call upon the nation
foreigners complain ‘that Western Cape
to support the national football team,
provincial police and municipal officials are
‘Bafana Bafana’, reminding viewers that
covering up the spate of violent attacks on
the World Cup ‘is like 1995 all over again’,
them because of the approaching FIFA
referring to the outburst of national pride
World
when South African won the Rugby World
expressed that following another incident
Cup.
in Imizamo Yethu, Hout Bay, residents
Cup’.
14
Concerns
were
also
feared that xenophobia would flare up
Yet set against the backdrop of
after the World Cup, particularly if South
such elite-driven efforts to deploy South
Africa lost and as anti-foreigner sentiments
Africa’s marketing power, at the societal
increased. Fortunately these apocalyptic
level,
visions
xenophobic
attacks
directed
proved
exaggerated,
and
the
particularly towards Africans cast heavy
World Cup was largely from a logistical
doubts about the success with which
point of view, widely acclaimed to have
Pretoria has sought to reconstruct South
been a success. Indeed, one of the most
6
BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
significant, if intangible legacies of the
20%, between R2.8 and R3.4 billion, with
World Cup has been its symbolic value of
a large part of budget overruns attributable
enhancing South African pride. Not only in
to the speed with which the planning
the country’s ability to successfully host an
process was undertaken, consequently
event of such magnitude, but of particular
using
significance to South Africans, as a rare
opportunity
–
however
fleeting
--
provisional
sums
instead
of
20
specifics.
to
celebrate a sense of national identity.
Despite dire predictions of the
However, in terms of the costs versus
eventual costs government would incur,
benefits debate, the outcome has proved
research consultancies employed by the
to be less optimistic, at least over the short
local
term, than had initially been anticipated.
inflated projections of returns. Foreign
organising
committee
pedalled
tourist arrivals, a key dimension in these
In general, FIFA World Cups have had
models, were estimated at 235 000 in
only limited positive effects on local
2003, 480 000 in 2008 and then revised
economies or more likely to be non-
downward to 373 000 on the basis that
significant or even negative.
15
In South
although fewer tourists would arrive than
exclusively
expected in earlier projections, they will
covered the tab for the construction of
stay longer and spend more21. More recent
stadiums and related infrastructure, US $
post-hoc studies have now determined
1.38 billion for stadiums and 1.6 billion
that these figures have turned out to be
Africa,
government
almost
pounds for infrastructure.
16
. In 2006, R8.4
considerably lower at between 90 000 to
stadium
118 000 persons22. The contribution of the
construction, supply of utility and services
World Cup to GDP in 2011 over the short-
to the stadiums and for FIFA overlay items
term has been assessed to be a mere 0,1
billion
was
allocated
in the stadium.
17
infrastructure,
including
for
A further R6.7 billion for
transport,
allocated in the 2006 budget.
18
%. What proved to be methodologically
was
problematic in terms of the research
However,
consultancy’s model was the inclusion of
in the 2007/2008 budget speech, the total
money
contribution by government was R17.4
improvement (including development of
billion (R8.4 billion on stadia and R9 billion
stadiums) as a form of income, rather than
for transport and infrastructure.
19
By the
a
cost.
spent
Moreover
on
the
infrastructure
impact
and
end of 2007, concerns were growing that
employment multipliers did not specify
as a result of cost escalations the 2007
whether employment stimulated by the
budget could be exceeded by more than
tournament would be long or short-term or
7
BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
how jobs would be affected by the
of the R 600 bn infrastructure spend was
23
seasonal variation in demand . What
to upgrade the country’s dated road
explains
expected
network and improve public transport,
these
lower
than
passenger arrivals? The first and most
including
obvious is the impact of the global
airports26.
significant
refurbishment
of
financial crisis, exacerbated by South
Africa being a long-haul and therefore
3. Abrogating sovereignty
more expensive destination; concerns that
the country is a ´dangerous´ location as
One of the most remarkable complexities
well
out
of hosting mega-sports events is the
effects´. These relate to both the effect of
extent to which a non-state actor such as
crowding out regular travellers (say on
FIFA - in the realm of ´low politics´, namely
business) as well as the effects of
sport
anticipated price increases. Du Plessis
sovereignty, even if for only the duration of
and Maennig for example, illustrate that
the tournament. As part of the bidding
even after the Competition Commission
process, the South African government
intervened to force price adjustments in
had to provide a series of guarantees and
the industry and the airlines realised that
undertakings
sufficient
to
requirements for hosting would be met.
materialise, flights were at least 50% more
The guarantees include, amongst others;
expensive than during non-World Cup
exempting FIFA personnel from work
as
the
so-called
bookings
´crowding
are
unlikely
24
-
abrogates
to
host
ensure
countries´
that
the
periods . These have knock-on effects
permits; guaranteeing customs and other
throughout the tourism sector. Hence in
tax,
some parts of the country, anecdotal
guaranteeing
evidence suggests that hotel occupancy in
delegations; guaranteeing certain media
25
the three major cities were only 60% .
duty
and
levy
the
safety
exemption;
of
FIFA
and related rights, and undertaking to
promulgate
new
laws
if
required
to
Whilst South Africa incurred excessive
accommodate the event and guaranteeing
cost over-runs – the cost of the Cape
FIFA’s
Town stadium was initially estimated at R
facilitate
2,5 billion (bn), it eventually cost R 4,5 bn;
government
Soccer City’s refurbishment cost R 3,2 bn;
legislation and amend existing legislation
Nelson Mandela Bay R 4bn – one of the
to remove obstacles that impeded their
positive
Cup
implementation. For example, two Special
preparations was that a significant portion
Measures Bills were designed to give
aspects
of
the
World
intellectual
these
had
property
rights27.To
guarantees,
to
introduce
the
new
8
BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
effect to the guarantees and were later
terms are ‘procedurally unfair, unlawful
refined and introduced as two new Acts
and unconstitutional’28.
and two amended Acts, viz. the 2010 FIFA
World Cup Special Acts (No. 11 of 2006)
Critics of South Africa´s bidding process
and the Second 2010 FIFA World Cup
have also noted the fact that public
Measures Act (No. 12 of 2006). The
participation in the process – if not entirely
amended Acts include the Merchandise
participatory – was decidedly uneven. For
Marks Act (No. 17 of 1941) which provides
example, FIFA insisted that the Cape
the basis for protected event status and
Town Stadium in Green Point become the
the Revenue Laws Amendment Act (No.
official competition venue and not Athlone
20 of 2006) which gives effect of the
as was initially suggested by the provincial
guarantee to provide a supportive financial
government. Having Athlone as a match
environment (tax exemptions etc.). These
venue, it was hoped, would fast-track
regulations in effect secures the smooth
infrastructural development projects in an
running of the event, however it is also
area that had historically higher levels of
apparent that FIFA’s rights and that of its
unemployment than around the affluent
partners and sponsors are of primary
Green Point area. However according to
concern and are an integral component of
one report, a FIFA official lamented that
the guarantees. Some of these measures
Athlone would be unsuitable since ´a
have
billion television viewers don´t want to see
also
come
close
to
skirting
for
shacks and poverty on this scale´29.
example retains the right to unilaterally
Moreover, none of the meetings between
withdraw the rights of journalists who may
the FIFA delegation and Cape Town
be considered by FIFA to harm the
officials were open to the public.
constitutional
infringements.
FIFA
Federation´s reputation. Although FIFA’s
Being the first African country to
preamble and terms and conditions states
that ‘nothing in them is intended to be, or
host
shall be interpreted as restricting or
perception of South Africa being more
undermining the editorial independence of
´crime prone´ than many other countries –
freedom
a reputation it shares with Brazil – meant
to
report
and
comment
of
a
the
World
issue
Cup
of
and
a
common
accredited parties’, the South African
that
securitisation
was
Media Interest Group contended that
probably a more pronounced concern both
under South African law ‘a prior restraint
to FIFA as well as the South African
on publication’ is unlawful and that FIFA’s
government. In fact, Donaldson & Ferreira
found that the perceived crime rate was a
9
BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
potential deterrent for many prospective
30
expenses
for
security
amounted,
to
visitors . Hence the need to demonstrate
approximately R1.3 billion. This amount
South African capability to host an event of
excluded provincial and local municipal
such magnitude involved at the same time,
expenses (and excludes unanticipated
the capacity to visibly be seen to manage
costs such as R 665 million spent on
the crime problem. As Cornelissen argues,
overtime
the securitisation of mega-events in the
reservists, sparked in part by stadium
global South involves a dual function: to
guard strikes)32. Nevertheless, some of the
highlight the state´s capacities to the
beneficial effects included improvement in
international community (and underscore
police infrastructure and human resource
its sovereignty) but at the same time to
capacities
reinforce the idea of the state to domestic
laboratories,
audiences31. Securitisation in short, offers
vehicles and larger numbers of recruits) as
an opportunity for state-building especially
well as anecdotal evidence of considerably
in areas where the state´s monopoly is
reduced crime levels for the duration of the
often undermined, by criminal networks,
World Cup33. Ironically, the withdrawal of
gangs and the like. Rio de Janeiro´s local
these measures post-World Cup and
government efforts to pacify favela´s once
reports of increased/previous crime levels,
under the control of drug lords, emerges
underscored the extent to which efficiency
as a case in point.
over the short-term translates into dashed
salaries
(ranging
for
officers
from
surveillance
and
forensic
by
CCTV,
expectations amongst the broad public if
One month before the start of the
the state is unable to maintain its level of
tournament the announced security plan
efficiency over the longer term, after the
envisaged the deployment of 44 000
event.
police officers to the nine host cities and at
all land, air and sea ports of entry,
4. Conclusion
providing 24 hour police protection to the
national teams and their entourages, no-fly
Unequivocally,
zones in areas proximate to stadia and the
memory of South Africa´s hosting of the
like. ´Movement control systems´ were
first African World Cup remains the extent
instituted at international airports and entry
to which South Africans felt extremely
points, a special event visa created to
proud of the achievement of their soccer
ease border entry and control, and 56
team ‘Bafana Bafana’ (even though they
special World Cup courts were created to
did not qualify for the finals) and of the
hear cases of petty crime. Total national
country´s ability to successfully host a
the
most
outstanding
10
BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
games of such magnitude. The country´s
trumpeted by the research consultancies
most ardent critics – notably the foreign
hired by state and business elites. Most
press and British tabloids in particular
revealing in this regard is the apparent
(who envisaged thousands of tourists
(temporary?) termination of South Africa´s
falling victim to the country´s reputed
interest in hosting major events which has
crime rates or even a sensationalist ´racial
continued since the country´s emblematic
war´) had to concede to the success with
hosting and historic victory of the 1995
which the Cup had been organised. This is
Rugby World Cup. For example, although
not to deny that some smaller logistical
the International Olympic Committee (IOC)
problems
the
president Jacques Rogge indicated that
expeditious selling and distribution of
the IOC would welcome a bid to host the
tickets and an unexpected strike by
2020 Olympics from Africa and Durban
stadium security staff). However, overall
emerged as the South African city of
South Africa´s hosting of the 2010 Soccer
choice, it was estimated that at least US $
World Cup proved to be a unanimous
4,5 billion would have to be spent on new
success as a means of enhancing the
venues to enable Durban to host an
country´s marketing power: it provided a
Olympic Games. Against rising public
rare opportunity for a society with a very
protests
nebulous sense of national identity to
delivery (water, sanitation, better schools)
celebrate what it meant to be South
for
African
did
whilst
occur
Cup
as
the
against
poor
–
the
lack
which
of
had
service
already
offered
an
manifested during the run-up to the 2010
signal
and
World Cup - Cabinet announced that
project this identity to millions around the
South Africa would not bid to host the
world.
2020
unprecedented
the
(such
means
to
Olympics.
A
Government
spokesperson noted ´It is better for the
The more contentious dimension
country to consolidate the gains of the
relates to the more tangible aspects of
2010 Fifa World Cup for now and rather
hosting an event of this magnitude and
focus the country´s attention on the
whether the enormous costs could be said
delivery of basic services to all South
to
Africans’34.
justify
such
incredible
expense
particularly in a society as unequal as
ours. The South African case seems to
echo much of the mega-events literature´s
scepticism of the anticipated long-term
returns
frequently
and
optimistically
1
Nauright, J. ‘Global games: culture,
political economy and sport in the
globalised world of the 21st century’, Third
World Quarterly 25 (7) 2004, p. :1334.
11
BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
2
Florida, R. 2002 The Rise of the Creative
Class: And How its Transforming Work,
Leisure, Community and Everyday Life.
Basic Books: New York, NY.
3
Van der Westhuizen J. & Swart K, ‘Bread
or circuses? The 2010 World Cup and
South Africa’s quest for marketing power’,
The International Journal of the History of
Sport 28 (1), January 2011, pp. 168-180.
4
Black D. & Van der Westhuizen J., ‘The
allure of global games for ‘semi-peripheral’
polities and spaces: a research agenda’,
Third World Quarterly 25 (7) 2004, pp.
1191-1195.
5
Marketing power is not entirely akin to
‘soft power’. For an elaboration, see van
der Westhuizen, J ‘Marketing the
“Rainbow Nation: The Power of the South
African Music, Film and Sport Industry’,
pp. 64-83 in K. Dunn & Shaw T., (eds.)
2001 Africa’s Challenge to International
Relations Theory. Palgrave: Basingstoke.
6
South Africa Department of Sports and
Recreation, 2010 FIFA World Cup South
Africa, p. 1.
7
Black, D.‘The symbolic politics of sport
mega-events: 2010 in comparative
perspective’, Politikon 34 (3)2007, pp.
261-76.
8
Government Communication and
Information Service, no.date, p. 3
9
’Zakumi’- Mascot
unveiled’,Fifa.com,www.fifa.com/worldcup/
organisation/media/newsid=887044.html,
accessed 11 Jan. 2010.
10
Ibid., Zhen and Mulvenney, Mail &
Guardian Online, 10 March 2010.
11
Van der Westhuizen, ‘Popular culture,
discourse and divergent identities:
reconstructing South Africa as an African
state’, African Identities 6 (1) 2008, pp. 4562.
12
‘Xenophobic violence rock Alex’,
Independent Online Web,
http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&cl
ickid=3069&art_idnw20080512090323769
C488407. Accessed:8 June 2008.
13
V. John ‘Xenophobia won’t deter fansLOC’, Cape Times,
www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_i
d3069&art_id=nw20080519175438324C1
36970. Accessed: 12 June 2008.
14
Ibid.
15
Allmers S.& Maennig, W. South Africa
2010: Economic Scope and Limits.
Hamburg Contemporary Economic
Discussions, issue 21 (2008),
http://econpapers.repec.org/paper/hcewpa
per/021.htm. Accessed: 15 September
2009; Hiller, H. ‘Assessing the Impacts of
Mega-Events’: A Linkage Model’, Current
Issues in Tourism 1 (1), 1998, p. 47-57;
Maenning W. & Schwarthoff, F. ‘Stadium
Architecture and Regional Economic
Development: International Experience
and Plans for Durban’, International
Association of Sports Economists.
Working Paper Series no.08-16, 2008.
16
Ibid. Maennig & Scwarthoff, ‘Stadium
architecture and regional economic
development: International experience and
plans for Durban’, 2008.
17
Davies, ‘Managing the alchemy of the
2010 Football World Cup’, in Development
and Dreams: The Urban Legacy of the
2010 Football World Cup, (ed.) U. Pillay,
R. Tomlinson and O. Bass. Cape Town:
HSRC Press, 2010, pp. 33-51.
18
Minister of Finance cited in Davies, 2010.
19
Ibid.
20
Ibid.
21
Cornelissen, S. 2010 ‘The Economic
Impact of South Africa’s 2010 World Cup:
Ex ante ambitions and possible ex post
realities’. Unpublished paper.
22
Du Plessis S. & Maenning W., ‘The
2010 World Cup high-frequency data
economics: Effects on international
tourism and awareness for South Africa’,
Development Southern Africa 28 (3),
September 2011, pp. 349-365.
23
Ibid. Cornelissen, 2010.
24
Ibid., Du Plessis & Maenning, p. 356
25
Ibid. Cornelissen, 2010
26
Ibid.
27
Davies, G. ‘Managing the Alchemy of
the 2010 Football World Cup’, in
Development and Dreams: The Urban
legacy of the 2010 Football World Cup,
(ed.) U Pillay, R. Tomlinson and O. Bass.
12
BRICS POLICY CENTER – POLICY BRIEF
Hosting the 2010 World Cup: What have we learned?
Some South African Reflections
Autor: Janis van der Westhuizen
Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2010, pp. 3351.
28
‘Media Groups Voice Concern over Fifa
Restrictions’, Mail & Guardian, 29 January
2010,
www.mg.co.za/printformat/single/2010-0129-media-groups-voice-concern-over.
Accessed: 18 February 2010.
29
P. Joubert, “green Point gamble’, Mail &
Guardian Online, 12 January 2007,
www.mg.co.za/article/2007-01-12-greenpoint-gamble. Accessed: 20 February
2007.
30
Donaldson R., & Ferreira S. 2009 ‘(Re)creating urban destination image:opinions
of foreign visitors to South Africa on safety
and security?’, Urban Forum, 20, pp. 1-18.
31
Cornelissen, S. ‘Mega-Event
Securitisation in a Third World Setting:
Glocal Processes and Ramifications
during the 2010 FIFA World Cup’, Urban
Studies 48 (15), pp. 3221-3240.
32
Ibid.
33
Ibid.
34
Business Day 27 May 2011.
13