※Special Discussion※
Music at the Roof of the World
Ji-zeng Mao ﹝Full-Time Visiting Professor Department of Chinese Music, National Taiwan
University of Arts﹞
Abstract
Tibet is universally known as “the sea of song and dance” and
“the land of music,” being the home to a vast, age-old, and intriguing
variety of traditional music. The author of this paper has visited Tibet
for a total of eight times, with more than three years spent on
fieldwork. This paper provides a comprehensive, general depiction of
traditional music of different ethnic groups in Tibet based on actual
field study findings.
Key Words: Tibet、Traditional Music、Folk Music、Court Music、
Religious Music
Music at the Roof of the World
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Traditional music in Tibet has a long history, comes in a great variety and
diversity, and carries with it an artistic beauty, commanding a large number of
supporters. According to the Chronicles of King Ladakh, “In the days of
Desho Lek (the emperor of Tibet), ‘lu” and ‘zhuo’ were very popular.” This
shows that as early as the days of Desho Lek, the tenth emperor of Tibet
before the Tubo Dynasty (around the first century B.C.), “lu” (a kind of
performance involving singing) and “zhuo” (a kind of performance involving
mainly dancing) were already very popular in Tibet. The Chronicles of the
Kings of Tibet painted a vivid description of the nation’s lively celebrations of
the promulgation of the Ten Dharma in the days of Songtsän Gampo:
People dressed as rhinoceros, tigers, or lions, holding drums or
dancing, making dance or music in various gestures
The drum was beat loudly to blend with the sound of pipa and
cymbals to make heavenly music. A band of sixteen beautiful virgin girls
stunned the people with their beauty.
Dressed in a sophisticated manner, the band held flowers in their
hands and sang or played beautiful music.
When the dharma were promulgated amid the happiness, every
Tibetan began horse-racing
Banners flied at the top of high trees, and the dharma drum
sounded sublimely
……
From the descriptions, one can almost hear pleasant music and songs, see
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Bimonthly Journal on Mongolian and Tibetan Current Situation Vol.16, No.4
the beautiful, graceful movements of dancers, and take in the majestic scene
of happy people celebrating with music and dance. A good many pieces of
traditional Tibetan music are being passed down from generation to
generation, a testament to the fact that traditional Tibetan music is like the
Brahmaputra River, flowing incessantly into eternity.
Not very many books on traditional Tibetan music theories have survived,
but those that have are almost invaluable. The most important one is a book
entitled Remai Danjue (meaning “musical theories”). It was written by a
famous Yuan Dynasty Sakya Tibetan politician, religious figure, and scholar
by the name of Sajia Banzhida Gongka Jianzan (1182-1251) and released in
800 A.D. The book is one of the important Tibetan musical archives in the
13th century. The book contains three chapters: the first chapter is a discussion
on the nature of music, the basic principles of musical creation. Here the
author argued that there are four types of melody and vocalization in
traditional Tibetan music. Composers and singers should decide for
themselves how to make use of the different techniques and presentation
depending on the content of music, the intended audience, and the venue for
performance. The book also provides a brief description of the characteristics
of music in Kham and Ü-Tsang. The second chapter deals with the subject of
songwriting, the basic guidelines on writing lyrics. The third chapter deals
with the rules on the applications of music, i.e., the presentation and
performing of music. The third chapter provides a summary of different styles
of music presentation employed by the Tibetans in the past, including lots of
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profound debate and theories on the relationships between music and
emotions, between music and appearance, and between performer and the
audience. This important book provides a summarized account of traditional
Tibetan music theories applied before the 13th century. Readers will find this
book valuable and useful even today. After this, some Tibetan scholars wrote
commentaries about the book based on the realities of the music environment
of their days. At least six volumes of commentaries about the book are known
to have been released to date. In addition to explaining and interpreting the
ideas in the book, these commentaries also provided faithful accounts of
different periods of Tibetan music development, as well as some insight into
different periods of traditional Tibetan music. Later in the Chinese Qing
Dynasty, a Tibetan scholar by the name of Jiu Mipang Jiacuo also wrote a
book entitled On Music.
Tibet is a place boosting beautiful nicknames such as “the sea of songs
and dance” and “home of music.” Tibet has a great variety and quantity of
traditional music, and special, exotic, charismatic sounds of music and
singing can be heard anywhere in Tibet, in urban as well as in rural places.
However, scholars outside Tibet seem to limit the focus of their studies on
traditional music in Tibet in religious music, rarely extending their horizon to
other types of music in Tibet. The strange thing is that some of the authors of
research papers on traditional music in Tibet have never set their foot in Tibet
at all. It is therefore understandable for them to focus only on religious music,
since they all have their different artistic taste and preference, studying
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Bimonthly Journal on Mongolian and Tibetan Current Situation Vol.16, No.4
traditional music in Tibet and “fearlessly” publishing their studies without
actually visiting Tibet all at. Interestingly, when it comes to traditional music
in Tibet, most Chinese musicians would focus on the folk music, while
knowing little about court music and religious music. Ancient Tibetan music
theory is something even more unheard of to them.
Traditional Tibetan music consists of three parts: folk music, religious
music, and court music. The vast majority of traditional Tibetan music works
are folk music, which has a long history, comes in a great variety, and is
pleasant to hear and also highly influential in the lives of ordinary Tibetan
people. But there’s far more to traditional Tibetan music than just folk music.
The Monpa, Lhoba, Sherpa, and Dēng tribespeople in Tibet also have
their own kinds of traditional music.
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This table shows the classification of traditional music in Tibet:
Traditional Music in
Tibet
Court Music
Religious Music
Galu
Gaer
Sutra Chanting
Instrumental Music
Ballad
Opera
Tibetan Instrumental
Music
Folk Songs
Dance Music
Gesar
Lama Mani
Zhega
Ensemble
Solo
Songs of Laborers
Songs of Robber
Hardship Songs
Children’s Songs
Songs sung by people
in the mountains and
pastoral areas
Toasting Songs
Boxie
Xieqin
Xianzi
Sgor-Gzhas
a
m
g
n
a
N
Tibet:
1. Tibetan Dance Music
Most of the Tibetan people are skilled in singing and dancing. Tibetan
music and dance are an important part of traditional Tibetan music. The vast
majority of the traditional Tibetan music performances presented to foreign
tourists in Tibet are dance music.
Traditional Dēng Music
Sherpa Traditional Music
Lhoba Traditional Music
Traditional Monpa Music
Traditional Tibetan Music
Folk Music
Guozhuang
Toeshey
The following is an introduction of different types of traditional music in
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Tibetan dance music can be roughly classified into two categories: one is
a combination of dance, singing, and music, such as Nangma, Toeshey, and
Xianzi. There were once professional Nangma and Toeshey performers, who
contributed their talents to make Nangma and Toeshey more artistic. Another
is a mixture of just singing and dance, such as Guozhuang, Xieqin, Boxie, and
Sgor-Gzhas, which involves a greater number of participants and is generally
closer to grassroots. This kind of music is most commonly used by ordinary
people looking for some entertainment. The difference between these two
types of Tibetan dance music is the presence of musical instruments.
Types of Tibetan dance music are as follows:
(1) Nangma
Nangma is a classic type of Tibetan dance music.
The origin of Nangma is debated. Some say it has its roots in Ladakh,
others say it was created by the sixth Dalai Lama Tsangyang Gyatso or the
seventh Dalai Lama Kelzang Gyatso, some others say it was created by
Ministers Desi Sangye Gyatso or Dengzhe Banjue, and still others say it was
created by civilians. According to Tibetology scholar Huang Wen-huan (see
Classical Tibetan Dance Music: Nangma), the “nang” as in “Nangma” means
“inside,” and “ma” is the suffix of Tibetan feminine nouns, so “Nangma”
means a kind of “inside” dance music. It has two meanings. One story has it
that Desi Sangye Gyatso, the protégé and heir to the fifth Dalai Lama, often
liked to invite influential friends to the Nangmakang (office of the Secretary
in General) in Potala Palace to sing, dance, and write poems. The dance music
Music at the Roof of the World
7
they liked is hence called “Nangma.” Another story has it that in the days of
the eighth Dalai Lama, there were clashes between Tibet and Gurkha. The
Qing Dynasty imperial court suspected Minister Dengzhe Banjue of
collaborating with the enemy, and put him under house arrest in inland China.
While there, he acquainted himself with Han Chinese music and the music of
other ethnic groups in China. Later, after he was cleared of suspicions, he
returned to Tibet with the dulcimer, the huqin, and the fife, and added
elements of inland Chinese music to Nangma, thereby extending the scope of
Nangma. Tibetan scholar Xuekang Suolang Tajie (Introduction on Tibetan
Dance) is of the opinion that in the seventeenth century, the King of Tibet, the
second Sharpa Gama Pingcuo Langjie, and later Desi Sangye Gyatso all
recruited musicians and dancers from Ngari. As a result, the dance music of
Ngari was brought to the Brahmaputra River basin. It was performed in the
palace of Gama Pingcuo Langjie, and has since been called “Nangma.” Desi
Sangye Gyatso and the sixth Dalai Lama once held a summer feast in the
Dragon King Lake, where they watched Nangma performance along with
courtiers. Later Nangma was introduced to civilians, and the name Nangma
has been kept to this day. After studying historical literature on Nangma and
interviewing some scholars and entertainers (On the Histories of Nangma and
Toeshey), I am of the opinion that Nangma is the final artistic product jointly
created by generations of civilians, civilian artists, scholars, and officials who
all contributed to its creation and improvement. There is no denying that
Nangma was once popular with the ruling and upper classes of Tibet. Scholars
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who attempted to debate this point have not been able to produce convincing
evidence. Nangma incorporates artistic creations of many ethnic groups. The
dulcimer, the huqin, and the fife were not present in Nangma in the first place;
they were gradually added to it later by Dengzhe Banjue who brought them
from inland China to Tibet. The tune in Nangma is similar to that of the
interlude in Beijing opera. One can argue that these two might be related.
Amaire, a famous contemporary Nangma musician, has made enormous
contribution to the passing down and development of Nangma. He is also a
famous Hui nationality civilian artist in Lhasa. Back in the days when China
was under the Republic of China regime, there was a band of Nangma
performers called “Nangma Jidu” (which means “to live, to die, and to share
moments of happiness with Nangma”) in Lhasa. The band consists of Tibetan,
Hui, Han Chinese musicians as well as musicians of other nationalities. One
of them is Xuekang Suolang Taji.
Nangma takes in elements from the music of other ethnic groups. These
foreign elements have become a natural, integral part of Nangma, rather than
tagging it along in an awkward way. These elements were gradually blended
into Nangma, and have remained subsidiary to Nangma. They were made
“Tibetan” in terms of artistic style, presentation, and interpretation after
becoming a part of Nangma, and have developed distinctive Tibetan
characteristics. People tend to find this kind of hybrid Nangma fresher, more
graceful, and not at all messy and disorganized.
Nangma is a kind of high-class art. It sounds flowing, graceful, steady,
Music at the Roof of the World
9
and deadly appealing to the listener. It is well-structured, consisting of three
parts: the introductory music, the singing parts, and the dance music. The
introductory music is performed by a band consisting of the fife, the zhanian
qin (the vielle), the dulcimer, the glockenspiel, the genka, and the erga
(stringed bells). The singing parts are the core of Nangma, the essence of
Nangma. The lyrics are basically arranged into six-word verses, with a lot of
ornamental words in between. Out of the many ornamental words appearing
in Nangma, the numerical word “ji-li-song” (meaning “one, two, three”)
seems to be the only Tibetan vocabulary, something that rarely happens in
other traditional Tibetan songs. The dance music is brisk and has a clear
rhythm, with a strong tempo, creating a stark contrast with the singing parts.
The dancer stands on a long piece of wooden plank and makes clear rhythms
by stamping his feet. Very often the dancer makes movements such as kicking,
stepping, or bowing.
Nangma mostly follow the heptatonic scale (Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si),
with some following the hexachord scale (without Fa or Si).
Nangma is available in mostly Shang and also Yu, Zheng, and Gong
modes of ancient Chinese music.
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(2) Toeshey
Toeshey is a traditional dance music hugely popular in Tibet. Toe means
“up” in Tibetan language, and shey means dance music. Here “toe” means the
area from Dala Mountain to Ngari Sanai in upstream Brahmaputra River and
south of Shigatse, the area where Toeshey was created. Toeshey comes in a
great variety in this area. The term “Toeshey” is not a generalized term for all
types of dance music in the area. It is one specific type of dance music.
Toeshey is most popular in places like Lhazê, Sakya, Tingri, and Lhasa.
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It is classified into three types based on the difference in style:
1. Lhazê Toeshey and Sakya Toeshey
Lhazê, Sakya, and Tingri are the birthplaces of Toeshey. Toeshey
in these places involve singing, instrumental music and dancing done
by a large crowd of people. A kind of musical instrument called
zhanian qin is used to play the music, which tends to be lively and
joyful and suitable for dancing. The agricultural Lhazê and Sakya and
the pastoral Tingri have a marked difference in lifestyle, hence a
marked difference in their distinctive brands of Toeshey.
Lhazê and Sakya have a more traditional culture, and also have
extensive interactions with the outside world. Their brand of Toeshey
comes in a great variety of pieces with beautiful melodies and lively
rhythms. The dance is characterized by large and fierce movements
which to a certain extent are improvised by the dancers and hugely
popular with the crowd. Almost anyone can do the dance.
Lhazê Toeshey or Sakya Toeshey music consists of the five parts
of prelude, lento songs, interlude, allegro songs, and finale.
Prelude →
Lento
Allegro
→ Interlude →
→ Finale
songs
songs
Some of the pieces have a simpler structure, consisting of prelude,
allegro songs, and finale.
Prelude
→
Allegro
songs
→
Finale
The lento songs and allegro songs are sung by people, and the
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zhanian qin is responsible for the prelude, the interlude, and the finale.
The tones, rhythms, tempos, and speed in the preludes, interludes, and
finales of every piece of Lhazê Toeshey or Sakya Toeshey music are
fixed, being universal in all Toeshey songs.
The melody progresses gradually most of the time, and is rarely
jumpy, let alone drastically jumpy.
The zhanian plays an important, indispensable role in Lhazê
Toeshey and Sakya Toeshey. Toeshey is also known as “zhanian
xiazhuo” (meaning dance music accompanied by the zhanian) among
the local Tibetans. Those who play the instrument are often the ones
who do the singing. Those who play the instrument can do all kinds of
tricks they want with the zhanian, and some entertainers presented
complicated tricks such as putting the zhanian upside down when
playing. The instrument is tuned at 55, 22, and 66.
Lhazê Toeshey and Sakya Toeshey mostly follow the heptatonic
scale (Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si), with some following the pentatonic
scale (Do, Re, Mi, Sol, La) or the hexachord scale (Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol,
La). They are available in Gong, Shang, and Zheng modes of ancient
Chinese music.
The dance is characterized by large, fierce movements. Some of
the movements are standard, having been passed down from generation
to generation, and some are improvised by the dancers.
There were once semi-professional civilian entertainers in Tibet
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13
who worked as farmers by occupation and gave Toeshey performances
in spare time to earn extra money.
2. Tingri Toeshey
Tingri has a rather underdeveloped transportation system, which
makes the place relatively more closed-up. Industrial and commercial
developments are still in the early stages. Tibetan traditions and
cultures are well-preserved in this place.
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Tingri Toeshey music is primitive, liberal, and bold, just like the
highland culture. It mostly follows the pentatonic scale (Do, Re, Mi,
Sol, La), with some pieces following the hexachord scale (Do, Re, Mi,
Fa, Sol, La) and the heptatonic scale (Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si).
The music is played by one or several zhanian qins. The
accompaniment music is relatively simpler, being one note for one beat
most of the times. Ornament relish is rarely added, which gives the
music a primitive touch. Zhanian plays a decisive role in Tingri
Toeshey music, which is why local people also call it “zhanian
xiazhuo.”
Tingri Toeshey dance consists of mostly subdued movements,
possibly because of the place’s high altitude, low temperature, and
low oxygen levels. The singing is also subdued.
There are three different kinds of structure for Tingri Toeshey
music:
Rubato
→
prelude
→
prelude
→
interlude
Lento
songs
→
Allegro
songs
→
Allegro
songs
interlude
→
→
→
finale
Allegro
songs
→
finale
finale
The kind of Toeshey music with rubato is only found in Tingri.
This might have something to do with the influences of local folk
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15
music, pastoral environment, and the high-altitude, low-temperature
conditions of Tingri. The rubato songs and allegro songs in Tingri
Toeshey, while being coherent as one, present stark contrast in melody,
rhythm, and tempo. The rubato parts are more suitable for singing,
have irregular melodies and rhythms, and are without the company of
instruments and dance. The allegro songs are more suitable for dancing,
have a regular rhythm and a moving melody, and are generally livelier
and more passionate with the combination of singing, dancing, and
instrumental music.
Tingri Toeshey songs are sung in pure voices without much relish.
The singers mostly use their true voices and rely heavily on gutturals.
Tingri Toeshey songs are almost always sung in unison by a group
of singers. Even the rubato songs which are most suitable for solo
singing are performed in unison. This shows that Tingri Toeshey music
is more about collectivity than individuality.
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3. Lhasa Toeshey
Lhasa is the capital of Tibet, as well as its political, military,
economic, and cultural center. It is a place in Tibet that has greater
productivity and richer resources. Intensive interactions with outside
world have led to introduction of foreign, popular cultures, which
coexist alongside traditional Tibetan culture in Lhasa.
Lhasa Toeshey evolved from the Toeshey in Lhazê, Sakya, and
Tingri. It is more similar in nature to Lhazê Toeshey.
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Tingri Lhazê Toeshey is prevalent in pastoral areas, while Lhazê
Toeshey and Sakya Toeshey are more common in agricultural areas.
Lhasa Toeshey, meanwhile, is more common in urban areas.
Opportunities in the city give rise to a group of talented professional
Lhasa Toeshey musicians who have made substantial contribution to
the creation, adaptation, and promotion of Lhasa Toeshey as well as the
singing, dancing, and accompaniments involved in it, making works of
art out of Lhasa Toeshey music. Lhasa Toeshey performances were
often given by entertainers in the houses of government officials and
aristocrats, somewhat reducing the lively, bold spirit in Lhasa Toeshey.
While the accompaniment can be accomplished by one zhanian
qin alone, performance in more formal settings would require a band
consisting of zhanian, the dulcimer, the fife, the glockenspiel, huqin,
and strings of bells. The dulcimer, the fife, the glockenspiel, and huqin
are all creations of the Chinese introduced in recent times to Tibet. Yet
music bands like this have created their distinctive Tibetan style over
the years of performing.
There are two types of Lhasa Toeshey music:
Prelude →
Prelude
→
Lento
→ interlude
songs
Allegro
songs
→
→
Allegro
songs
finale
The two types have different prelude and finale.
→ finale
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Lhasa Toeshey mostly follows the pentatonic scale (Do, Re, Mi,
Sol, La), with some pieces following the hexachord scale (Do, Re, Mi,
Fa, Sol, La), containing more Gong and less Shang and Yu modes of
ancient Chinese music. In the first type of Lhasa Toeshey, the finale is
ended by a Gong subdominant, surprising the listener with its novelty.
Over forty pieces of Lhasa Toeshey music still survive. Among
these, pieces like Niela Mutongla, Jialusai, Ajuedi, Zangdui Nianjiu,
and Ajue Suolang Duoji are created by civilian musicians who had a
good command of, and complete respect for, the strict rules regarding
the artistic presentation of Toeshey. Therefore, their works are widely
acknowledged as traditional music heritage.
It is one of the strict rules that the dance part of Lhasa Toeshey
can only be done on a plank of wood. The dancer must not raise his
hands above his head, and his body must not appear shaky. During
practice, the dancer has to carry a bowl of water on his head, and the
water must not spill at all throughout the dance.
There are some similarities between Lhazê Toeshey, Sakya
Toeshey, Tingri Toeshey, and Lhasa Toeshey. There is no restriction
regarding the venue for performance. It can be done in festivals or just
about anytime one feels like. It can be done in costumes and make-ups
or ordinary clothing. It can be a combination of singing and dancing or
just singing without dancing. It can be done by entertainers or by
ordinary crowds of people looking for some entertainment. It comes in
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many forms and varieties, and there are no rules as to the venue or
number of people. The allegro songs and lento songs are closely
related. The allegro songs are actually modified versions of lento songs,
only with more intensive rhythms, simplified tones, and faster tempo.
This is a common practice in other folk songs in Tibet.
(3) Guozhuang
Guozhuang is frequently mentioned in ancient literature and historical
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archives of the Han Chinese people. Lee Xin-heng of the Chinese Imperial
Qing Dynasty provided a vivid description of Guozhuang in his book
Jinchuan Chronicles, “The commoners like to do the Guozhuang dance.
Whenever there is a gathering, people would dress themselves in new clothes,
and wear handkerchiefs of matching colors. They would shower themselves
with all the decorative things they have, to make their appearance impressive.
Men and women would gather and hold their hands and stamp their feet and
sing, all looking happy and joyful. The songs they sing are too difficult to be
understood by onlookers, but certain patterns can be observed from their
singing and movements of body…We throw parties of this kind at the
commoners whenever there is time, and treat them to alcohol and meat. They
would happily swarm to the parties.” Guozhuang is also mentioned in the
Tributes to the Imperial Qing, “Men and women hold their hands and sing and
dance in delight in a form of entertainment known as Guozhuang.”
Some believe that the name Guozhuang might have derived from the fact
that the dance was done by people dancing in circles around a large pot
(called “guo” in Mandarin language) supported by a stone pillar. Some say
that travelers staying in the inns of Kham often make a pile of stones in the
yard to make tea. And people would dance in circles around the pot
containing boiling water, hence the name Guozhuang. Guozhuang is known as
“zhuo,” “guozhuo,” and “zhuoqiang” in Tibetan language.
Some scholars classify Guozhuang into three types based on the venues
for performance: monastery Guozhuang, farmland Guozhuang, and pastoral
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21
Guozhuang. Others classify Guozhuang into large-scale (done in monasteries),
medium-scale (done in festivals), and small-scale (done in households)
depending on the number of people involved and the venue. Still others
classify Guozhuang into big and little depending on the difference in venue.
Guozhuang music follows the pentatonic scale (Do, Re, Mi, Sol, La), and
Gong, Shang, and Zheng modes of ancient Chinese music are a common
feature.
Guozhuang is done by people looking to entertain themselves, so it is
known for being steady, wild, and free-spirited. It can be done anytime,
anywhere one feels like, in weddings or funerals, during festivals, during
work or during breaks. People can walk in and out of the circle of dancers
anytime they want. The circle can be formed by as few as several people and
as many as hundreds of people.
Guozhuang does not require the company of musical instruments.
A piece of Guozhuang music consists of lento songs followed by allegro
songs.
Lento songs
→
Allegro songs
The allegro songs and lento songs are closely related. The allegro songs
are actually modified versions of lento songs, only with simplified tones and
faster tempo.
The lyrics are mostly about praises for home, lifestyle, romantic
relationships, and religion. Participants may sing the standard lyrics or
improvise. Some of the lyrics describe the valiant, courageous spirit and
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ambition which is the trademark of Tibetan people. For example:
The snow-capped mountain, move away! For the eagle is about to
spread its wings and fly;
The forest, make way! For the young are about to take large
strides and dance until they drop!
In a round of Guozhuang, men and women dance in separate groups in a
clockwise circle. Each group is headed by a lead dancer. Dancers are
supposed to move their bodies in a way that is graceful, majestic, and
expressive of their emotions. Men usually dance more obtrusively, stretching
their arms the way flying eagles do. Women dance less obtrusively, taking
small steps and turning around the way the phoenix shakes its wings and flies.
The dancers occasionally utter sounds of “Ya, Ya” to push for climax.
(4) Sgor-Gzhas
Sgor means “circle” to Tibetan people and Gzhas means “dance music.”
Sgor-Gzhas means “singing and dancing in circles.”
The Sgor-Gzhas is popular in agricultural areas in Brahmaputra River
basin. It is a common type of dance music involving a large crowd of people
in rural villages in Tibet. The Sgor-Gzhas of Zhanang County in Tibet’s
Shannan Prefecture is the most famous.
Sgor-Gzhas performances can be staged in any time of the year, by men
or women, and there is no fixed number of participants. Anyone can join and
quit during any part of the performance.
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In a round of Sgor-Gzhas, men and women sing and dance in separate
groups, taking turns to sing and sometimes singing together in unison.
During special festivals, it is common for villagers to gather in villages
or open fields and do the Sgor-Gzhas dance in a clockwise circle around a jar
of highland barley wine. The pace is slow at first and becomes faster and
faster, always ending in a climax.
The lyrics are very colloquial and smooth with rhymes. The lyrics are
simple to follow and often reflect the feelings of villagers, such as their desire
for better lives, their messages to gods and to nature, and their quest for
romantic relationships. For example:
The white clouds hover near the top of the mountain and the
eagle hovers in the sky.
Our lovely home is right under the white clouds.
……
Sgor-Gzhas music follows the pentatonic scale (Do, Re, Mi, Sol, La) and
contains the Gong, Shang, and Yu modes of ancient Chinese music.
Sgor-Gzhas music tends to be primitive, inviting, and passionate. The
melodies contain less grace tones and the music is more regular, with a touch
of the local colors of highland rural villages in Tibet.
A complete round of Sgor-Gzhas contains four parts: the first part is
lento songs where the focus is on the song. Participants dance to the slow
music and stretch their bodies in dancing. The second part is called prelude.
Participants move faster at this stage and chant and dance in unison. The third
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part is allegro songs during which men and women take turns dancing in front
of each other at a faster speed than they did in lento songs. The melodies of
allegro songs are the same as those of lento songs, only that they are faster,
more simplified, or more repetitive. The last part is called finale. Participants
sing a fixed set of lyrics and dance and, upon an accented beat, stamp both
feet to create a climax and effectively, an ending.
Lento
songs
→
prelude
→
Allegro
songs
→
Finale
(5) Xianzi
The term Xianzi is coined by the Han Chinese to describe a kind of
Tibetan dance in which the lead dancer dances and plays the biwang qin (a
kind of musical instrument) at the same time. Xianzi is also known as
“kangxie” or “gamuxie” in Tibetan language. It is popular in Sichuan
Province’s Batang and Tibet’s Markam, where it’s called Batang Xianzi and
Markam Xianzi. Xianzi is also popular in Tibetan communities in Tibet,
Sichuan, Yunnan, and Qinghai.
As a variety of Tibetan traditional music, Xianzi is known for being
pleasant to listen to. The vocals are expressive and flowing, the melodies are
touching and moving, and the rhythms distinctive. Most of the more
well-known pieces of traditional Tibetan music in Han Chinese regions are
Xianzi music. And most of the newly created or adapted pieces of Tibetan
music have their roots in Xianzi.
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Xianzi involves singing and dancing by a large group of people. It is
common for Tibetan men and women to gather in a circle to sing and dance
clockwise at the same time. The circle is led by one or several lead dancers
who play the biwang qin. Men take up half of the circle, while women take
the other half.
Xianzi music has a more regular, organized structure, often consisting of
lento songs and allegro songs. Sometimes an interlude is added between the
lento and allegro. Every piece of Xianzi song starts with a prelude and ends
with a finale, and an interlude stands between the lento and the allegro,
between lento and moderato, and between moderato and allegro.
Prelude → Lento → Interlude → Allegro → Finale
Prelude → Lento → Interlude → Moderato → Interlude → Allegro → Finale
Xianzi music mostly follows the pentatonic scale (Do, Re, Mi, Sol, La),
with some pieces following the hexachord scale (Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La) and
the heptatonic scale (Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si), containing Shang, Yu, and
Zheng modes of ancient Chinese music.
The melody surges and plummets like ocean waves, with many twists
and turns, and more flowing than jumpy. The melody is strong and moving. A
typical Xianzi performance usually involves singing and dancing.
The biwang is a kind of stringed instrument consisting of the main body
made of cattle horns or wood, the bow made of horse tails, and strings. It
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makes a distinctive sound, shrill and slightly hoarse, not very loud but
piercing. Upon the melisma at the end of every sentence in the song, the
biwang would make a two-tone beat of the same pitch of the singer’s voice
and make a drone, adding an appoggiatura before the second half of every
beat. It is one of the distinctive features of xianzi music.
The dance is done by continuous shaking of sleeves. The dancers tramp
their feet once every three steps. The circle can grow big or small. The
dancers take small steps with arms akimbo at one moment, and take small
steps and turn around in the next moment, creating flowing movements.
Xianzi dance is characterized by movements like the shaking of sleeves,
the shuffle step, the small steps and turning around of the body, and the slow
shaking of the knees.
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27
(6) Xieqin
Qin means “big” in Tibetan language, and “xieqin” is translated by some
scholars as “grand songs” or “songs of praise.” The word “grand” as in “grand
songs” does not refer to the grandness of size. Rather, it means the grandness
of the occasion on which is it performed. “Songs of praise” refers to the fact
that the content of xinqin is usually about praises. Xieqin is a ceremonial
performance of dance music popular in the rural villages and urban areas of
Tibet. Different places have different names for xieqin, such as xiema, suo,
xieji, jixie, and zhuoqin.
Xieqin dates back to a long time ago. It is mentioned in the book
Chronicles of Kings of Tibet, and also in books such as Baxie and The Red
History where is says that back in 779 A.D., xieqin was performed in a grand
ceremony cerebrating the opening of the Tibetan Buddhist Samye Monastery.
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This shows that xieqin dates back to at least a thousand years. It was
frequently performed in large ceremonies in ancient times. In 1983, I was able
to sample xieqin performances given by farmers in Lhazê and Sakya. One of
the performers in Sakya told me that the number they performed in the old
days was designed to greet the Sakya Karmapa when he left for tours or when
he returned to his palace. Another performer in Lhazê told me that their brand
of xieqin can only be performed in major festivals and rituals.
Xieqin inevitably experienced some changes and development over the
years. Thanks to the fact that the Tibetan are not in the habit of changing their
traditional rituals, one still can look to xieqin as an example of ancient Tibetan
dance music.
Xieqin is known for being primitive and wild, and also simple and
graceful. Different places have different brands of tune.
Xieqin consists of three parts: xieguo (the beginning), xie (the main part
of the dance music), and zhaxi (the finale).
Xiequo
→
Xie
→
Zhaxi
In terms of structure, xieqin generally consists of lento, moderato, largo,
and allegro.
In terms of the style of performance, xieqin is an organic mixture of solo
singing, antiphonal singing, and concerted singing.
Xieqin in various parts of Tibet is similar in style and form, though
slightly different in length. A piece of xieqin can be as long as thirty segments
and as short as ten segments.
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The lyrics in xieqin are mostly about praising, praying, and compliments
on religion, on the royal family, on the mountains and rivers, and on this
world. Some of the lyrics tell the history of the world, mankind, rain, and
highland barley. I have never heard of xieqin music about romantic love.
Xieqin is classified into daren xieqin (long songs) and datong xieqin
(short songs). The former is performed in major ceremonies and is known for
having lyrics that are difficult to understand and tunes that rise and fall like
ocean waves. It is beyond the grasp of ordinary farmers and is normally
performed by semi-professional bands. It begins with a song, which is
supported by dancing, followed by the second part in which dancing plays the
lead role and singing plays the supporting role. In the old days, xieqin bands
were assigned to their tasks by the former local government of Tibet in
exchange for tax exemption. Singers inherit their positions from their fathers
and are prohibited from giving their positions away to people outside family.
Xieqin can only be performed in certain venues on certain occasions. The
following is one example of daren xieqin:
The master is like the gold mountain, and the servant is like the
eagle
The eagle clings dependently to the gold mountain
Omens appear on the sky, and lotus with eight petals grows from
the land
The wish of the sun is to meet the earth after circumventing the
earth for four weeks
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The ancestors and descendents of Songtsän Gampo sit on the
golden throne
The happy sun shines at the palace
Datong xieqin is usually performed in civilian weddings, housewarming
parties, or festivals. This secular type of dance music is known for having
simple, easy-to-understand lyrics, and lively and passionate music. The
leading singer sings first, and the rest follow suit, and singing comes before
dancing. It is always performed by farmers. Here is an example of datong
xieqin:
In the snow-capped mountain there is the lion, whose wish is to
live in the snow-capped mountain.
On the top of the cliff there is the eagle, whose wish is to live on
the rock cliff.
In the grand lake there is the fish, whose wish is to live in the lake.
(7) Boxie
“Bo” means “battle” in Tibetan language, and “boxie” means the battle
songs sung by soldiers. The famous Tibetan music scholar Xuekang Suolang
Taji argued that the boxie dates back to the days of Songtsän Gampo
(617-650). The view is shared by several other Tibetan scholars and folks. In
other words, boxie dates back to at least 1300 years. I had an interview with
boxie performers, and was told by boxie-performing farmers in Lhünzê
County’s Xuebu Township and Gonggar County’s Jiri Township that the art
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31
had passed from generation to generation in their families. They were not
clear themselves exactly how many generations were involved. The former
local government of Tibet allowed them to perform boxie in exchange for tax
exemption. The lyrics, melodies, and dance movements in boxie are fixed and
as such cannot be changed by the performer at will. Therefore, it is probably
certain that boxie has a fairly long history.
In ancient times, Tibetan soldiers were supposed to sing boxie songs
before they went on a war campaign or when they returned triumphantly from
battle to boost morale, pray for or celebrate victory, or awaken their fighting
spirit. Boxie songs were sung for morale-boosting purposes as well as
ritualistic purposes. When singing boxie songs, the soldiers lined up as two
groups and raised their voices to sing and danced. The music always sounded
majestic, and the lyrics might be about asking the soldiers to fight
courageously in battles, praising the glorious victory of the soldiers, appealing
to the gods to keep the soldiers, or extolling the leaders of Tibet. More often
than not, the lyrics were about descriptions of the weapons and martial attire
of the soldiers. For example:
Helmets are what we wear on our heads; but this is not helmet,
this is snow; I am the only one wearing snow on the top of my head
Armors are what we wear on our bodies; but this is not armors,
this is the mountain village; I am the only one wearing mountain village on my
body
Horses are what we ride under our feet; but this is not a horse,
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this is a strong wind; I am the only one riding a strong wind
The songs are primitive and majestic. The keynote consists of basically
one single note, occasionally accompanied by grace notes to make the songs
more powerful. I call this kind of music “single-note song,” which is almost
unheard of in other varieties of traditional Chinese ethnic music, and also a
rarity in other places of the world. Civilization progresses from simplicity to
complexity, from singularity to diversity. Therefore, one-note songs are a sort
of “living fossil,” one of mankind’s oral and non-material cultural heritages,
carrying substantial cultural and academic significance.
Boxie songs are not sung in the usual way. Singing is almost done by
yelling and shouting, and relies heavily on guttural. Singers make hoarse
sounds much like courageous soldiers fighting, shouting, and yelling on the
battlefield. The special way of singing makes boxie songs more powerful and
majestic.
In a group of boxie singers, one person acts as the lead vocalist, and the
other vocalists repeat every sentence sung by the lead vocalist in unison,
creating a sense of unity and obedience.
2. Tibetan Folk Songs
(8) Toasting Songs
Toasting songs are known as “qiangxie” in Tibetan language. “Qiang”
means alcohol.
Toasting songs are, literally, songs sung when people make a toast.
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33
Sometimes dancing is involved, but the dance usually consists of smaller,
simpler movements. Often times the people involved just sing without
dancing. Therefore, toasting songs are called “qiangxie” (meaning dance
music performed when giving a toast) by the Tibetan people.
The type of alcohol taken by Tibetan people is mostly highland barley
wine, with some also opting for white spirit, Tibetan white spirit, beer, and
wine. Most Tibetans like to drink. In special festivals, Tibetans would gather
with friends and families and sit down at a round table (the elderly always
take the main seats) to drink and have a good time. Usually women are the
ones making a toast, and they have to make a toast to everyone at the table,
starting with the oldest person. The person being toasted must dip one finger
in the wine and tap the figure three times in the direction of the sky before
drinking.
Toasting songs are known for being simple, concise, flowing, and joyful.
The songs are always short and well-structured enough to be learned fast. The
songs are usually about congratulating and celebrating, being humorous and
making fun, and expressing feelings of romantic love.
Toasting songs mostly follows the pentatonic scale (Do, Re, Mi, Sol, La),
with some pieces following the hexachord scale (Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La).
The songs are written in mostly Gong and also Shang and Zheng modes of
ancient Chinese music. The songs are always well-structured.
Most toasting songs begin with a high pitch, as in some pieces of western
music. This design might have something to do with the fact that when a
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person is making a toast, he often has to call the attention of fellow drinkers
first.
(9) Songs sung by people in the mountains and pastoral areas
The songs sung by Tibetan people living in the mountains are called
“lalu” in Tibetan language. These songs are most popular in the agricultural
and pastoral lands in Qamdo in east Tibet. The songs sung by Tibetan
herdsman are called “layu” in Tibetan language. They are most popular in
Nagqu in north Tibet.
These songs are always sung in solo. Tibetan men and women of all ages
like to raise their voices to sing these songs when herding animals or
whenever and wherever they feel like.
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35
Herdsmen in Tibet lead difficult and lonesome lives, having to work on
open pastures in snowstorms or in heavy rain. They have to follow a nomadic
lifestyle in the company of cattle and sheep. On the green pastures, under the
blue sky, the herdsmen would often raise their voices and sing one song after
another to express their ideas and feelings. The songs created this way carry
with them highland colors and the complex emotions and thoughts of the
people.
These two types of songs have something in common. They are both
sung by a solo vocalist in the open field. The rhythms and melodies are open
and free, requiring a wide range of voices on the part of the singer. The pitch
rises and falls drastically, and so does the volume. Both types of songs depict
perfectly the majestic highland and the seemingly boundless natural landscape.
Both types of songs consist of mostly single-paragraph lyrics formed by
consecutive sentences. Singers may choose between standard lyrics or
improvised ones. The melodies are highly repetitive, sometimes also showing
some variety.
Singers can make their own decision as to the tempo, speed, pitch, tone,
and melody of these songs, and a certain extent of improvising is allowed.
The same song can sound completely different when sung by different singers.
Even the same singer can deliver different interpretations of the same song in
different times. Therefore, non-locals might have a difficult time learning
these songs.
The lyrics can be about anything: beautiful homeland, innocent romance,
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scenes of daily lives, praises of monasteries and Living Buddha, or any other
thing that springs to the mind of the singer.
Zhong is a song popular among the mountain people in Kham. It is
different from other popular songs of mountain people in that it contains the
ornamental word “Zhong.”
(10) Children’s Songs
Known as “Jibo Luxie” or “Jilu” in Tibetan language.
Traditional Tibetan children’s songs used to be popular among Tibetan
children living in townships, rural areas, and pastoral areas in Tibet. An
integral part of Tibetan culture and lifestyle, Tibetan children’s songs are
characterized by their traditional music style as well as a touch of the
innocence of children.
Characteristics of traditional Tibetan children’s songs are as follows:
1. The songs are usually sang when children are playing games and
having funs, for example when they are skipping ropes, picking up
small chicken, kicking the shuttlecock, playing with stones, keeping
wolves away from their cattle, and acting as small deer in plays.
The games also add to the popularity of the songs.
2. The range of voice required in children’s songs hardly stretches
beyond an octave. The songs are often of a simple structure,
containing mostly repeats or varied repeats of single sections. The
melodies are simple and smooth enough to be learned quickly. The
tones are often wider; the “skeletal notes” of melodies in the some
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37
of the songs, for example those sang in rope skipping in places like
Lhasa, Shigatse, and Ngari, are simply the notes involved in the
tonic chord.
Children’s songs are usually concise, brief, and lively.
Children’s lifestyles have been subject to drastic and ongoing changes
caused by social development in the past decades. The former “child’s play”
activities like shuttlecock kicking and rope skipping have been replaced with
ball games, chess, and video games. Traditional children’s songs are gradually
heading toward extinction after losing their supporter base.
Over twenty years ago, Ma A-lu, a teacher at the Department of Fine
Arts in Tibet University, started a draconian effort to collect surviving pieces
of children’s songs to save them from extinction. The result is a publication of
dozens of typical traditional Tibetan children’s songs. He also assembled a
children’s choir at the Zangri Elementary School in suburban Lhasa to teach
these songs to children. Now the songs are often heard in radio shows and
television programs in Tibet as well as in the daily lives of children in Lhasa.
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(11) Hardship Songs
Known as “Juelu” in Tibetan language, hardship songs are a unique
variety of traditional Tibetan folk songs.
Some the older generations of Tibetan people lived their lives filled with
hardships and tears. Using the songs they were good at singing, they
expressed their dissatisfaction with their lives and their anger toward
unfairness. These “hardship songs” have passed down from generation to
generation in many places in Tibet.
Most hardship songs tell real-life stories, and many Tibetans composed
hardship songs to tell their own stories. One of the more famous pieces of
hardship songs is The Song of the Hardship of Bazhen, a popular piece in
Ü-Tsang. A story is about an impoverished woman named Bazhen who lived
decades ago in the township of Lhazê in Tibet’s Lhazê County. She grew up
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39
with, and later fell in love with, a boy in her village. But her parents married
her to a wealthy foreign merchant against her wish for the sake of money. The
song was first sung by Bazhen herself to tell her misery, her anger, and her
true love to the boy.
The tone of hardship songs is often filled with sorrow and misery. The
rhythms are slow and weeping, which make the songs artistic. Listeners are
made to feel as if the singer is weeping tears and blood.
Hardship songs are often short and concise, being in strophic forms with
many repeats which are necessary to tell the story in full.
(12) Songs of Robber
Known as “Changlu” or “Changba” (meaning “robbers”) in Tibetan
language, songs of robbers are, essentially, songs sung by robbers.
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In the old days, some of the impoverished older generation Tibetans were
forced by dire circumstances to work together as gang of robbers to plunder
the wealthy. But instead of bothering fellow countrymen who were as poor as
themselves, the robbers gave a helping hand by quietly laying their loot at the
doors of the poor without telling their names or address to the poor. Tibetan
scholars who hold the chivalrous robbers in high esteem argued that “songs of
robbers” should be called “songs of chivalry” instead.
Lyrics in songs of robbers often depict the valiant spirit of the robbers.
For example:
There are no songs like the songs of robbers, who sing no other
song but the songs of robbers.
There are no steps like the steps of the green horses, which only
run at a lightening speed.
Robbers do not have decoration on their backs; the firearms on
their backs are a decoration in itself.
The green horses do not have decoration on their backs; the
golden saddle on their backs is a decoration in itself.
Some of the songs revealed the circumstances which gave rise to
robbers:
Oh! My father and I are both robbers, because we have nothing
but four walls.
Oh! My father and I are both robbers, because we cannot afford to
pay the taxes.
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The tone in songs of robbers is similar to that of pastoral songs.
(13) Songs of Laborers
Known as “Lexie” in Tibetan language, these songs are sung by laborers
while working.
Songs of this type are highly prevalent in Tibet. Different types of
laborers, such as farmers, herdsmen, construction workers, sailors, and
household workers, have their own kind of songs, a testament to the musical
talents of Tibet’s labor population. A large part of farmer’s work, including
spading, plowing the field, cutting the highland barley, planting the highland
barley, fixing the canals, preparing the fields, and extracting oils, are done in
the company of songs.
“Axie” is a more artistic type of dance music among laborers in Tibet. In
the old days, construction and renovation of houses in Tibet require the
making of a special kind of soil called Aga. Aga pavements are solid enough
for construction, and can make houses warm in winter and cool in summer.
But the amount of time and work involved in making Aga pavement have
caused it to be replaced by concrete pavement. While making Aga pavements,
construction workers held in their right hands wooden sticks with rock
handles and made powerful rhythm in unison by hitting the stick on the
pavements as they sang in beautiful voices and dance in graceful movements.
Viewers are often left in awe by this spectacular combination of art and labor
work.
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3. Tibetan Instrumental Music
There are many distinctive varieties of Tibetan folk musical instruments.
The wind instruments include tongqin (the bass horn), gangling (a type of
horn made with leg bones), the fife, qiongling (the clarinet), Jialing (the suona
horn), deling (xun, a type of instrument), and bei (conch shells). The stringed
instruments include biwang (stringed huqin or huqin made with cattle horns),
glockenspiel, genka, huqin, and rema qin. The plucked instruments include
zhanian (vielle) and kouxian. The percussion instruments include er (the
drum), dama (the steel drum), bujian (the cymbals), erga (strings of bells),
damaruo (drums made with skulls), and dingxia (bells).
Among these, tongqin, gangling, jialing, bei, er, bujian, damaruo, and
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43
dingxia are used to play religious music. The fife, genka, glockenspiel,
zhanian, dama, and the dulcimer and Chinese gong chimes which originated
from China are used to play court music. The fife, deling, biwang,
glockenspiel, genka, huqin, rema qin, zhanian, kouxian, and erga are used to
play folk music.
Common Tibetan folk solo instruments are as follows:
(1) Biwang solos
The term biwang can be used as a generalized term for any stringed
musical instrument, or it can specifically refer to bowed string instruments
played in the company of the three-stringed plucked instrument. Here the
latter definition is adopted.
Biwang is also called “huqin made with cattle horns” because there are
biwangs made with cattle horns. It is also known as the three-stringed plucked
instrument or the stringed huqin and is known for frequently being played in
the company of stringed instruments.
Biwang is very common in Tibet’s Qamdo and Sichuan’s Khams. It can
be played in solo or in the company of stringed instruments. The solos have
their roots in the accompaniments.
One distinctive feature when playing the biwang is that when playing the
long note at the end of a sentence, the performer always makes repeated notes
of a quaver, and also adds a major second or a minor third acciaccatura at the
second half of every beat.
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Famous pieces of biwang solo music include Gesang Quzhen and
Yangzhuo Zhaxi.
(2) Glockenspiel solos
The glockenspiel is also known as the steel huqin because there are some
glockenspiels made of steel.
It is common in places like Lhasa and Shigatse and is often used in
ensembles, while sometimes also used in solos.
An ensemble of the glockenspiel and zhanian or huqin exudes a strong
Tibetan flavor.
Famous pieces of Tibetan glockenspiel solo music include Gesang
Juejue and Jibei Nima.
(3) Genka solos
Genka dates back to at least three hundred years in the history of Tibet.
It is common in places like Lhasa and Shigatse.
Genka makes a bright, gentle, and beautiful sound. It is often used in
ensembles, while sometimes also used in solos. Improved varieties of genka
were introduced in the 1950s.
Famous pieces of Tibetan genka solo music include Zhongba Nangsong
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and Ama Lehuo, both derived from Nangma and Duixie accompaniments.
(4) Zhanian solos
Zhanian means “beautiful sounds” in Tibetan language. As a musical
instrument, it is one of the most common and most prevalent stringed and
plucked instruments in Tibet. When played, it makes a distinctively powerful,
piercing sound.
Often used in solos, accompaniments, and ensembles, the zhanian is an
indispensable part of Nangma and Duixie music. Zhanian solos are derived
from accompaniments.
Famous pieces of Tibetan zhanian music include Eji Changmu and
Songzi Yala.
(5) Tibetan folk instrumental ensemble
Tibetan folk instrumental ensemble features instruments such as zhanian,
the fife, genka, huqin, the glockenspiel, the dulcimer, and erga.
While the fife, huqin, the glockenspiel, and the dulcimer are all creations
of the Chinese, the Tibetan people have developed their own style and
techniques of playing and interpretation over the years. As a result, Tibetan
folk instrumental ensemble often carries distinctive Tibetan folk music style.
Each of the instruments involved in Tibetan folk instrumental ensemble
takes its turn to be loud or whispered to highlight the contrasts and layers in
the music. This is an essential rule allowing each instrument to take the center
stage, to be supported by other instruments. The instruments work together in
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perfect unison by taking turns playing the leading and supporting roles.
Every piece of Tibetan folk instrumental ensemble is derived from
Nangma and Duixie accompaniments.
Famous pieces of Tibetan folk instrumental ensemble include Zhongba
Nangsong, Zhala Xiba, Songzi Yala, and Suolang Yangjin.
4. Tibetan Opera Music
Tibetan opera is pronounced “zang xi” in Mandarin and “ajie lamu” in
Tibetan language. “Ajie” means “big sister,” and “lamu” means fairy, so “ajie
lamu” means “Big Sister Fairy.” Actors performing Tibetan opera are known
as “lamuwa” in Tibetan language, meaning “fairies.” The name derives from
the fact that the first performance of Tibetan opera was given by seven
breathtakingly beautiful sisters from Shannan Prefecture’s Qonggyai County.
Some scholars argue that Tibetan opera were first created in the eighth
century when a group of entertainers decided to present classical Buddhist
stories with music and dance to celebrate the opening of Samye Monastery.
More scholars are of the opinion that back in the fourteenth century, a Kagyu
sect (white sect) monk by the name of Tangdong Jiepo combined folk music
and dance, religious sacrificial rituals, and ballad into a new kind of
performance to tell Buddhist stories to promote Buddhism in an attempt to
raise funds to build a bridge. The new kind of performance, argued the
scholars, is the earliest Tibetan opera. Some people see Tangdong Jiepo as the
creator of Tibetan opera, and all the Tibetan theaters worship him as the
founding father of their trade. Tibetan opera were further promoted in the
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days of the fifth Dalai Lama Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso (1617-1682). It was
turned into a form of opera in which singing plays the major role, supported
by rhyming spoken parts, dance, and acrobatics. Later, the creation of the
Tibetan Sho Dun Festival provided an excellent venue for Tibetan opera.
During the festival, Tibetan theaters from across Tibet compete against each
other in Norbulingka Palace, Lhasa for the title of the best theater.
Tibetan opera performed in Tibetan communities in Tibet, Sichuan,
Yunnan, Gansu, and Qinghai can be broadly classified into three types: the
first type features opera-like singing voices accompanied by the music of one
drum and one pair of cymbals. The second type is the Sichuan Dêgê Tiebtan
opera which features highly religious singing voices and accompaniment (the
singing sounds like sutra chanting, accompanied by a religious band). The
third type is called Amdo Tibetan opera where the singing parts sound like
folk songs and the accompaniment is performed by amateurish civilian music
bands.
Tibetan opera is divided into two schools: the old school and the new
school. Old school performers wear white masks on their faces, hence their
nickname “the white mask school.” Famous white mask school performers
include Bingduiba of Qonggyai County, Langzewa of Doilungdêqên County,
and Zhxi Xueba of Nêdong County. Their ways of singing are simple, and
dance moves are not so showy, which is not particularly appealing to the
audience. New school performers always begin their performance by
presenting actors wearing blue masks on their faces, hence the nickname “the
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Bimonthly Journal on Mongolian and Tibetan Current Situation Vol.16, No.4
blue mask school.” There are four leading blue mask theaters in Juemulong,
Jiongba, Jianggaer, and Xiangba in Tibet. Their ways of singing are more
complicated and their dance moves showier, which prove very appealing to
among Tibetan audience.
Every number of Tibetan opera consists of three parts: the first part is
“wenbadun,” which usually presents ritual-like performances such as hunters
purifying the hunting ground, the prince showering blessings on the people,
and fairies singing and dancing. The second part is called “xiong,” which is
the main part of the opera. The third and final part is called zhaxi, which is a
blessing ritual. In this part, the actors sing and dance together, signifying the
ending of the show.
Tibetan opera requires the singers to sing in high and powerful voices,
which creates a special effect. There are more than twenty varieties of singing.
The most common ones are long tunes (known as “daren” in Tibetan language
and used to show feelings of happiness), short tunes (known as “datong” in
Tibetan language and used to tell the development of events), sad tunes
(known as “juelu” in Tibetan language and used to show feelings of worry
and sorrow), and “dangluo” which is used show the actor’s change of mood.
Performers make creative combinations of these types of singing on stage to
deliver a vivid portrayal of the thoughts, feelings, and personality traits of the
fictional characters.
Traditional Tibetan opera bands have only two musical instruments, a
long-handled drum (known as “er”) and a pair of cymbals (known as
Music at the Roof of the World
49
“bujian”). But the entertainers can still make a wide range of music out of the
simple instruments.
One of the distinctive features of Tibetan opera is the special singing
techniques. There are two major singing techniques involved in Tibetan opera:
(1) Zhengu: which refers to the singer resorting to guttural vibrato
when singing certain long notes. It is a technique extremely
difficult to master, but also a technique highly valued and
respected among not just Tibetan opera singers but also
Tibetan singers as a whole.
(2) Jiegu: where the focus is on rhyming
Performers of Tibetan opera rely heavily on the use of head resonance.
The register of voice required is higher and the final note is made longer.
Women singers use real voices and men singers use a combination of real
voices and falsetto. The singers raise their voices high and clear in singing, as
if they are standing on the plateau singing to each other.
There are many titles of Tibetan opera. Eight of the most famous ones
are Princess Wencheng, Suji Nima, Prince Nuosang, Fairy Zhuowa Sangmu,
Zhimei Gundeng, Langsa Girl, Wenba the White Horse, and Dunyue Dunzhu.
5. Tibetan Ballad
There are three major types of Tibetan ballad:
(1) Gesar
Gesar is a heroic epic poem prevalent in Tibetan communities. It tells the
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Bimonthly Journal on Mongolian and Tibetan Current Situation Vol.16, No.4
story of King Gesar, the legendary hero in the eyes of Tibetan people, and his
feat in defeating monsters and demons and fighting courageously in battles.
The complete ten-million-word epic consists of thirty volumes, or more than
sixty volumes if alternative versions are included, five times the length of
Mahabharata, the epic of ancient India and the former holder of the title of
longest literary work in the world.
Gesar is an important form of Tibetan ballad. Over the years, Gesar has
evolved into a comprehensive work of art, taking in the essence of Tibetan
mythology, Tibetan folk songs, and Tibetan proverbs.
Gesar is prevalent in pastoral areas in north Tibet and in Qamdo in east
Tibet. The performers are mostly civilian entertainers highly respected among
Tibetan people. Some of the performers learned the epic from their mentors,
and some learned the epic from some mysterious, inexplicable medium which
modern science knows nothing about.
Gesar involves speaking as well as singing, and the two are equally
important. The singing parts are mostly folk song or similar songs. There are
about two hundred simple and short songs like this. A song contains one
single period. The singer repeats different sections of lyrics in singing. There
is a rule regarding the style of singing for each section of lyrics, and
improvising is not allowed. Each of the fictional character is assigned a
specific style of singing that befits the personality, be it strong and powerful
or gentle and subdued. The narrative in Gesar is a kind of rhymed narrative,
with a clear rhythm. One beat consists of two notes, and one sentence
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51
contains several beats:
Rhythm × × × × × ……｜
Rhymed narrative oo oo oo oo oo ……｜
Each section of narrative is often ended with the six-word mantra
“om-ma-ni-ba-mi-hum.”
(2) Zhega
“Zhega” means “fruits of omen” in Tibetan language. As a kind of
narrative performance, it is performed by street artists who beg door to door
in a high-keyed manner, showering blessings to the master of the house,
telling the story of their own lives, or singing praises of religion and
monasteries. New narratives about new people and new things were created
over the past few decades, but often times the performer performs improvised
narratives about what they see and hear. Musical instruments such as the
biwang qin are often used in performance, and sometimes the performer uses
a wooden stick as a tool for performing. Some performers just narrate without
singing, and some blend narrative with singing. The special thing about zhega
is that narrative is the major part of the performance.
(3) Lama Mani
An ancient form of ballad, the lama mani involves a performer facing the
audience to explain one by one the images appeared on the painted scroll of
Buddhist stories hanging on the wall. When one
6. Tibetan Religious Music
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Bimonthly Journal on Mongolian and Tibetan Current Situation Vol.16, No.4
The Tibetan people are mostly followers of Tibetan Buddhism (also
known as Lamaism) introduced from India or the local Bön religion (also
known as the black school). Tibetan Buddhism is further classified into the
Nyingma school (also known as the red school), the Sakya school (also
known as the colorful school), the Kagyu school (also known as the white
school), and the Gelug school (also known as the yellow school). The Gelug
school is the most influential of the four.
Generally speaking, the music of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism
is the same, or at least similar, with that of Bön or other schools of Tibetan
Buddhism. The music can be classified into sutra chanting and instrumental
music.
Sutra chanting here refers to monks chanting sutra in a musical way.
Tibetan scholar Gequ argued that this kind of sutra chanting can be classified
into two types based on style: “cuolu” and “qiangmuyang” or “yang” and
“dunyang.” “Cuolu” sounds very close to singing, and is often performed
without the music score. “Qiangmuyang” or “yang” sounds less like singing,
and the rhythm is less restrained. It is often employed in the chanting of
certain sutra during the divine qiangmu dance or some other sutra. When
chanting in this style, the monks normally consult the yangyi music score.
The “dun” as in “dunyang” means to chant, and as a style of sutra chanting
“dunyang” has a clear rhythm, which sounds like poems. This style of
chanting makes use of fewer notes and requires a smaller range of voices, and
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53
sounds less like singing.1
There are many ways of chanting sutra, but to the lamas the most
important things in sutra chanting are “da” and “yang.” “Da” means the steps
of the horse, which signifies the speed and length of rhythm. “Yang” refers to
the rise and fall in the melody. Lamas make sutra chanting more musical and
religious by controlling the tone and the rhythm in chanting.
Professor Xu Chang-hui, who is also a renowned musician, once made
an ingenious remark about Tibetan religious music, “Catholic music sounds
like something flying down from the sky, Lamaist (i.e., Tibetan Buddhist)
music, on the other hand, sounds like something growing out of the ground.”
This remark is a profound observation of Tibetan religious music.
In 1957, I witnessed a large-scale sutra chanting at Jokhang Monastery in
Lhasa. I saw a large group of lamas sitting in and around the grand hall
chanting sutra, their voice sounding like a powerful, magnificent chorus of
bass, filling the listeners with awe. It was an unforgettable experience to me.
Depending on the nature of the sutra chanted, er (the drum), dingxia (the
bells), ganglin (the born made of leg bone), and tongqin (the bass horn) were
brought in for accompaniment. I was surrounded by a solemn and sublime
atmosphere, feeling extremely in awe. For the first time I truly experienced
the profound, mighty and sublime power of earthly music.
An ancient kind of music score, known as “yangyi” in Tibetan language,
is used to remind the monks of the changes in tone in sutra chanting. The lines
1
See Gequ, “Religious Music in Tibet,” in Music Research, 1996, Vol.1, p.59.
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on the music score move up and down from left to right, suggesting and rises
and falls of the tone. This kind of music score is similar in form and principle
to the “curve line” music scores2 once popular in Han Chinese communities
back in the Chinese Han Dynasty. The “curve line” music scores are long lost,
while “yangyi” still lives in Tibetan monasteries.
Religious instrumental music is performed in religious festivals and
religious sacrificial rituals (known as “qiangmu” in Tibetan language). Bands
performing Tibetan Buddhist music and
Music bands performing for all schools of Tibetan Buddhism and Bön
consist of musical instruments such as tongqin, gangling, jialing, er, bujian,
dingxia, and bei (conch shells). The number of each type of instrument
required is different depending on the venue for performance and the size of
the monastery. In 1983, I watched the music band at Tashilhunpo Monastery
in Shigatse practicing with two tongqin, four er, four bujian, and two jialing.
In January 1992, when I was celebrating the Gu Duo Festival with a group of
Tibetan people at Tashilhunpo Monastery, I noticed that the band performing
there had two tongqin, four gangling, four jialing, twenty er, twelve bujian,
and two dingxia. This band I encountered is a big one. During a qiangmu
dance performance, each instrument in the band contributed to the artistic
2
In the Treatise on Literature in the Book of Han, there are Seven Curve Line Music Scores for Henan’s Zhou
Songs and Seven Poems for Henan’s Zhou Songs. Seven Curve Line Music Scores for Henan’s Zhou Songs is
about curve line music scores noting the changes in tune in Zhou songs.
Daozang, a book released in the Northern Song Dynasty, contains Yuyin Fashi, a collection of Daoist
music scores for fifty Daoist songs from the Tang Dynasty to Song Dynasty. The music scores are also
arranged in the form of curve lines.
Now almost no one can read the music scores in Yuyin Fashi and Seven Curve Line Music Scores for
Henan’s Zhou Songs.
Music at the Roof of the World
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presentation. The solid, majestic sound made by tongqin made one feel as if
one was strolling in wonderland. The loud, high-pitched music made by the
drums and the cymbals together really enlivened the spirit of the listener. The
music and dance complement each other perfectly and artistically.
In addition to instrumental ensemble, Tibetan religious instrumental
music also includes instrumental solo, mostly involving jialing. It is reported
that there are 108 pieces of jialing solo music in total, and about 40 or 50 are
currently performed in Tibetan monasteries.3 I have sampled a few of these
jialing solo, such as Jiannaisi and Egang Hajie, the former is a piece of music
singing praises of the Avalokiteshvara and the latter is performed on the eve
of religious festivals. One point worth noting is that the temperament of
jialing music does not belong to the just, tempered, or “sanfen sunyi”
classifications and requires further investigation to be confirm its status.
Tongqin players have their own specific music scores to follow when
performing in a religious music band. This kind of ancient music score is very
sophisticated, consisting of symbols. I was given a preliminary lesson on how
to follow this kind of music score by the enthusiastic Qiangben Lama of the
Jokhang Monastery in Lhasa. The music score is read from bottom to top and
from left to right. The meanings of symbols are as follows:
︱: pronounced as “deerhang,” it dictates a long note
: pronounced as “duwang,” it dictates an overtone
: pronounced as “yong,” it dictates a prolonged overtone
3
See Gequ, “Religious Music in Tibet,” in Music Research, 1996, Vol.1, p.59.
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: pronounced as “dahanghang,” it dictates two short notes followed
by a long note
。: pronounced as “da,” it also dictates a long note
These are just some examples of the basic symbols in tongqui music
scores. Using the music score is much more complicated than it seems.
Different monasteries have different music scores, as well as different ways of
reading and using the music scores.
The music score for tongqin is known as “yangyi” in Tibetan language.
Some call it “the colorful music score” because it consists of mostly images
and symbols. I call it “the symbol music score.”
Early in this century, the Catholic religion in the west was introduced to
Yanjing district in Tibet’s Markam County. Some Catholics created Tibetan
style Catholic hymns based on traditional Tibetan music. The music score for
this kind of music is a four-line staff similar to the ones used by ancient
western religious music. Due to Markam’s relatively secluded geographical
position, few people have heard about the Tibetan style Catholic music there
even now.
7. Tibetan Court Music
In the old days, the Potala Palace in Lhasa, the Tashilhunpo Monastery in
Shigatse, the Qiangbalin Monastery in Qamdo, and Tsedang in Shanan
Prefecture all have their own band of musicians and dancers. Among these,
the Potala Palace has the largest, the most sophisticated, the best trained, and
the best organized band. I was able to look closely at the Potala Palace band
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57
and sample their performance from the winter of 1956 to the spring of 1957.
In mid seventeenth century, the fifth Dalai Lama Ngawang Lobsang
Gyatso founded the Gaden Phodrang regime, forming a giant hierarchy where
the political leader is also concurrently the religious leader and turning Tibet
into a progressive society with economic development and political unity.
After the fifth Dalai Lama became the supreme political, religious, and
economic leader of Tibet, the head of Ladakh sent a band of musicians and
dancers to Lhasa as a tribute to the fifth Dalai Lama, who spoke highly of
their performance and sent orders for Tibet to organize a similar band. This is
the origin of the band of musicians and dancers in Potala Palace.
The local government of Tibet also presented Tibetan court music as a
tribute to the Chinese Qing Dynasty imperial court, who gave it the name
“Yan Music.” According to the Da Qing huidian (Collected statutes of the
Great Qing), “After the Qianlong Emperor conquered Jinchuan, he was
presented with the local music as a tribute, and he made it the last-placed in
the category of Yan Music. Later the Tibetan Panchen Lama came to him to
present the local music as a tribute, which the Emperor listed under Yan
Music by the name of ‘barbarian music.’ The music works include A-er-sa-lan,
Da-guo-zhuang, Si-jiao-lu-pan-chen, and Tashilhunpo. A-er-sa-lan involved
three musicians playing the ‘de-li,’ the ‘bo-qie-er,’ and the “de-le-wo.” The
dance was performed by three dancers who acted like lions playing with each
other…Si-jiao-lu was performed by six dancers holding bows and shields.
Tashilhunpo was performed by six musicians playing the ‘de-li,’ the ‘ba-zhu,’
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the ‘cang-qing,’ and the ‘long-si-ma-er-de-le-wo,’ as well as ten barbarian
dancers each holding an axe in his hand. The dance is called Sha-le Turtle
Dance, and Buddhist songs were sung to accompany the dance.” According to
Qing Dynasty Xu Wenxian tongkao (comprehensive investigations based on
literary and documentary sources), “The ‘de-li’ used in panchen music looks
like the ‘su-er-nai,’ only that it is smaller. The wood-wind is one shaku, two
cun, and four li in length…the ‘bo-qui-er’ is made with two round pieces of
copper with a diameter of six cun each. The rise in the center of the copper
piece is one cun, three fen, and four li in height. The two pieces are tied with a
cord and are struck against each other to make music. The ‘de-le-wo,’ which
looks like ‘da-bu,’ is one shaku and two cun in diameter and five cun in height.
The ‘ba-wang,’ which looks like la-ba-bu, has seven strings, and measures
three
shaku,
seven
fen,
and
two
li
from
end
to
end…The
‘long-si-ma-er-de-le-wo,’ which looks like ‘na-ge-la,’ is made with copper
and measures one shaku and three cun in diameter. The bottom of it is very
sharp and measures one shaku in height.” The panchen music described in the
text refers to the band of musicians and dancers at Tashilhunpo Monastery,
which had a close relationship with the band at Potala Palace. “De-li” means
jialing, and “bo-qui-er” means a pair of cymbals, known as “bujian” in
Tibetan
language.
“De-le-wo”
means
a
small
dama,
and
“long-si-ma-er-de-le-wo” means a big dama. The numbers Tashilhunpo and
Si-jiao-lu are similar to the ones performed by the Potala Palace band.
Bands performing music and dance in courts across Tibet effectively
Music at the Roof of the World
59
dissolved along with the fall of the local government of Tibet in 1959. Some
of their numbers were picked up by a new generation of entertainers, who
often gave performances on stage to the delight of a large audience. In July
1987, a group of fifteen Tibetan entertainers staged a performance of Tibetan
court music and dance in London at the request of the Royal Festival Hall at
the South Bank Center and BBC Radio 3. The performance was widely
acclaimed by the audience.
A typical Tibetan court music and dance performance consists of two
parts, namely the music and the dance. Court music is called “galu” in Tibetan
language, and court dance is called “gaer.” Members of court bands are called
“gaerba,” and officials in charge of court music are called “gaerben.”
(1) Galu
Galu is a kind of performance featuring a group of ten boy vocalists who
sing in unison, accompanied by stringed or percussion musical instruments
such as the fife, the genka, the glockenspiel, the zhanian, the dulcimer, the
Chinese gong chimes, and the erga.
This kind of music first appeared among civilians in the days of King
Ladakh. But being performed repeatedly in palaces over the years had almost
taken away the original liveliness and cheerfulness in the music. The melodies
are known for having little rise and fall and little contrast. The tunes sound
peaceful and pleasant.
Fifty-nine pieces of galu music still survive today. Most of the lyrics are
about religion or religious figure, and some lyrics sing praises for homeland
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and for the skills and crafts of the Han Chinese people. Most of the lyrics are
difficult to understand, and the use of old Tibetan language in the lyrics makes
them even more difficult to understand. One of the easier-to-follow pieces is
Lhasa the Holy Land, which says:
Lhasa the Holy Land is the center of the world,
The Buddha who resides in Darjeeling,
Is the most precious of all that is precious,
In the splendid palace,
The voices of the Buddha are repeated,
And so Buddhism spreads far and wide.
The subjects described in the lyrics in galu music are usually a far cry
from the lives of performers, who often find the lyrics difficult to understand.
Therefore, it is almost impossible for the boy vocalists who performed in the
palace to associate their feelings with the lyrics, so often times they just
recited the lyrics when singing without thinking too much about their
meaning. Nevertheless, as a form of traditional art much revered by the
Tibetan people, galu still has its historical, cultural, and artistic significance.
Galu music follows the hexachord scale (Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La). Most
pieces are in Gong, Shang, or Yu modes of ancient Chinese music.
A typical Galu music structure is like this:
Prelude
→
Song
→
Finale
The prelude is basically the same as that of dance music Nangma. The
finale is usually shorter, consisting of only two measures. The songs are the
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61
most important part of galu, taking up a large part of the music.
Galu has a distinctively different style from that of Tibetan folk music or
Tibetan religious music. It has been present in Tibet for hundreds of years and
has prospered in Tibet.
(2) Gaer
The court dance gaer is also performed by ten boys. Those who are given
axes do the ax dance, those who are given drums do the drum dance, those
who are given knives and swords do the knife and sword dance, and those
who are without any tools make dance moves with their bodies. Most of the
dance moves involve kicking, jumping, kneeling down, stamping feet,
bending over, or lining up to make special formations.
The music that accompanies gaer dance is called gaer music. It is
performed by six adult court entertainers. Four of them each hold two drum
sticks in their hands and beat a high-pitched dama (a kind of steel drum) and a
low-pitched dama at the same time. The drumbeats are loud and clear enough
to be heard by people several kilometers away. The other two entertainers
play either jialing or qiongling music. Jialing is loud, resounding, and clear,
while qiongling is sophisticated and graceful. The music is flowing, with
unique, exotic melodies, and pleasing to the ears.
8. Traditional Monpa Music
Monpa means “people who reside in the Monyul area.” Most Monpa
tribespeople live in the Monyul area as well as in Mêdog County, Nyingchi
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County, and Cona County.
The Monpa people speak the Monpa language, which belongs to the
Tibetan
language
subdivision
under
the
Tibeto-Burman
languages
classification under the Sino-Tibetan languages. Most Monpa people are
fluent in Tibetan language, and use Tibetan language in writing as well as they
do not have their own written language.
The Monpa people live in southeastern Himalayas where there are lots of
hills and forests. Most Monpa people make a living out of farming, animal
husbandry, forestry, and hunting. Some of them also make a living making
wooden bowls and other tools with wood and bamboo.
The Monpa have several kinds of music:
(1) Sama
Sama is a kind of Monpa folk song. Also known as “sama qiangxie,”
Sama is a kind of toasting song sung by people who live in the Monyul area.
It is prevalent in Monyal and in other Monpa communities, and is often sung
in festivals and in gathering of friends for the purpose of entertainment. Most
pieces of sama music follow the pentatonic scale and the Yu mode of ancient
Chinese music, with 4/2 rhythm and moderato. Most pieces have one single
period with flowing tunes. Performers often improvise lyrics and have plenty
of liberty in their interpretations of the music.
(2) Zhuolu
Known as “zhuoba gulu” in Monpa language, zhuolu is a kind of song
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63
sung by herdsmen as well as entertainers in Monpa plays. Most pieces of
zhuolu music follow the pentatonic scale and the Zheng mode of ancient
Chinese music, with 4/2 rhythm. The tunes are often flowing and free.
(3) Jialu
Also known as “senmu dugulu,” jialu is Monpa people’s love songs. The
tunes are twisting and passionate, with 4/3 rhythm. Most pieces of jialu follow
the Yu mode of ancient Chinese music, with lento and free rhythms.
(4) Merrymaking songs
These songs begin with the ornamental words “kasa xizha,” hence the
name. The Monpa often use this kind of song to tease each other. The songs
are usually in the Zheng mode of ancient Chinese music, characterized by
cheerfulness, liveliness, and allegretto.
(5) Monpa instrumental music
The Monpa live in places where there are lots of bamboo forests.
Therefore, most of their musical instruments are made with bamboo.
Monpa instrumental music includes liling (double flute) solo,
taarangbulong (fife) solo, senrangrangbulong (clarinet) solo, jisigang
(bamboo harmonica) solo, and ox horn pipe solo.
(6) Monpa opera
Well-known Monpa plays include Prince Nuosang, Fairy Zhuowa
Sangmu, and Ala Kajiao. The first two derived from Tibetan plays, and the
third one is a primitive form of folk song and dance drama. It is, in fact, a
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Bimonthly Journal on Mongolian and Tibetan Current Situation Vol.16, No.4
transitional product, something between a sacrificial ritual and a play.
(7) Monpa religious music
Most Monpa people are followers of Tibetan Buddhism and Bön, which
were introduced from Tibetan communities.
The Monpa share the same religious music with Tibetan people.
9. Lhoba Traditional Music
The Lhoba tribespeople live in and around Luoyu area as well as
Mainling, Medog, Zayü, Nang and Lhünzê counties. The language they speak
is called Lhoba language, which belongs to the Tibeto-Burman languages
classification under the Sino-Tibetan languages. They do not have a written
language, and only a few of them are fluent in spoken and written Tibetan
languages. The Lhoba stuck to the old ways of chronicling events such as
carving images on wood and tying knots with ropes until the 1950s. They
believe in ghosts and supernatural powers, and they believe that everything
has a soul. In the old days, many Lhoba tribespeople were discriminated and
bullied by the three feudal lords including the local government of Tibet,
aristocrats, and monasteries, who drove them deep into the mountains and the
forests and falsely branded them “barbarians.” They were welcomed back to
the lowland in the 1950s and moved into new communities. As a result, the
political, economic, and cultural aspects of their lives were renewed
completely.
The Lhoba tribespeople have several types of traditional music:
Music at the Roof of the World
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(1) Jiayi
A kind of traditional folk song sung by the Lhoba tribespeople, jiayi is
also known as jiajinjia because of the fact that one sentence in the song is
ended with the ornamental words “jiajinjia.” Jiayi songs are mostly about
praising. The tunes sound refreshing and vigorous. Each sentence in the song
consists of four words. The singer repeats the sections of lyrics over and over
when singing until the end of song. The songs are easy to learn and sing and
widely popular among Lhoba tribespeople.
(2) Baili
As a kind of traditional Lhoba folk songs, Baili is known for being
primitive and simple. A piece of Baili song usually contains only two or three
notes, but carries distinctively cheerful rhythms and melodies, and allows
plenty of room for interpretation. The songs are mostly about the history of
the Lhoba people, and the lyrics constitute a sort of epic.
(3) Instrumental music
The Lhoba have musical instruments made of bamboo such as dabeng
(the clarinet) and gonggang (bamboo harmonica). There are pieces of solo
music involving these instruments.
Lhoba tribespeople also have percussion instruments such as gongs,
drums, and cymbals, which were introduced by Tibetan people.
10. Sherpa Traditional Music
The Sherpa (meaning “eastern people”) live in and around Lixin Village
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Bimonthly Journal on Mongolian and Tibetan Current Situation Vol.16, No.4
at the Camphor Port at Nyalam County, as well as in and around Xuebugang
and Chentang District in Dinggyê County. They have their own language but
no written language. Most of them are fluent in Tibetan language. Population
is around 1,200.
Before the 1950s, most of them make a living out of carrying services
and bartering. After the 1950s, major economic activities switched to farming
and animal husbandry. Following the opening of China-Nepal Highway, a
group of Sherpa people moved to Camphor Port to start their own business.
Traditional Sherpa music involves mostly folk songs of the following
varieties:
(1) Xuelu
Xuelu is a kind of dancing music, and also the most common type of
traditional Sherpa music. It follows the heptatonic scale, with a fierce and
distinctive 4/2 rhythm. The music is highly “contagious” and makes people
want to dance to it upon hearing it.
(2) Chalu
Chalu means songs sung when one is sitting down. Most chalu songs are
lyrical, have steady tunes and do not require a wide range of singing voice. As
a result, the songs are easy to learn and therefore very popular. Almost every
Sherpa can hum a line or two.
(3) Juelu
Juelu means songs sung when one is in grief. Juelu songs are generally
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moving, desolate, and filled with sorrow. This kind of song is usually
performed in funerals or other occasions of separation.
(4) Zhalu
Zhalu is a kind of song involving two people singing to each other. It is
usually used by young men and women expressing romantic feelings and is
often pleasant to hear.
Traditional Sherpa music is distinctively different from Tibetan music.
Sherpa music is characterized by the common use of heptatonic scale as well
as large pitch intervals in the melody, which blends perfectly with the
progressive tone to create a special kind of beauty. The melody features an
artistic combination of similarity and variety, which is one of the distinctive
features of zhalu songs.
The Sherpa’s traditional music is closely related to Nepalese traditional
music. Some of the zhalu songs have Nepalese lyrics. Some of the Nepalese
folk songs are popular in Sherpa communities, and vice versa.
11. Traditional Dēng Music
The Dēng people live in and around the Zayü County. They have their
own language, which falls under the Tibeto-Burman languages classification
under the Sino-Tibetan languages. They have no written language. In the old
days, they used to chronicle events by carving images on wood planks or
tying knots with ropes. They live deep in the mountains and woods and make
68
Bimonthly Journal on Mongolian and Tibetan Current Situation Vol.16, No.4
a living by hunting, gathering, and by slash and burn. Now new villages have
been set up by Dēng people on the banks of the Zayü River. And the Dēng
people have moved into new villages from mountains and forests and have
turned wilderness into rice fields, effectively ending their primitive lifestyle
and making use of modern farming utensils.
There are two types of traditional Dēng music: love songs and songs
sung when one is taking a break. Both types of songs are relatively short and
simple, but are still special in their own way.
Traditional Dēng dance involves the so-called “high leap” and “level
leap,” etc. These simple dances are all done collectively by taking a leap
every few steps.
(This paper was received by the MTAC on January 26, 2007. It was sent
to the review panel on January 29, 2007. Review was completed on March 12,
2007. Revision was completed on March 26, 2007.)
Music at the Roof of the World
69
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