Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
SOLUTIONS IN RESPONSE TO SILT AND FLOOD
MANAGEMENT GANGA BASIN
Prof. (Dr.) Ramakar JHA
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Chair for Water Resources, MoWR and
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Patna
Email: [email protected]
Mob: +91 8544401806
Abstract:
Understanding of Ganga basin is mandatory to manage silt load and floods in lower
Gangetic plains. It has three major components namely (a) upper reach in Himalayas
(Head), (b) middle part of Ganga basin (flood plain), and (c) lower part of Ganga basin
(Delta region). Each part has different potential and kinetic energy. As a result, the
river Ganga has carved their channels through silting, shifting of channels, Changes
in morphological and erosion processes.
After study, it has been observed that three major causes are prominent for silting and
flooding in lower Gangetic plains. The first and the most important cause is the
significant reduction in river bed longitudinal slope and increasing channel width.
The effects are Floods in surrounding areas, flood inundation and water logging. The
second cause is the ineffective management of flood plains/ command areas/urban.
The effects are silting, meandering, bank erosion and change in transverse slope. The
third and out of reach cause is the loss of energy, and lack of soil- water conservation
measures in upper reaches. The effects are sediment load, erosion, and meandering.
In the present work, Causes, effects and solutions to be implemented simultaneously
are discussed with suitable examples of Ganga Basin. The solutions are easy to
implement, cost-effective and suitable for different regions of Ganga basin.
1.0
THE STREAM PROCESSES
In recent days, substantial interest has been evinced in the society about various
aspects of rivers Ganga and its silt management. For this, we need to understand the
river Ganga similar Human body in the following way:
1.1
The Head
“Head” is the highest and most important part of the river system with maximum
potential energy (Potential energy= Mass (m)x Acceleration due to gravity(g) x Height
(h)). It consists of complex drainage system, steep slope, different geological
formations and land use variations. Any action in “Head” affects the flood plain and
the delta significantly.
Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
It is similar to our human body. “Human body” has five senses (Eyes, Nose, Ears,
Tongue and skin), out of which four are exclusively present in upper part including
nervous system.
Figure 1: Location of Devprayag (Confluence of River Alaknanda and Bhagirathi)
When the river water starts flowing from “Head”, the potential energy is transformed
into to kinetic energy. Energy losses are very high due to resistance in flow, very high
velocity, steep slope and increasing hydraulic radius (Hydraulic radius (R) =Cross
sectional area (A)/Perimeter (P)). Different forms of drag forces (friction, form and
pressure) works.
Figure 2: Demonstrating the efficiency of river
Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
Stream A has a larger hydraulic radius with less water in contact with the bed or
banks, so it has less frictional drag and more of the water can move at a higher velocity.
Similarly, human body loses significant energy (60-65%) through eyes, and then
speaking, hearing, smelling, tasting, walking/running and touching through skin.
1.2
Flood Plain
As we enter in middle part of the river system (flood plain) we observe the following
phenomena: reduced velocity, mild channel slope, silt deposition, prominent
meandering, reduced hydraulic radius, asymmetric flow and anthropogenic activities.
Most of the flooding and siltation occurs due to these phenomena resulting in change
of storage capacity of the main channel and flood plain.
Figure 3: Gradient variation in river from the “Head” to “Flood Plain”
Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
Typically, the flood plain receives, sediment and pollutants from catchment areas
(rural and urban) in the form of point and non-point sources (negative energy). This
magnifies the problems of flooding and siltation. The soil moisture plays a vital role
in flood plain. During monsoon, a little rain causes flooding and it contribute to the
river in the form of flood inundation with silt deposition.
Similarly, in human body, any activity over the “Head” affects the middle parts (heart,
lungs, stomach, pancreas, Kidney and other systems significantly and sensibly.
(Example: use of strong medicine, over eating of un-hygienic food, over exertion of
mind and body, affects stomach, heart, lungs, pancreas, liver, Kidney and other parts).
In addition, to that, the middle part of the human body, if not controlled properly,
causes energy loss and generates negative energy.
1.3
Delta
The third part is delta, in which mechanism is totally different which consists of
negligible slope, braiding pattern, backwater from sea, brackish water, and
mangroves.
The lower part of the river system has tremendous pressures and high energy loss.
Any structure would enhance the losses and increase flood and siltation problems, if
not put in order scientifically.
It is to be noted that the lower part received fine sand, silt and clay, which is sticky in
nature and once deposited, creates problems to the river flow regime.
2.0
RIVER FLOW AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
River velocity (V) = Speed(m) /time(s). It is greatest in midstream near the surface and
is slowest along the stream bed and banks due to friction. Another equations for
1
2
1
1
1
stream velocity are Manning’s equation 𝑣 = 𝑛 𝑅 3 𝑆 2 or Chezy’s equation 𝑣 = 𝐶𝑅 2 𝑆 2
Hydraulic radius (R) = Cross-sectional area (A)/wetted perimeter (P). It is already
discussed in previous section.
Stream discharge (Q) = Stream velocity (m) * cross-sectional area (m2).
Roughness coefficient (n or C), hydraulic radius (R) and Slope (S) are very important
parameters to decide the floods, erosion and sedimentation in rivers.
Rivers carry dissolved ions as dissolved load, fine clay and silt particles as suspended
load, and coarse sands and gravels as bed load. Figure 4 illustrates, Hjulstrom's
Diagram plots representing (1) the minimum stream velocity required to erode
sediments of varying sizes from the river bed, and (2) the minimum velocity required
to continue to transport sediments of varying sizes.
Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
Notice that for coarser sediments (sand and gravel) it takes just a little higher velocity
to initially erode particles than it takes to continue to transport them. For small
particles (clay and silt) considerably higher velocities are required for erosion than for
transportation because these finer particles have cohesion resulting from electro-static
attractions. Think of how sticky wet mud is.
Figure 4: Hjulstrom's Diagram
Stream competence refers to the heaviest particles a stream can carry.
Stream capacity is the maximum amount of solid load (bed and suspended) a stream
can carry. As stream velocity and discharge increase so do competence and capacity.
But it is not a linear relationship (e.g., doubling velocity and discharge do not simply
double competence and capacity). Competence varies as approximately the sixth
power of velocity.
For example, doubling the velocity results in a 64 times increase in the competence.
Capacity varies as the discharge squared or cubed. So tripling the discharge results in
a 9 to 27 times increase in the capacity.
Therefore, most of the work of streams is accomplished during floods when stream
velocity and discharge (and therefore competence and capacity) are many times their
level during low flow regimes. This work is in the form of bed scouring (erosion),
sediment transport (bed and suspended loads), and sediment deposition.
The equations describing the relationship of water flow and sediment transport are a
bit more complex. The complexity of sediment transport rates are due to a large
number of unknowns (e.g. bed geometry, particle size, shape and concentration), as
well as multiple forces acting upon the sediment (e.g. relative inertia, turbulent eddies,
Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
velocity fluctuations in speed and direction). The two main flow factors in sediment
transport are the settling rate and the boundary layer shear stress. The settling rate
(also called Stokes settling) is the rate at which sediment falls through a liquid and it
is controlled by the drag force (keeping a particle suspended) and the gravitational
force (a function of the particle size). Understanding this relationship helps to define
some of the forces that sediment transport has to overcome relative to particle size.
Shear stresses in the boundary layer of a sediment bed explain how much force is
required for water flow to overcome relative inertia and begin sediment transport
(through bedload or suspended load).
In the ocean and in other more complex water systems, this equation is inadequate.
Instead, the Von Karman-Prandlt equation should be used. The shear stress is
influenced not only by the viscosity of the liquid, but the roughness of the sediment.
The turbulent eddies created at the bottom by water flow must also be accounted for.
This is also known as the Law of the Wall.
The above equations help to give a basic understanding of some of the forces acting
on sediment in the water. To further understand the conditions required for sediment
transport, the Shields stress equation can be used. Shields stress, along with the
particle Reynolds number, can be used to predict how much flow is required for
substantial sediment transport.
Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
As discussed earlier, mountain soils, sub-montane soils and alluvial soils, covering
58% of the basin area, have very high erodibility; red soils covering 12% of the basin
area have high erodibility, red and yellow soils and mixed red and black soils covering
an area of 8% have moderate erodibility, and deep black soils and medium black soils
covering an area of 14% have low erodibility Shallow black soils and lateritic soils
covering an area of 6% have very low erodibility.
With a mean annual flow of 5.9×10 11m3yr−1 and sediment load of 1600x1012gyr−1 the
Ganges river ranks second and third, respectively, in terms of water flow and
sediment load among the world's rivers. Previous studies estimated that Ganga River
derives >65 % of its sediment load from the Higher Himalayas. The Alaknanda River
is a headwater stream of the Ganga River and has a high sediment flux. Most of the
sediment load has a size range between <4–5.75 φ). The sediments are mostly
medium to coarse silt and are poorly sorted.
It has been observed that due to sudden drop in velocity of river Ganga and its
tributaries after entering into the plains, the setting phenomena dominates and
coarser sediment gets deposited. As we proceed further, the settling of finer particles
takes place. As a result, settling of sediment increases aggradation and reduces the
slope of the river (Choudhary et al., 1997; Choudhary and Jha, 2004; Chauhan et al,
2015; Kumar and Jha, 2016; Kumar et al., 2016). Similar is the case at the confluence of
two rivers having high discharges and high sediment yield. It is essential to mention
that once sedimentation and aggradation starts, the present condition of the slope,
width and specific weight of water (stream power) decides further course of action
during high flows. The same phenomena has been observed in all the river
confluences in lower Gangetic plains.
It is also observed that when a large structure (dam/barrage) is constructed across the
river, such as Farakka Barrage, the river equilibrium is disturbed by changing runoff
and sediment load and trigger changes in the channel characteristics. However, it
causes aggradation and shifting phenomena in the upstream reaches.
3.0
FLOW AND SILT DATA ANALYSIS
The Ganga basin de-silting committee prepared a report and the following figures are
taken from the report. As shown in Figure 5, slope is significant in the beginning and
gentle slope after Allahabad. It is not known that how the slope has been changing
over times. The proposed slope required to be maintained is shown in the same figure.
Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
Figure 5: Longitudinal profile of River Ganga and proposed slope
Figure 6 indication the Silt load in River Ganga from Buxar to Farakka. It is interesting
to note that the silt load is increasing from Buxar ant Patna and then reducing slightly
up to Farakka. This silt deposition phenomena is creating drainage congestion at the
confluence of Ghaghara river, Sone river, Gandak river and Kosi river with River
Ganga. All the river are carrying silt load in addition the silt load coming from
command areas.
Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
Figure 6: Silt Load in River Ganga from Buxar to Farakka
Now, it is important to understand the river cross section and flow phenomena
(velocity and water levels) at different sections of the river. Figure 7 indicates the
movement of water layers and transverse currents at bends.
(a)
(b)
Figure 7: (a) Influence of Centrifugal force, (b) Direction of transverse currents
Further, to understand the hydraulics phenomena at different sections of a
meandering channel, a sinusoidal channel is considered (Boxall, et al. 2003, Jha et al.,
2005). The sequence of images presented in Figure 8, illustrates the main features of
the time average flow field, the contour flood represents primary velocities, and the
vectors secondary circulations. The build-up, decay and reversal of the secondary
currents over the half meander cycle can clearly be seen.
Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
Figure 8: Time average primary velocities, and the secondary circulations
It is also necessary to understand the transverse slope and transverse velocity
phenomena at bends of meandering river. Many a times, at bends, when the bed of
the channel bend is deformed, scour occurs on the outer side of the bend and the
sediment gets deposited on the inner side of the bend forming the bar commonly
known as point bar (Figure 9a). In order to explain the process involved in the
formation of point bar, consider flow in a rigid boundary bend. As the flow enters
such a bend, the average velocity in the vertical U varies as 1/r where r is the radius
of curvature. This free vortex flow velocity distribution gradually changes to forced
vortex flow distribution along the bend length; in forced vortex flow U ~ r. To
maintain this distribution a transverse slope towards the inside is caused to the water
surface. The friction at the boundary causes velocity variation in the vertical. This
variation in velocity in the vertical along with the transverse slope induces secondary
flow in the bend which is directed towards the inside of the bend near the bottom and
towards the outside of the bend near the water surface. According to Rozovskii (1961),
the location from the beginning of bend at which development of secondary flow is
complete is affected by roughness coefficient and the ratio of depth to centre-line
radius.
As shown in Figure 9a, increase in depth (or scouring) occurs in outer bank (Concave
bank) whereas the decrease in depth occurs in inner bank (convex bank). The
primary and secondary flows are also demonstrated in Figure 9b. In addition, Figure
9b demonstrates the strong vortex driven by overtopping and plunging flood plain
flow; weakening of secondary circulation zones at bends and; vigorous expulsion of
inner river water.
Finally, it is concluded that in lower Gangetic plains, the reverse slope due to
aggradation in longitudinal direction and reverse slope in transvers direction after
the bend causes turbulence in the river flow, which, in turns, creates unpredictable
severe flooding, erosion and sedimentation.
Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
(a)
(b)
Figure 9: (a) Erosion, sedimentation, and depth variation at concave and convex
banks; (b) Primary and secondary flow mechanism in a meandering river
Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
4.0
SHIFTING OF RIVER GANGA IN PATNA
Due to significant anthropological disruption, lots of Indian rivers have experienced
a significant channel alteration during the last centuries and in particular in the last
decades (Kumaravel et al. 2011; Nath et al. 2011; Panda and Bandyopadhyay 2011;
Thankur et al., 2011; Tiwari and Sharma, 2014; Singh, 2014, Kumar and Jha, 2016). The
rivers of India have certain unique features because they go through large seasonal
fluctuations in flow due to uneven rainfall pattern during the year (Kale 2002). During
the past three decades, in many fluvial systems, river dynamics have been
considerably affected by human disturbances such as land use changes, urbanization,
channelization, dams, diversions, gravel and sand mining (Gregory 2006). In the
present work, image analysis using ARC-GIS and Google earth has been used to
analyse bank shifting in Indian Subcontinent Rivers and the following figures
indicates shifting of River Ganga near Patna, Bihar.
River Ganga near Patna
Year 1984
Year 1990
Year 1992
Year 1998
Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
Year 2004
Year 2012
Year 2016
Figure 1: Shifting of River Ganga near Patna
The results obtained indicates the following outcome:
Year 1984-1990
(a) The river Ganga has been prominently flowing towards north after its
confluence with river Sone.
(b) Three islands (diara) were formed between the braiding pattern of the flow.
(c) The river was at the bank of all the ghats in Patna.
Year 1992-1998
(a) The river Ganga has been prominently flowing towards south after its
confluence with river Sone and due to low flows in river Sone.
(b) The second and third island was almost merged due to shifting of flow.
(c) The shifting of river appeared in all the ghats of river Ganga due to low flow.
Year 2004-2012
(a) All the three islands were merged initially due to now flow/low flow.
(b) At later stage, the flow near Patna again shifted upwards and divided the
island.
(c) The river with high flow shifted in upward direction before its confluence
with river Gandak.
Year 2016: The river is again moving toward its confluence with river Gangak.
5.0 REDUCED MAXIMUM POTENTIAL RETENTION CAPACITY OF WATER
IN COMMAND AREA AND DRAINAGE BASIN
The lower Gangetic plain area is characterized by sub-tropical monsoon climate with smaller
and more diversified farm holdings. The soils vary from sandy clay loam to loam, with a few
soils having sandy or clayey texture prevailing under arid and humid bioclimates respectively.
The average and range of field capacity (FC determined at 33 kPa) and permanent wilting point
(PWP determined at 1500 kPa), is 0.4 m3/m3 and 0. m3/m3 respectively. The available water
content (AWC) ranges from 20% to 24% in soils of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar represented by
Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
fine, smectitic, hyperthermic Vertic Endoaqualfs. The saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks)
varies as shown in Figure 10. The results depict that apart from particle size distribution,
organic carbon content, CaCO3 and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) influence Ks of
the lower Gangetic plain soils.
Figure 7: Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of soil (Source: Raychaudhari et al. 2014)
Moreover, the main causes of reduced maximum potential capacity of soil by water is due to
the following reason:
Erosion by Water: About 11 and 14% area of Bihar and West Bengal, respectively, are affected
by water erosion. More than 50% of the area has soil loss of 10–15 mg/ha/year (moderate);
whereas ~25% of the area has soil loss of 15–20 mg/ha/year and ~25% of the area has soil loss
of 20–40 mg/ha/year (severe) (Maji et al. 2008).
Soil Acidity and Salt-Affected Soils: Acidic soil covers ~0.04 and 0.42 Mha of Bihar and West
Bengal, respectively (Maji et al. 2008). Productivity of acid soils is very low (<1.0 ton/ha) due
to deficiencies of P, Ca, Mg, Mo and B and toxicities of Al and Fe (Patiram, 2007). Sodic soils
occur on 106,000 ha; whereas saline soils occur on 0.05 Mha in Bihar (Sharma et al. 2004).
Waterlogging: In the lower Gangetic plains, drainage and flood water management is the major
problem. Some major rice growing soils of this region suffer from waterlogging. The
waterlogged alluviums have water stagnation above ground for about three to six months each
year. This affects the physical properties of the soil..
Excessive Tillage and Residue Removal: Some agricultural practices such as continuous
cropping with limited supply of organic amendments, removal and burning of crop residues
and excessive tillage cause loss of soil functioning (Biswas et al., 2006; Sah, 1986).
Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
6.0
SOLUTION FOR FLOOD AND SILT MANAGEMENT
Action required
1. Increasing velocity of river Ganga by two times will
enhance “River competence” to carry sediment by 64
times. This will reduce silt deposition, shear stress and
increase hydraulic radius (efficiency), slope, channel
capacity and drag force. Very effective and low cost
river engineering technique are available. The priority
locations could be u/s and d/s locations of the
confluences of River Ghaghra, River Gandak and
River Kosi with river Ganga.
2. Water harvesting can be considered as “Delay and
Relay” technique to mitigate the flood and reduce silt
load. By having low cost mechanism in urban and
rural areas (increasing height of bunds of agricultural
areas, creating wetlands/ponds and having roof top
rainwater harvesting), the flood peak can be reduced
significantly, This will increase pressure drag and will
reduce silt/clay deposition specifically at the
upstream section of Farakka barrage.
3. Similar approach of “Delay and Relay” is needed at
river banks by having plantation and small river
training works to maintain river banks with low cost
materials (Bamboo, fly ash, and coir-mats. Soil
conservation, water conservation and afforestation,
could be done in upper reaches.
4. Non-structural measures of flood mitigation could be
done by having simple management plans in flood
plain zones of different flood frequency. Flood plain
zoning is needed to demarcate the areas prone to
hazards, vulnerability and risk. The obstacle in flow
path during high floods magnifies its effect and
develops uncontrolled flooding, erosion and siltation
phenomena.
5. The soil of Ganga river bed, and flood plain is very
sticky at the upstream section of Farakka Barrage due
to high percentage of silt and clay content. It is
essential to remove sticky material from upstream of
Farakka barrage. The removed soil (clay and silt) has
high commercial value and can be utilised for many
purposes.
6. River Ghaghra is carrying huge amount of silt with
water during flood. There is significant increase in silt
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
Year Year Year Year Year
Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
load between Buxar and Patna, which is mainly
coming from Ghaghra river. Therefore, De-silting is
essential at u/s and d/s locations of confluence of
River Ghaghra with river Ganga showing severe
drainage congestion and braiding pattern. If possible,
river Ghaghra should be trained and controlled in
terms of flood and silt load. It is the main cause of
siltation, meandering and flooding in River Ganga
near Patna.
7. River Ganga has been changing its course in Patna at
the upstream of Gandhi Setu and also at the
downstream of Gandhi Setu. De-silting as well as is
essential to retain the flood water in the main channel
and its flood plain, and reduce erosion.
8. It has been that the river has many physical and
hydraulic properties (bed geometry, particle size,
shape, shear stress, drag force and concentration) that
governs river’s meandering phenomena, soil erosion
from inner bank and silt deposition in outer bank. The
natural transvers slope of the river bed at curvature
should be maintained to reduce it. This could be done
with removal of silt one out bank and deposit at inner
bank to maintain slope on 1:15.
9. Soil moisture is one of the most important phenomena
of the river. During monsoon, river has high soil
moisture, high groundwater table and low infiltration
rates. By changing cropping pattern and retaining soil
moisture will reduce the impact of floods.
10. The time of concentration from each tributary of river
Ganga obtained by the river morphological
parameters and form factor decides the impact of
flood and silt load. The improvement in basin
morphology would reduce flooding, soil erosion,
shear force, settling velocity and silt deposition.
11. Micro-level and macro-level study of River Ganga for
silt management could be planned at basin and subbasin scale by pilot studies.
7.0
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Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
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Prof. Ramakar JHA, Professor, Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA
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