GRI'.AT PLAINS SENATORS AND THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
by
Philip A. Grant, Jr.
Pace College
On July 10, 1919 President Woodrow Wllson addressed the
united States Senate, on which occasion he strongly urged that
body to ratify the Treaty of Versailles. 1 The Treaty, which less
than two weeks earlier had been signed by the United States, Great
Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and several other of the victorious
World V-lar! belligerents, called for Arnerican participatlorl in the
recently established League of NaHons, 2 During the following nine
months the Senate and the Wilson Administration would be Pn?occupled
with the Treaty and the league,
In early September the Senate Foreign Relations Committee
issued its formal report on the Treaty of Versailles. A majority of
the committee's members, including nine of the ten Republicans,
advocated that forty-five amendments and four reservations be
attached to the Treaty.1 President Wilson had previously insisted
that the Tr8aty be promptly accepted without amendments or reserva­
tions. Thus, by the time the Treaty was scheduled for debate on the
Senate 110m, it was quite apparent that a massive confrontaUon was
developing between the President and a substantial number of Sena­
tors. 4
Among those vested With the solemn constitutional responsi­
hility of determining whether to approve or reject the Treaty of
Versailles WE're the ten senators from the states of the Great Plains.
These gentlemen, li.ke their colleagues from other parts of the nation,
would cast numerous votes affecting the fate of the Treaty and HIe
league. Indeed they were destined to participate in one of the most
prolonged and acrimonious foreign policy debates in the nation's
history.
In the summer of 1919 the Great Plains were represented in
the Senate by siX Republicans and four Democrats. 5 Among these
individuals were such well~known figures as Arthur Capper of Kansas,
George Vol. Norris of Nebraska, Porter J. McCumber of North Dakota,
and Robert L. Owen of Oklahoma. These four gentlemen and several
other Great Plains senaturs were political activists and were to have
long and everltful careers on Capitol Hill.
Two of these senators, Norris and Asle J. Gronna of NDlth
Ddkota, were steadfast Isolationists on foreign policy questions.
NorriS and Gronna had strenuously opposed both the arming of
American merchant ships in early 1917 6 and the subseq'..Lent declara­
tion of war against Germany. 7 Branded by a distraught president
,
)
/
41
: LEAGUE OF NATIONS
r,.
XIrow Wilson addressed the
Dl1 he strongly urged that
I The Treaty, which less
I by the United States, Great
!ral other of the victorious
leriean participation in the
.2 During the following nine
ntstration would be preoccupIed
Wilson in 1917 as members of "that llttle band of willful men,"
Norris and Gronna were to be firmly aligned with the so-called
"lrre-concilable" faction throughout the emotional debate over the
Treaty .
In addition to Norris and Gronna two Great Plains senators,
Charles Curtis of Kansas and Thomas Sterllng of South Dakota, had
indicated their sentiments on the prospective League of Nations even
before the peace negotiations had been completed. On March 4,
1919 these two gentlemen had signed the highly publicized "Round
Robin Resolution," generally construed as an emphatic warning to
President Wilson against linking the Treaty and the League. A
portion of the text of this resolution read as follows:
Resolved by the Senate of the United States In the discharge
Jreign Relations Committee
~ Versailles. A majority of
Ie of the ten Republicans,
nd four reservations be
Ion had previously insisted
thO"~t amendments or reserva_
s scheduled for debate on the
ill massive confrontation was
substantial numb\?[ of Sen a­
emn constitutional responsi­
or reject the Treaty of
e states of the Great Plains.
[rom other parts of the nation,
fate of the Treaty and the
a.rticlpate in one of the most
,debates In the nation's
Plains were represented in
)emocrats. S Among these
s as Arthur Capp",r of Kansas,
McCumber of North Dakota,
i fOUT gentlemen and several
11 actiVists and were to have
d Asle 1. Gronna of North
~oretgn polley questions.
ed both the arm tng of
mel the subsequent declara­
Jy a dLstraught President
of its constitutional duties in regard to treaties, That it
1s the sense of the Senate that while il is their sincere
desire that the nations of the world should unite to pro­
mote peace and general disarmament, the constitution
of the league of nations in the form nOw proposed to the
peace conference should not be accepted by the United
States; and be it
Resolved further, That it is the sense of the Senate that the
negotiations on the part of the United States should
immediately be directed to the utmost expedition of
the urgent business of negotiating peace terms with
Germany satisfactory to the United States and the nations
with whom the llnited States is associated in the war
against the German Government, and th3.t th'2 proposal
for a league of nCltions to insure the
p~rrnanent
peace
of the world shOUld then be taken up for careful and
serious consid'2ratlons. B
42
Although many RepubHcans were certalnly zealous in assailing
the League of Nations, one Great Plains Democrat, Thomas P. Gore
of Oklahoma, was to cause President Wilson enormous anguish in
1919. In the previous two years Gore had attracti?d nationWide atten­
hon as a scathing critic of Viiilson' oS wartime policies. He had been
especially outspoken in denOuncing military conscription, food and
fuel cOntrol ,and the administration's alleged disregard of civilliber­
ties. 9 Since Gore was one of Congress' most flamboyant orators, his
Democratic colleagues feared that he might succeed in dr[)matizing
the flaws of the Treaty of Versailles and influencing senators who did
not harbor strong feelings on the League of Nations.
four Great Plains senators who loyally supported the League
of Nations during the spring and summer of 1919 were Democrat;:;
Edwin S. Johnson of South Dakota, Robert L. Owen of Oklahoma,
and Gilbert M. Hitchcock of Nebraska and Republil:an Porter J.
McCumber of North Dakota. Johnson was to serve only one term in
the Senate, while OWen, Hitchcock, and McCumber were to haVe
illustrious careers paralleling severill presidential administrations.
Referring to the Leilgue issue as the foremost question the
Senate r,ad been asked to consider since the founding of the govern­
ment, Johnson hailed the League of Nations Covenant as a "wonderful
document." The South Dakotan, stressing that the Senate was under
obligation to facilitate the achievement of genuine peace as soon as
possible, concluded:
I am going to vote for the league of nations on account
of the protection of my famlly in future years.
And when I
vote for the good of my family, as I see it, I vote for the
good of your LamUy and for the good of every family in our
great country.
I shall vote for it because every German
symp"'tr,[zer in the world wishes it to fail; because every
Bolshevik, every "I. W. W. ", every man in the world Who
does not believe in law and order would vote against it, as
they would vote against anything to compel them to obey the
laws of God and man.
Germany, Turkey, Bulgaria, and
what is left of Austria-Hungary would like to see it faiL
,
,
I
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43
re certainly ~ealous in assailing
~G Democrat, Thomas P. Gore
iNUson enormous anguish in
And I do not propose that my vote be registered with that
group. 10
had /littracted nationwide atten­
'artirne policies. He had been
,lltary conscription, food and
Llleqed disregard of civil liber­
IS' most flamboyant orators. his
night succeed in dramatizing
ld influencing senators who did
le of Nations.
, loyally supported the League
er of 1919 were Democrats
Owen, who had previously co-authored both the federal
Reserve (Glass-Owen) Act and the Federal Child Labor (Keating­
Owen) Act, was firmly convinced that it was his duty as a senator
to support the League without amendment or reservation. Certain
that the League would "safeguard the peilce of the world as well as
our own,' ()I.ven acclaimed the League of Nations as the "blessing
of God descended on earth." Aftel analyzing the COvenant of the
League in meticulous detail, the Oklahoman offered the following
evaluation:
)el't L. Owen of Oklahoma,
and Republican Porter J.
ras to serve only one term in
nd McCumber were to have
The present covenant precludes the possibility ofmlli­
presidential admLnistrations.
tary dynastic alliances.
s the foremost question the
:e the founding of the goveln­
tlons Covenant as a "wonderful
peace on earth. establishes a just and fair relationship
IJng that the Senate was under
; of genuine peace as soon as
The present covenant establishes
between all nations, with all nations of the eartr. pledged
to maintain the political integrity and ex.isting political
independence of every single member naUon.
ea9ue of nations on account
I future years.
And when I
as I see It. I vote for the
100d of every family in our
t because every German
it to fail; because every
Il
Hitchcock was a member of one of Nebraska's pioneer
pol it Leal famiLles. In addition to serving in both Houses of COlL"ress,
he was the publisher of the Omaha World-Herald. As both the senior
Democrat on the powerful Foreign Relations Committee and Al;ting
Minority Leader, Hitchcock assumed the ultimate responsibility of
advocating ratif1calion of the Treaty of Versailles. Charging that the
Republican reservations were devised in a "sp~rit of susp~clon and
animosity against the very nations that fought and sacrificed with
us," he asked the follOWing ominous question: "Is the world to be
organized for peace or war?". The Nebraskan, fearing the con­
sequences of a Senate rejection of the League, warned:
ery man in the world who
!l"would vote against it, as
... Unless this league Is adopted we will have to take up
I to compel them to obey the
unlvNsal mUltary trainlng; we wUl have to enter upon a
Turkey, Bulgaria, and
'Quld like
tD
see it fall.
career of militarism and giant appropriations; we will, as
a Nation, having sO much to defend. be compelled to turn
44
ourselves into a military camp. because we have offend!ed
the greatest power in the world (lnd we must be re<ld." to
meet it when the time comes for revenge, unless there Is
some internation"l organization to
pr~serve
the peace of
the world and prevent wars of revenge in the future,IZ
McCumber, in the midst of hIs fourth and final Senate term,
emphasl::ed that the world needed ""n international l<lw to "declare
that war by one nation is a matter of concern to every other T1(1tlon,
and that no unjust war shall be waged by any nation." The North
Dakotan vowed that he could 110t vote against a reasonable agree­
ment to achieve world peace without a conviction that he had
"committed an unpardonable offense against all future generations."
According to McCumber, if the United States refused to Join the
League of Nations, the responsibility for another "damnable war"
would rest upon it. ,Il.nticlpatinrl that every powerful country in the
world would "proceed to devise means for the wholesale destrucllon
oE nationS," the Senator foresaw that so "desperate will the next
war be that all the hate and venom created b'i this struggle will be
infinitesimal compared with the r,ext. ,,13
Three Great Plains senators who refrai!led from active parti­
cipation in the numerouS floor debates over the Treaty and the League
were Republicans Arthur Capper and Charles C',H1:is of Kansas and
Thomas Sterling of South Dakota. Although these three gentlemen
were remarkably Successful politlcians. none had ever been parti­
cularly inter<.'sted in foreign policy questions.
On the day after the Treaty of VersailIei:' was signed Capper
expressed the view that the Senate wO\.lld not "fall into Une with the
suggestion from Paris that the treaty be taken just as It ls and rati­
fied." The Kansan, reacling to the President's July 10 address to the
Senate, asserted that he was "more convinced than ever that I shall
have to vote for reservations." After conferring wilh Wllson at the
v'/hite House on July 1B, Capper disclosed that he had "not changed
his opinion that certain reservations are necessary in ratifying the
treaty." 14
Curtis, 11ke his Kansas colleague, chose not to become in­
volved in the public dialogue over the League of Nations. He had,
however, endorsed the "Round Robin Resolution" of March 4, and,
as the Senate's Assistant Republican Leader (Whtp), maintained a
record of close cOOperaUO" with Majority Leader Henry Cabot Lodge.
III a lengthy neWSpaper interview published in late JulY, Curtis
prophesied that forty senators would vote against ratlftcatior, of the
Treaty unless reservations were adopted. Certain that the Treaty
"
,
~
j
".~
.
",.
45
, because we have offended
I and we mu~t be ready to
lr revenge, unless there is
~
to preserve the peace of
would never be approved with the reservations omitted, the Kansan
intimated that the only viable solution to the problem was for the
President to compromise with the Senate. IS
Sterltng, like Curtis, had signed the "Round Robin" proposal.
In early June he had introduced a resolution which suggested that he
was distinctly hostile to the League of Nations. The SterHng Reso­
lution affirmed:
~evenge in the future. 12
That the United States of America, in vIew of thelr
fourth and final Senate term,
ntemationallaw to "declare
OIlcern to every other natjon .
by any nation." The North
9g'alnst a reasonable agree­
conviction that he had
rainst all future generations."
States refused to Join the
for another "damnable war"
!very powerful country in the
for the wholesale destruction
:0 "desperate will the next
i~d by this struggle wJll be
o refrained from active parti­
over the Treaty and the League
arIes Curtis of Kansas and
ough these three gentlemen
, none had ever been parti­
sUans.
'ersaUtes was signed Capper
ild not "fall Into line with the
! taken just as it 1s and rati­
sident's July 10 address to the
Ivtnced than ever that I shall
onferrtng with Wllson at the
sed that he had "not changed
C! necessary in ratifying the
Je, chose not to become in­
.eague of Nations. He had,
solution" of March \1, and,
=ader ('#hip), maintained a
ty Leader Henry Cabot Lodge.
Ihed. in late July, Curtis
te against ratification of the
:I. Certain that the Treaty
remote situation with reference to European states of the
eastern hemisphere and their more immediate interest in
the territorial integrity and free institutions of the sovereign
states of the western hemisphere and policies concerning
which, and the cordial relation with which the United
States will endeavor to maintain,expressly reserve to
themselves the right to determine through Congress the
justice or expediency of any fulfillment on the part of
the United States of the obligations contained in or
imposed by Article X of the covenant for a league of
nations so far as such obligations at any time apply to
the situation of any state or states of the eastern hemi­
sphere.
Sterling explained that his resolution both upheld the Monroe Doctrine
and left to Congress the right to decide whether the United States
Would actually defend other countries. Recalling that the nation's
early leaders "strove and warned against European entangling
aillances," the South Dakotan depicted the League of Nations require­
ment that members prolect One another from external aggression as
"uilerly alien and un-American. "IE>
The three Great Plains senators who remained intransigent
In their oppOSition to both the Treaty and the League were Norris,
Gronna, and GOre. These three gentlemen, disenchanted with the
"
:oreign policY of the Wi,!son Administration, were convinced :hat
the UniLed States had fi'!liled rlismaolly In its cffort~ to n"goU"le
a just peace settlement.
Although Norris devoted most of his attentior. to condemning
the poltUcal and horrllortal ~spects ot the Treaty, he stressed that
the League of Natlons contained "IT.any objectionable features. "
'The Nebraskan complained that the League lacked a stipulatton re­
quiring that "aU internatio:1al busir:ess should be don'" in p~\blic"
e.nd also -egretted that the League was not predicated on the neces­
sity "for the arbitration of international disputes." ~oITls we.s
particularly upset that six nations affiliated with the Bcitish Empire
would Rnjoy votin'J pr1vilegcll in the League. Dl~lurbl::ld by the dis­
proportionate Influence likely to be Wielded by nations with offiCial
ties to Great BrHa~n, Norrts commented~
There is not any justice in it. J do not see how e.ny
American citizen Ci'ln sti'lnd for it, r.an i'lpprove any trc:>.ty
that Will say 'We are only o:le-stxth of the Importance of
some other naHon.,17
Gronna, charging that the League of ;..rations was vested
with "arbitrary and almost unlimited power," argued that it wculd
be tragic to "bind ourselves and our posterity to support the domlni'lnt
powers of every ni'ltion that belongs to this league, and to par:tci­
pilte in their wars, their struggles, and their troubles." Warning
his colleagues thflt th". I.e2l\lue conGtituted an """utoc,,,-c¥ with
powers unrivaled or unheard of among the f2lrnily of man," the North
D:l.Kotan climaxed his remarks with the following indictment:
There r.ever was presented to the AmerlC2l;1 people
a document so replete with tnr.onsistl'ncie!> and with
provisions so dangerous and full of pitfalls as the
!'ro!'osed covenant. There never
W<;IS
III the history
of our country presented to ttis legisli'ltive body i'l
document sc inimica: to the best interests of our
country and our people, and it rei'llly seems to me that
every provision affecting American interests must hi'lve
,.
i.ii\'
"',hi
,
,
,
'f
/
i
47
'ation, were convlnced that
In Its efforts to negotiate
::If his attention to condemning
the 'I'reaty, he stressed that
y objectionable features."
ague lacked a stipulation re­
B should be done in public"
'nat predicated on the neces­
II disputes." Norris was
I1l1ted with the British Empire
ell!jJue. Dlstl.Jrbed by the dls­
elded by nations with offictal
d,
been conceived In iniquity and born in sin .18
Insisting that the League lacked "both essentials of demo­
cracy - direct choice and direct responsibility, " Gore emphasized
that the representatives of the Leagl.Je were neither chosen by nor
were responsible to the citizens of their nations. Gore also expres­
sed consternation that the legislative, executive, and ]l.JdICtal
powers of the League were "combined and centralized tn the hands
of the selfsame set of men." Not wishing to obligate the United
States to participate in future foreign wars which in no was con­
cerned its rights or interests, the Oklahoman concluded that member­
ship in the League
., ,binds us to tax our people, to spend Ol.Jr money, to
I It. I do not see how any
draft our boys, to shed their blood, to sacrifice their
it, can approve any treaty
lives, in every war that happens i.nvoiving the boundary
-sixth of the Importance of
lines of a member of this league, whether it be in Europe,
in Asia, in Africa, or in the islands of the sea, 19
ue of Nations was vested
~er," argued that it would
,sterlty to Sl.Jpport the dominant
this league, and to particiI their trol.Jbles." Warning
lted an "al.Jtocracy with
he family of man, " the North
following Indictment:
to the American people
After months of spirited discusSion and dozens of roll calls
on sl.Jbstantive amendments, the Senate agreed to resolve the Treaty
and Te'l'j"iJ l""'Jt." f ' l -:C"'c:n!,er 19. On that date the members of
the Senate initially ballot ted on whether to ratify the Treaty with
fourteen major reservations sponsored by Republican Leader Lodge, 20
This measure was defeated by a margin of 55-39. Among the ten
senators from the Great Plains states the tabulation was evenly
divided. Voting against attaching the reservations to fTIe Treaty were
three Wilson partisans, Johnson, Owen, and Hitchcock, and two
staunch adversaries of any type of peace settlement, Norris and
Gronna. 21
-nslstencles and with
I of pitfalls as the
r was In the his tory
legislative body a
t interests of our
eally seems to me that
,m interests must have
Immediately folloWing rejection of the Lodge Reservations,
the Senate voted on whether to approve the original Treaty. Rejec­
ting the appeals of the President, the Senate divided 53-38 against
the Treaty. On this roll call Great Plains senators were aligned 6-4
with the maJority. Supporting the unamended Treaty were Democrats
[ohnson, Owen, and Hitchcock and Republican McCumber. 22
A third and final roll call was scheduled for March 19, 1920.
vI/hen the Senate assembled on that date, the membe~~ voted on
ratifying the Treaty with fifteen Lodge Reservations,
The official
roll call was 4.9-35 in the affirmative, thus marking the first time that
a majority was mustered in the Senate in behalf of the Treaty in any
form. Although this margin was seven votes less than the necessary
48
two-thirds, it was noteworthy that many Democrats, including (Mren
of Oklahoma, reversed their previous stands against reservattons. 24
An analysis of th€ three roll calls strongly indiCdted that it
would be vi.rtually impossible for the SenatE to Teach a consensus
on the Treaty. The sharp divisions of opinion within the Senate
chamber made it increaSingly unl1kely that the United States would
either ratify the Trei'lty of Versailles or affiliate with the League of
Nations.
The officiaL votes cast by Great Plains senators had abso­
lutely no bearing on the outcomes of the three historic Senate roll
calls. Excluding the51" ten gentlemen, 1n November 1919 the Lodge
Reservations would have been rejected 50-.34 and the original Treaty
would have been defeated 47-34, and in March 1920 the Treaty with
the additional Lodge ReServation would have received a mere 42-32
majority. These three fateful roll calls corresponded largely to party
lines. A solid majority of Republ1cans both trom the Great Plains and
other parts ::of the nation favored incorporation of the Lodge Reserva­
tions on two separate occasions, whereas an overwhelming propor­
tion of Democrats from all geographic regions supported the Treaty
as submitled by the PreSident to the Senate in early July 1919.
The League of Nations was undeniably a highly complex Issue.
While many senators concurred on the princ\ple of establ1shing an
international organization. they likeWise be Lieved that specifIc
features of the League were either of doubtful value or might prove
detrimental to the Vnited States. The failure of PreSident \\,..ilson to
adopt conciliatory taCtics tn his relations with the Senate or to recog­
nize at least a few legitimate objections to the League hopelessly
complicated an already difficult situation. Conversely, It would be
naive to absolve several Republicans from resonl.ng to exceSsive
parHsanship. These Republicans felt that Wilson had attempted to
impose an unpalatable peace settlement on the American people and
had treated their party contemptuously both during and immediately
after World Will: 1.
There was no realistic pOSSibility that the President could
have exerted meaningful political pressure on recalcitrant senators
from the Great P~alns. Six of tl'.ese gentlemen represented the
traditionally Republican states of Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota.
and North Dakota. Three of the senato-rs, Capper, Norris. and
Sterling. had been handily elected by their constituents to stx year
terms in November 1918, while two others, Curtis and Gronna. had
begun their existing terms in March 1915 and probably sensed that
Wilson would not have much, if any, l.mpact on theIr re-election
prOSpects. Finally, Wilson had to contend with the defiance of
Senator Gore of Oklahoma, wrlo apparentl de~ighted in tormenting
the foremost digllItary of his Own party. 2 Interestingly, although
the Presldent del1vered a number oI eloquent speeches In behalf of
S
49
U"lY Democrats, includi.ng ()w-en
stands against reservations, Z4.
of the League during a tour of the Great Plains in September 1919.
the senators from the region did not modify tl'.eir positions. 26
ails strorqly indicated that it
Senate to reach a consensus
, opinion Within the Senate
that the United States would
II" aftUlate with the League of
Between July la, 1919 and March 19, 1920 the ten senators
from the Great Plains participated in the highly publicized and
momentous struggle over American membersh1p in the League of
Nations. As the duly elected spokesmen of the approximately six
and one-half million cltizens of the Great Plains, they had the
responsibility of casting votes on one of the most vital foreign
poHcy questions ever considered by the United States. These
gentlemen were not only making history but also subjecting 'them­
selves to its verdict. 27
Plains senators had abso­
he three historic Senate roll
, In November 1919 the Lodge
1 50-34 and the original Treaty
In March 1920 the Treaty with
d have received a mere 42-32
!s corresponded largely to party
l both from the Great Plains and
poration of the Lodge Reserva­
reas an overwhelming propor­
regions supported the Treaty
enate In early July 1919.
lit
leniablya h1ghly complex Issue.
principle of establishing an
IBe believed that speciftc
loubtful value or might prove
faHure of President Wilson to
Dns with the Senate or to recog­
ne to the League hopelessly
Lon. Conversely, it would be
fom resort1ng to excessive
that Wilson had at tempted to
It on the American people and
both during «nd immediately
1ty that the PreSident could
Nre on recalcitrant senators
otlemen represented the
as, Nebraska, South Dakota,
TJ5, Capper, Norris, and
heir constituents to six year
ers, Curtis and Gronna, had
L5 and probably sensed that
npact on their re-election
tend with the defiance of
deUghted in tormenting
.2 Interestingly, although
quent speeches 1n behalf of
ltl!
50
NOTES
lRay Stannard Baker and William E. Dodd (eds.), The
Public Papers of Woodrow WilsoQ: War and ~ (2 vols.;]
New York; Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1927), I, 537-552:
Post, Washington, D.C., Tuly 11,1919, pp. 1, 10.
2 I he Paris Peace CQI'.:ference was 1n session between
February and June of 1919. Detailed accounts of the role played
by the United States may be found in th" following works: Thomas
A. Bailey, Woodro..... Wilson and the Lost Peace (New York: The
Macmillan Company, 1945); Ray Stannard Eaker. Woodrow Wflson
and !k World Settlement (3 vols.; Garden City: Doubleday, Page
and Company, 1922); Robert Lansing, The peace Negotiations; .h
Personal. NaITat1v~ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1921),
and James T. Shotwell, At the Paris Peac~ Conference (New York:
The Macmillan Company, 1937).
3United States Senate, Report~J.!:!..§.lreatY-2!~with.
Germa[1"y, Seotember 10,1919; Pos~, Washington, D.C., September
11, 1919, pp. 1, 5.
4ComprehenSive studies of the Senate debate over the League
Thomas A. Bailey,
\Voodrow Wilson and the Great Betray~lJ New york: The Macmillan
CompanY, 19451; Denna F. Fleming. The TrealY..Veto o~ the American
Senatl';. (New york: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1930), pp. 136-167; John
A. Garraty, H~ Cabot Lodge; ~ BiograprrY (New York, Alfred A.
Knopf, 1953), pp. 357-382; Ralph Stone, The IrreconcUables; The
Fight Against the League QfJ'@J.ions (Lexington; University of
Kentucky Press, 1970).
of Nations may be found in the following books:
51n the November 1918 conqressional elections the Demo­
crats lost six seats in the Senate. The new Senate consisted of
forty-nine Republicans and forty- seven Democrats.
6United States Congress, Congressional. Record, SlxtyFourth Congress, Third Session (Washington; United States Govern­
ment Printing Office, 1917), UV, 4865,4894-4890,4990,5004-5009;
Seward W. Livermore, PoLitics is Adjourned; Woodrow Wilson and the
War Congres&, 1916-1918 (Middletown; W .. s1eyan Untversity Press,
1'366), pp. 12-13.
7Congress1onal Recor.9.-' LV, 2]2.-220, 254-256, 260-261;
Arthur S. 11nk, Wilson; Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace,
1916-1917 (Princeton; Princeton University press, 1965), pp 4Z9-430.
8CongresSional Record, LVII, 4974; Post, Washinqton, D.C.,
March 4,1919, pp. 1, 4; March 5,1919, p. 2.
,
'<;.
)
51
9Congressional Record, LV, 1485-1487, 2270, 2457; LVI,
3312-3315,3443,4629-4643,4719,6057; post, Washington, D.C.,
May 18,1917, pp. 1, 2: May 28,1917, p, 2; June 21. 1917, p. 2;
August 7,1917, p. 2; March 15,1918, p. 2; May 5. I9I8, pp, 1, 8.
lIIl E. Dodd (eds. ), The
~ and Peace (2 vols,;)
hers, 1927), 1. 537-552;
19, pp. L 10.
10CongreSSiOnal~cor.::!, LVIII, 2985-2988; Times, New York,
N.Y., July 23,1919, p. 2.
11 Congressional Record, LVIII, 3404-3410; Post, Washington,
D.C., August 1,1919, p. 5; DeweyW. Grantham, "Robert Latham
Owen," Dictlonar( of American Biography. Supplement Four (New
York: Charles Senbner's Sons, I974), pp. 640-642.
ras tn session between
ICCOUnts of the role played
he foHowing works: Thomas
~ Peace (New York: The
lard Baker, Woodrow WflsQD
rden City: Doubleday, Page
~ Peace NeQotlatiom;; ~
Mifflin Company, 1921 1:
_ace Conference (New YorK:
12Congresstonal Record, LVIII, 690-693, 1503-1507, 1740­ 1741,2064-2074,2079, 3688-3693, 4726-4731, 5451-5452, 5492­ 5493,5955-5956,6078-6090,6401,6481-6482, 6886-6889, 6945,
7072, 711~-7119, 7498-7499, 7550-7551, 7800-7812, 7882-7883,
79404-7948,8020-8021, 8067, 8124, 8138, 8201, 8211-8218, 8424­ 8435,6546-8549, 8569-8571, 8729-8730,8739-8760,8767-8800;
J. L. Sellers, "Gilbert Monell Hitchcock," Dictio"-.<!.D:' of American
Biography (22 vols.; New York; Charles Scribner's Sons, 1928-1958),
XXI. 410-411; Kurt Wlmer, "Senator Hitchcock and the League of
Nations," Nebraska Hi~, Summer 1963, pp, 189-204.
Q!I the Treaty..2! Peace with
I'ashtngton, D. C., September
Senate debate over the League
Thomas A. Bailey,
!JNew York: The MacmHlan
~ Treaty Veto of ~ American
IS, 1930), pp, 136-1&7; ~ohn
@:Q!ly (New York: Alfred A.
e, The Irreconcilables; The
extngton: University of
13Congressto~!al Record, LVIII, 1264-1276; W. C. Hunter,
"Porter James McCumber," Dictionary of American Biography, XXI,
525-526.
19' books:
14pos t , Washington, D.C" July 11,1919, pp. 1, 10; July
19, 1919, pp, 1, 4; Times, New York, N.Y" June 29, 1919, p, 5:
July 19, 1919, pp, I, 2; Homer E. Socolofsky, Arth<lf Capper
(Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1962), pp. 128-134.
Btonal elections the Demo­
l new Senate corllslsted of
Democrats.
15Times, New York, N.Y., July 27,1919, pp. 1.2: James
C. Malin, "Charles Curtis," DLctionary of American Biography,
XXII. 136-137,
resslonal Record, Sixty­
.ngton: United States Govern­
,4894-4896,4990, 5004-5009;
.rned; Woodrow Wilson and.1he
.: Wedeyan University Press,
16.;;. Res. 7a-Relating -.19 the propofed peace treaty, including
the covenant for.£ League of Nations, and"p:raposing certain resel'v.~­
Hons in the e'/ent of ratification ~ the U!lited States, June 12, 1919;
Congressional Record, LVIII, 3607-3611: Post, Washington, D.C.,
~une 13, 1919, p. 4; August 5, 1919, p. 2 .
~-220, 254-256, 260-261;
17Congressional Record, LVllI, 2592-2600, 7687-7669; RLchard
Lowitt, George W. Norris: The Persistence of.£ Progressive. 1913-1933
(Urbana: University of IllinOis Press, 1971), pp. 110 118.
fro;Jresstvism and~,
rslty Press, 1965), pp 41.9-430.
l8Congressionai Record, LVlll, 7416-7430: Wdiiam W. Phillips,
'The Life of Asle J. Granna: Self-Made Man of the Prairies," Unpub­
lished Ph,D. Dissertation, University of Missouri, 1958, pp. 568-573.
:174; Post, Washington, D.C.,
9, p. 2.
l
52
19
.
CongressIOnal Record LVIII, 7953-7957; Post, Washington,
D,C., July 9,1919, P.o. 1, 9; November 7,1919, P.o. L 5; Novem­
ber 9, 1919, P.o. 1, 6; Monroe L. Billington, Thomas£.., Gore (Law­
rence: University of Kansas Press, 1967), P.o. 112-116.
20Appendix B.
21Congressional Record. LV!!l, 8786; Post. 1Nashington, D.C.,
--November 20, 1919, pp. L 3.
22COngressionai Record, LVIIl, 8803; Post, Washington, D.C.,
November 20, 1919, P.o. I, 3.
23Appendix C.
24Congressional Record, LIX, 2917: Post, Washington, D. C. ,
March 20, 1920, P.o. 1, S.
2SAIthough Gore was destined to be defeated 1n Oklahoma's
1920 Democratic primary, he would ultimately be succeeded 1n the
Senate by an anti-League Republican.
26 1n September 1919 President Wilson spoke at Omaha, Sioux
Falls, and Bismarck. Public Papers of Woodrow Wilson, II, 30-57,
89-137.
27 Most of the Great plains senators remained actlve in public
affairs for many years after 1920. Capper, emerging as one of the
leaders of the bipartIsan congressional farm bloc during the nineteen
twenties, co-authored the Cooperative Marketing (Capper-Vols tead)
Act of 1921 and the Grain Futures (Capper-Tincher) Act of 19Z3.
Elected as Senate Majority Leader in 1925. CurUs four years later
became Vice-President of the United States. Norris, Chairman of
the Committee on Agticulture and Forestry, 192]-1926, and the
Committee on the Tudiciary, 1926-1933, was primarily responsible
for the Twentieth ("Lame Duck" 1 Amendment and the Tennessee Valley
Act of 1931. ''''''hUe preSiding over the Committee on Finance in 1922
and 1923, Mccumber co-authored the Tariff (Fordney-McCumber) Act
of 1922 and the World 1Nar [ Debt Commission Act. Although defeated
for the' renomination in 1920, Gore was to return to the Senate in 1921
and throughout the First Adminlstratio'1 of Franklin D. Roosevelt
attracted considerable attention a1; a scathing critic of the New Deal.
"
"
1:
/'
7953-7957; Post, Washington,
:MIT
APPENDIX A
7, 1919, pp. 1, 5; Novem­
:nqton, lhomasL Gore (Law­
167). pp. 112-116.
COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Article 1, Part 3
8786; Post,
Washi~gton,
D.C.,
8803; Post, Washington, D.C.,
Any Member of the League may, after two years' notice of
its intention so to do, withdraw from the League, provided that all
its international obligations and all its oblig<ltions under thiS
Covenant shall have been fulfilled at the time of its Withdrawal.
Article 10
917; Post, Washington, D.C.,
) be defeated in Oklahoma's
tmately be succeeded in the
rUson spoke at Omaha, Sioux
The Members of rhe League undertake to respect and pre~
serve as against ~xternal aggression rhe territorial integrity and
existing political Independence of all Members of the League. In
ca:;e of any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger of
such aggression, the Council shall advise upon the means by
which this obligation shall be fulfilled.
Article 16, Part 1
Woodrow Wilson, II, 30-57,
tors remained active in public
,per. emerqi ng as one of the
, farm bloc during the ni.neteen
Marketing (Capper-VoLs lead 1
,per-Tincher) Act of 1923.
~ZS, Curtis fOUT years later
ates. Norris, Chairman of
try, 1921-1926, and the
Should any Member of the League resort to war in disregard
of its covenants under Articles 12, 13, or 15, it shall. ~ facto,
be deemed to have committed an act of war against all other Members
of the League, which hereby undertake immediately to subject it to
the severance of all trade or financial relations, the prohibitlon of
all intercourse between their nation and the nationals of the Covenant­
breaking State, and the prevention of all financial, commercial or
political intercourse between the nationals of a Covenant-breahna
State and the nationals of any other State, whether a Member of the
League or not.
, was primarily responsible
fment and the Tennessee Valley
Committee on Finance in 1922
Article 22, Part 1
:artff (Fordney- McCumber) Act
11ss1on Act. Althouqh defeated
To those colonies and territories which as a consequence
of the late war have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the States
which formerly governed them and which are inhabited by peoples not
yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the
modern world, there shall be applied the principle that the weli­
b91ng and development of such peoples form a sacred trust of civili­
zation and that securities for the performance of this trust should be
embodied in this Covenant.
to return to the Senate in 1921
of Franklin D. Roosevelt
::athlnq critic of the New Deal.
APPENDIX B
LODGE R£SERVATIONS
1. The United States so understands and construes arttcle
I that in case of notice of withdrawal flom the league of nations,
as provided in said l'lrticle, the United States shall be the sole
judge as to whether all its international obligations and all its
obligations under the said covenant have been fulfilled, and notice
of withdrawal by the United States may be g~ven by a concuITent
resolution of the Congress of the United States.
?. The United States assumes no obligation to preserve
the tenitorial integrity or political independence of any other
cOLlnt!y or to interfere in controversies between nations - whether
members of the league or not - under the provisions of article 10;
or to employ the military and naval forces of the United States
under any article of the treaty for any purpose, unless in any partic­
ular case the Congress, which, under the Constitution, has the
sale power to declare war or authorize the employment of the mili~
tary or naval forces of the United States, shall by act or joint
resolution so provide.
3. No mandate shall be accepted by the United States
under article 22, Part 1, or any other provision of the treaty of
peace with Germany, except by action of the Congress of the United
States.
4. The United States reserves to itself exclusively the
right to decide what questions are within Us domestic jurisdiction
and declares that an domestic and political. qu€stions relating
wholly or in part to its internal affairs, includ~ng Immigration,
labor, coastwide trafflc, the tariff, Commerce, the suppreSSiOn
of traffic in women and children and In opium and other dangerous
drugs, a.nd all other dom",stic questions, are solely within th", Juris­
dtction of the UnU",d States and ar", not under tMs tr",aty to be sub­
mitted in any way eHher to arbitration or to the consideration of the
council or of the a!>sembly of the league of nations, or any agency
thereot, or to the deCision or recommendation of any other power.
5. The United States will not submit to arbitration or to
inquiry by the assembly or by the council of the league of nations,
provided for in said tre:tty of peace, any question, which In the
judgment of the United States depend upon or relate to its Joog­
established polley, commonly ~nOwn as Lhe Monroe Doctrine; said
doctrine is to be interpreted by the United States alone and is hereby
declared to be wholly outside the jurisdiction of such league of
'I .
.
,
,<,.,."..
;
/
55
B
nations and entirely unaffected by any provision contained in the
said treaty of peace with Germany.
mONS
£..
The United States withholds i.ts assent to articles 156,
157, and 158, and reserves fulll1berty of action with respect to
any controversy which may arise under said artlcles between the
Republic of China and the Empire of Japan.
lerstands and construes article
1 from the league of nations,
ad States shall be the sole
nal obligations and all Its
lave been fulfilled, and notice
ay be given by a concurrent
lted States.
7. The Congress of the United States will provide by law
for the appoi.ntment of the representatives of the United States in
the assembly and the council of the league of nations, and may i.n
its direction provide for the participation of the United States in
any commission, committee, tribunal, court, council, or con­
ference, or in the selection of any members thereof and for the
appointment of members of said commissions, committees, tri­
bunals, courts, councils, or conferences, or any other represen­
tatives under the treaty of peace, or In carrying out Its provisions,
and until such participation and appointment have been so pro­
vided for and the powers and duties of such representatives have
been defined by law, no person shall represent the United States
under either said league of nations or the treaty of peace with
Germany or be authorized to perform any act for or on behalf of the
United States thereunder, and no cltlzen of the United States shall
be selected or appointed as a member of said commissions, com­
mlttees, tribunals, courts, councils, or conferences except with
the approval of the Senate of the United States.
2S no obligation to preserve
dependence of any other
~5 between natLons - whether
the prOVisions of article 10;
lrces of the United States
'purpose, unless i.n any partlc­
r the Constitution, has the
e the employment of the miH­
tes, shall by act or joint
~pted
by the United States
proVision of Ule treaty of
[l of the Congress of the United
8. The United States understands that the reparatlon
commission will regulate or interfere with eJqlorts from the United
States to Germany, or from Germany to the United States, only
when the United States by act or joint resolution of Congress
approves such regulation or interference.
~B to itself exclusively the
:hln its domestic jurisdiction
UUcal questions relating
i, Including Immigration,
omrnerce, the suppression
n opium and other dangerou s
~s, are solely within the juris­
:It under this treaty to be sub­
or to the consideration of the
ue of nations, or any agency
~ndatlon of any other power.
9, The United States shall not be obli.gated to contribute
to any eJqlenses of the league of nations, or of the secretariat, or
of any commission, or committee, or conference, or other agency,
organized under the league of nations or under the treaty or for the
purpose of carrying out the treaty provisions, unless and until an
appropriation of funds available for such expenses shall have been
made by the Congress of the United States,
10. If the United States shall adopt at any time any plan
for the limitation of armaments proposed by the council of the
league of nations under the provlsions of article 8, it reserves the
right to increase such armaments without the consent of the council
whenever the United States is threatened with invasion or engaged
In war.
: submit to arbitration or to
lcl1 of the League of nations,
Iny question, which in the
upon or relate to its longIIi the Monroe Doctrine; said
lted States alone and is hereby
IdicUon of such League of
11. The United States reserves the right to permit, in its
discretion, the nationals of a covenant-breaking state, as defined
in article 16 of the covenant of the league of nations, residing
-l
56
within the UnHed States or in countries other tt:an that violating
said article 15, to continue their rommcrcial, finCll1<.:ial, and
personal relations with the nationals of the Uni;:ed States.
lZ. Not'ling tn <lI"tides Z96, 297, o~ in any of the a"1nex",s
th",r",ta or a ... y a,her dftl~le, section, or annex cf the treaty ot
peace with Gern-any shall, as against c:ti7f'nS of the: Unite~ Sld,tes,
~e tllk.el: to :nGan any confirmation, -atiflcation, Or approval of any
act otherwise 1l1ega. or in rontravention of tho: I'lghts of citizens
01 the United States.
12.
The "United States w:thholds its ':ISsent to Part XIII
~ 27, inctus~...' e) unless COnljreS5 by act or joint
resolljtion stall hereOlfte~ make ;:crovisian for rcprcse:1.tdtioil ~n the
c:'ryanizalion established by said Part XII:, and in such e'Jent the
participation of t:,e r-nltf'cl Statc~ will be governed and condi:ioned
by the provisions of such act or joint resolution.
(artic!,,:; 387 tu
lL 'Ihe United S:ates assumes ne> obllga:ion to be bound
bi' any eJe:ctivll, jecisiof., rl2port or linding of the council or assem­
bly if. wh:ch any member :::.f the l~i'"J\l''' and lt~ seU-\lovernlng domin­
tons, colonies, or parts of enpire, if. the a,gsregate have cast more
tJ-.an one vote, an:J i'lSS'--lmeZ 1':0 obli\ldl<.ln to be bounc', by any dec~­
sion, report, or finding of the cOl:ncil or assembly arisin.; out of
any rJispu:e between the United States and any member of the league
If suc~ member of any sel~-governinq dominion, "olony, cmplie, ur
parts C>f empire united wit:, it poli:lcaJly has 1ioted.
APP;::NDIX C
RESERVAUON fIFTEEN
(MARCE 19, 1920)
Tn consonthy: to th", rdttHcation of the treaty wIth Germany
the United StatO's adheres to the principle of sdf-dpterminatiol\ and
to the resoluLioll of sympaby with :he asplraticns of the Irish peop~e
for a government of the:r own cholcc8 i'ldopted by the 3"'''dte June b,
1919, and declares that whgn such qovernn-.ent is attained by Irelar.d,
a consLmmatlon it i~ hcpe-d Is at hand, it :;hould promp:ly be admitted
as a member of the League of N':Itio;Js.
l