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Masters Theses 1911 - February 2014
Dissertations and Theses
1930
The Ammonification and nitrification of
cottonseed meal and the nitrification of
ammonium sulphate
Harold R. Knudsen
University of Massachusetts Amherst
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The Ammonification and
Meal and
Nitrification of
the Nitrification of
Cottonseed
Ammonium
Harold R. Knudsen
Sulphate
DATE DUE
UNIV. OF MASSACHUSETTS/ AMHERST
LIBRARY
MORR
LD
3234
M268
1930
K74
The Ammonif ioation and Iltrif ioatlon of Cottonseed
Meal and the Iltrif ioatlon of Ammonium Sulfate.
by
Harold R. Knudsen
Thesis Submitted for the Degree of
Master of Science
Department of Agronomy
Massachusetts Agricultural College
Amherst, Massachusetts
1930
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to express his appreciation to
the members of the Agronomy Department for their loyal
support, criticisms, suggestions and encouragement
given while engaged with the work of this theele, especially to Dr. A. B. Beaumont under whose supervision
the completion of this work was made possible, and to
any others who by thsir willing and generous cooperation
have helped in any way in the preparation of this thesis.
INTRODUCTION
The problem of the nutrition of the tobacco plant
(Tabacum nlcotlana) is yet to be eolwed.
In lta broad
aeoects the problem le manifold and complicated, and
neceaelty come
lta final and complete eolutlon must of
from the oomblned ef forte of many workers.
Owing to the
economic importance of tobaooo In Maeeaohueette agriMaeeaohueette
culture the problem le being etudied at the
Agricultural Experiment Station, and thle theale le con-
cerned with one phaee of thta station's lnweetigatlone.
the
The part played by nitrogen In the nutrition of
parhigher planta le very Important, and lte role le of
grown In
ticular elgnlfloance with reepect to tobacco ae
quantltlee
the Connecticut Valley. To thle crop large
fertlllsere and
of nitrogen are supplied In commercial
of cottonmoat of the nitrogen le furnlehed In the form
seed meal.
It le held by some, particularly practical
lndlspeneabls
tobacco farmers, that oottoneeed meal Is
wrappere.
for the production of high-grade olgar
that
Other etudles made at thle station haws shown
assimilated
nitrate Is ths form of nitrogen moet readily
ehown that
by Hawana tobacco, rurther, it has been
Therecertain ammonium compounds ars toxic to tobacco.
contribute exfore, the purpoee of thle thesis Is to
regarding certain factors affecting the
perimental data
ammonif icatlon and nitrif ioatlon of cottonseed meal and
the nitrification of ammonium sulfate.
These processes
are biological in nature and are affected by certain
factors and conditions, including moisture, temperature
and soil organic matter.
It is tnese factors that have
been studied.
Part
I
deals with aamonlf icatlon and nltrif lost ion
under field conditions.
Part II
cows
similar studies
conducted under better controlled conditions of temperature and moisture.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
1.
The wttrlf ication of Cottonseed Meal and Ammon-
ium Sulfate^
soil
Boname (11) collected the drainage water from
been added and tested
to which different fertilisers had
once a month. The
it for different forms of nitrogen
of ammonia,
nitrogenous fertilisers tested were sulfate
cent nitrogen),
dried blood, oil cake, fertiliser (5-^ Per
nitrified more slowly
and fish guano. Sulfate of ammonia
in unlimed soils, but,
than the other fertiliser materials
nitrified.
when limed the sulfate of ammonia readily
cottonseed meal
It appears from work of others that
plants as completely as
does not become available for the
and Britton (36)
other fertilisers. Johnson, Jenkins,
with oats
performed three series of experiments (a)
with Hungarian grass;
followed by Hungarian grass; (b)
by Hungarian grass.
and (c) with rye and oats followed
of soda, dried blood,
The fertilisers used were nitrate
tankage, horn and hoof
dried ground fish, ground bone,
and cottonseed meal.
meal, linseed meal, castor pomace,
was determined by use
The availability of these material,
method reported by the
of the pepsin-hydrochloric acid
amounts of these
Connecticut Station (75). Varying
every case the
fertilisers were used and in practically
the lowest of them
availability of cottonseed meal was
-
all, but Higher than either of three grades of fiae bone
which were cosrpared with cottonseed weal in another experiment.
Jenkins and Britton (33),
W
to™1*
cottonseed meal was recovered more elowly than nitrats of
soda but faster than hard raw bone when equal amounts of
nitrogen were ueed in each case froa the different sourcss.
With reference to the relative values of different
fertiliser materials lithers and Frapa (67), (65)
(70) did considerable.
,
(69).
They found that there wae a great
variation in the nitrification of the eame fertiliser in
different soils.
Under certain conditions cottonseed
sulfats
meal nitrified even more completely than ammonium
sulfate
la some eoils but in most of the eoils ammonium
was better.
It was pointed out that the factors which
produce this result are probably as follows: (a) the
presence of ammonium sulfats diminished the activity of
also
the nitrifying organisms, (b) ths acids produced
diffsrsnt
hinder them and (o) different soils contain
organic in
classes of organisms, some of which nitrify
application
preference to ammoniaoal nitrogen. Continuous
limed increased
of ammonium sulfate to a soil previously
This happened
its power of nitrifying ammonium sulfate.
added to make
only when there was more than enough lime
of ammonium
the soil reaction neutral. The nitrification
somewhat
sulfate increased until the soil reaction was
ammonium sulfate
around neutral and after that the use of
14
-
- 5
decreased nitrification.
Withers and Fraps (71) reported further in regard to
the rate of nitrification of ammonia fixed by chahacite
representing zeolitic silioates of the soil that the
ammonia so fixed was nitrified more rapidly than ammonium
sulfate or cottonseed meal, indicating that seolitic si-
licates in soils may possibly aid in the nitrification of
ammonium sulfate by fixing a portion of the salt.
That soil reaction seems to have some influence upon
nitrification in the soil was confirmed by Temple (6l) at
the Georgia Station.
His experiments showed that cotton-
seed meal, tankage, and dried blood nitrified in acid
soils used more readily than ammonium sulfate, but not
with soils which were limed.
He suggested that ammonium
sulfate is used by corn and cotton whether nitrified or
not.
Other work by Temple (60) showed that tankage was nitrified more readily than ammonium sulfate and in some
tankcases the nitrate recovered from the soil containing
sulfate of
age was ten times that from soils containing
Tankage, cottonseed meal, cowpea vines, gelatin,
ammonia.
peptones, asparagin, urea, ammonium citrate, ammonium
and
oxalate, ammonium tartrate, ammonium bicarbonate,
sulammonium hydrate were nitrified faster than ammonium
this confate or chloride. The explanation offered for
were
dition was that the soils, (all of the Cecil group)
6
add.
by lagner
Grandeau (26) reported fro. experimente
rapid
nitrification of ammonium ealte wa. more
that the
ealte and the .ore thorough
the .mailer the amount of the
their diffueion in the eoil.
and carried out by
From work reported by lakeman (63)
of material from which
Lipman (*7) it seem, that the kind
It wae found
factor.
the nitrogen comee ie an important
eoil. of the arid region
that the nitrifying powere of
the humid region. In
are no more intenee than thoee of
"The data for eoil nitroregard to thi. Lipman (*7) Bay.,
the further conclugen and dried blood nitrogen Juetify
of humid eoile are greater
.ion that the nitrifying powere
.rid .oil., howewer, nitrify
than thoee of arid eoil..
ammonia and cottoneeed meal with
the nitrogen of eulfate of
humid eoil.. * rewereal of
much greater wigor than do the
the two groupe of .oil. a.
efficiency ie manifeet between
cottoneeed meal on the one
regards eulfate of ammonia and
eoil. own nitrogen on the
hand and dried blood and the
othdr."
literature which etatee that
ffaksman (63) al.o cited
in th. upper layer., 90
nitratee are formed in the .oil
carried out in the upper *0
per cent of the procee. being
oxygen for the acThie ie due to the need of
to 50 cm.
Iran nitrate formation in
tiwitie. of th. organie-e.
by aeration.
eolution ie greatly etimulated
2.
ammonif ication of Cottonseed
Meal..
Ammonif loat ion exoerimente conducted by Given and
Willie (25) of Pennsylvania showed that ammonif ication
was very similar in rate and amount in soils receiving
vsry diffsrent treatments.
In further ammonif loat ion
experiments Given (24) found that ammonia production took
plaoe up to the ssvsnth day.
litrification of thsse eoile
using ammonium sulfate showed that the soils whioh had
no influence upon ammonifying organisms had an entirely
different effect upon nitrifying organisms.
Ths acid
plats seemed to hinder nitrification considerably.
in
Soil organisms seem to play a very important part
mathe rate of ammonif loat Ion of different fertiliser
terials in the soil.
He Lean and Wilson (52) conducted
with an
experiments using dried blood and cottonseed meal
for ths purpose
acid gravelly loam and a neutral red shale
of the fungi
of determining the ammonifying efficiency
fungi rather
present in the soil. Results showed that
accumulations
than bacteria were responsible for the large
phosphate and organic
of ammonia in soils containing acid
nitrogen in the form of dried blood.
it appear that
The results of these experiments make
matter, by fungi,
the ammonif Ication of the soil organic
compodepends not only upon ths chemical and physical
quality of ths
sition of the soil, but also upon ths
presence of
organic matter present as well as upon the
soluble phoephates.
ble phosphates.
Kelly (39) pointed out that chemical factors inherent
in the nitrogen compounds themselves predetermine the a-
vailability to some degree*
He found by the determination
of the different groups of nitrogen compounds before and
after bacterial action in casein, dried blood, soy bean,
cake meal, cottonseed meal, linseed meal, oocoanut meal,
globulin from cottonseed meal and seln from maise, that,
with the exception of linseed meal and seln, the basic
diamino acid nitrogen was converted into ammonia more
rapidly than the nitrogen of the other groups.
3.
Relation of Organic Matter to nitrification and
Denltrlf icatlon.
The relation of organic matter to biochemical processes of the soil has been studied extensively, and there
is a voluminous literature bearing on the subject.
In
this review of literature only those studies which have a
rather direct relation to the problems at hand will be
discussed.
The effeot of timothy sod on nitrification in the
soil has not received much attention by investigators.
Lyon and Bissell
studied the rate of nitrifica-
tion in fallow soils and those which had been continuously
incuin alfalfa and timothy for several years by means of
bation experiments with dried blood, with and without the
addition of lime.
Results show a greater nitrification for
9
the alfalfa soil than fox the timothy soil, both in the
soil on which the orope had been grown continuously and in
that fro« which they had been removed and the soil kept
bare for two seasons.
This was due to the direct effects
of the plant on the nitrate production and not to the
greater quantity of nitrogen which the plants stored in
the soil*
This is shown by the fact that the rate of
nitrate formation was in the order named above when both
soils oontained the same amount of dried blood.
Lyon and Bisaell (^) also did some work on the nitrate content of soils under timothy, maize, potatoes,
oats, millet and soy beans.
The same soil under each of
the crops was different in the amount of nitrates found.
Timothy maintained a lower nitrate content in the soil
than did any other crop.
Albrecht (2) found in his work at Missouri in regard
that for
to nitrate production in the soil by the crop
no signifithe grasses, including oats and timothy sod,
a
cant accumulation ever occurred, although there was
slight increase after the crops were harvested.
*A straw
accumumulch had a decidedly depressing effect on nitrate
Apparently
No significant accumulations occurred.
lation.
curve of
the high moisture was responsible, since the
to that
moisture percentage bears a negative correlation
of nitrate accumulation."
of
Ilyucharev (*U) has shown definitely that the rate
- 10
denitrif ication is dependent largely upon the amount of
starch and similar compounds in the soil.
Barthel (7)
found that a small amount of dextrose not only hindered
nitrification to a large extent but strongly promoted de-
nitrlf ication.
Upon completely mineralising the dextrose
however, nitrification began.
Other carbohydrates such as
sugar, starch and even straw, as demonstrated by Ohlrikov
(13) have also caused reduction of nitrates as indicated
by reduced yields where these materials wsre used.
The carbon-nitrogen ratio is an explanation of the
above noted effects of carbohydrates.
Jensen (35) experi-
mented with wheat straw, sweet clover, blue lupine, barnyard manure, pea pods, alfalfa and fungus mycelium having
carbon-nitrogen ratios from 85
:
1 to 10
:
1.
These were
tried out in both alkaline and acid soils and it was con-
eluded that the 0
:
H ratio influences nitrification as
much as soil reaotion.
The higher the 0
:
I ratio the
fewer nitrates found.
Keser (40) found that plowing under materials rich
in nitrogen increased the nitrogen for a time, while
plowing under materials low in nitrogen such as straw or
cornstalks temporarily reduced nitrates.
Difficultly decomposable organic substances such as
the woody residue from the manufacture of quinin
(oalnirind) was found by Holte (53) to increase denitrif Ication.
Theee results seem to indicate that this woody
residue serves as & medium for the growth of denitrifying
bacteria.
The report on soil work in Washington (93) showed
that the applioation of straw appeared to have a depressing effect upon nitrification.
This was overcome in about
one year's time, when a beneficial residual effeot was
noted.
Wood (73) (Aeby, Dorsch, Mats and Wagner (1)
),
Breal (12) Maeroker (30), and Hoflioh (31) explained this
condition by the fact that all forms of manure, straw, and
soil contain denitrifying organisms which are responsible
for the reduction of nitrates, especially if applied only
a short time before planting.
Wood (73) pointed out the
fact that in comparing nitrates alone with nitrates and
manure together that the former gave the greater yield of
grain, thus showing the effect of manure in reducing nitrates.
Voorheea also obtained similar results.
maeroker
(50) particularly warned against the use of dung as soils
fertilised with such manure
wMl
produce less than un-
fertilized soil.
k.
The Sffeot of Chemicals and Inzvoa on Hltrlfl-
oation and Dsnltrif loatlon.
According to early theories it was at first thought
that nitrification and denitrif loatlon were both purely
chemical processes.
According to Greaves (28) "Kuhlman,
as early as 1846 expressed the belief that nitric nitrogen
may be reduced in the soil to ammonia by the fermentation
- 12
of organ io substance*.
This same idea was brought out
twenty-one years later by both Proehde and Angus Smith,
and it also appears prominently in the writings of Johnson
in 18/0, and Davy called attention to the fact that gase-
ous nitrogen was set free fro* decomposing organic matter
in soil."
As late as ths close of the ninstsenth century
Knovalov (42) showed that humus as well as ferrous salts
is able to reduce nitrate of potash to ammonia.
He stated
that the reduction proceeds very slowly at ordinary tem-
peratures, but becomes more rapid on heating, and that
caustic alkali and a free access of air do not destroy ths
ability of humus to reduce nitrates.
He concluded, there-
fore, that the possibility of denitrif lcation of nitrate
of potash in the soil under the Influence of humus, with-
out bacteria, is fully corroborated by laboratory experiments.
talesman (64) concluded that the decomposition of
green manure depends upon the composition of the plants
used for this purpose.
Some organic complexes are slowly
decomposed and others are very rapidly broken down into
humus.
Invest igat ions reported by Hulme (32) and Mass (51)
inform us to the effect that the reduotion of nitrates
might be oaused (a) by bacterial reduction and (b) the
ensymatic reduction.
The chemical agent by which the
- 13
organism reduced the nitrate was nascent hydrogen.
Stooklasa et al (58) showed that when glucose and salt of
oitrio aoid were present with culture tests in Giltay-
Aberson solutions, there was considerable loss of nitrogen
by denitrif loation.
Fowler et al, (21), however, asserted that losses of
nitrogen in nature or in the operations of agriculture,
due to purely chemical changes are negligible and that
the losses are due to biochemical changes instead.
Potter (?6) found that organic natter in the form of
stable nanure or green manure or both together decomposed
more rapidly under the influenoe of lime than without it.
Ohristenssn (14) found that mannite also decomposed faster
in the presence of basic lime and phosphoric aoid combi-
nations.
On unllmed sections Lipman (46) found that total nitrogen recovered in the orop, where organic nitrogenous
fertiliser was used, was somewhat more than where the
mineral fertilisers wsre used.
On limed sections the
reverse was true.
Barthel (8) attributed the fact that nltrif ioatlon
proceeded better in the preeence of organic nitrogen
compounds than with anmonina sulfate to the effect of the
aoid (30k) produced by the latter.
Ampola (3), (4), (5) pointed out that calcium nitrate
was more resistant to the denitrifying process in the
presence of stable manure than potassium and sodium nitrates.
Fischer (20) found that when dried blood is applied
to a light sandy soil, a greater loss of nitrogen by de-
nitrif ioatlon oocurred than in heavier soils.
With medium
applications of sodium nitrate there was no denltrif ioatlon.
Plchard (5b) observed that humus soil gave considerably less nitric nitrogen than the cottonseed meal mixture
under like conditions.
Othsr forms of organic matter such as is furnished by
soil extracts, humates and acetates, and svsn peptones and
sugar, was found by Karpinskl and liklewski (33) to favor
nitrification in mixed cultures.
Joshi's results (37) showed that most of ths immediate
effect of green manures is due to the nitrogen contained
in the leaves being quickly nitrified, and also that the
effeot of a leguminous crop on the succeeding cereal crop
is due mostly to the fall of leaves from the leguminous
crop.
The failure to nitrify, so far as ascertained, did
not depend on the nature of the materials suoh as cellulose
and woody tissue.
Ooyarenko (17) statsd that with the addition of nitrogen in the form of sodium nitrate, ammonium sulfate,
and ammonium nitrate, it was observed that an injurious
effect resulted when strawy manure was used in connection
with sodium nitrate and ammonium nitrate, but not in the
- 15 -
oase of ammonium sulfate.
Barthel's results (7) showed that the influence of
organic substances upon nitrification, if not present in
too large proportions, is usually rather favorable than
otherwise because of their ready eolubility.
Deherain (16) found that manure increased nitrates
in the soil regardless of the fact that it may contain
denitrifying organisms.
He condemned the idea of treating
manure with ammonium sulfate to prevent denitf if ication as
it is harmful, expensive and useless.
Wolff (72) claimed that denitrif ication is not due to
the direct action of the organisms but that the products
of fermentation reduce nitrates and eventually convert
them into carbonates.
Warington (66) took exception to the conclusions of
German investigators regarding denitrif ication as due to
the action of manure in the soil.
He maintained that the
denitrifying organisms present in manure, straw, litter,
etc.
,
are derived originally from atmospheric dust.
5.
The Effect of Soil Reaction on Hitrif ication and
Denitrif ication.
Barthel and Bengtsson (9) found in comparing ammonium
sulfate with stable manure in acid lowland moss that the
nitrification of ammonium sulfate proceeded as powerfully
in these soils as in neutral soils in spite of the high
acidity.
Liming did not increase the nitrification of
- 16
stable manure nitrogen in these soils, but did increase
the nitrification of
amoniua sulfate and of the nitroge-
nous compounds contained in the soils.
Ammonium sulfate
was nitrified more readily in these soils than in acid
day
soils.
As ths nitrification of ammonium sulfats pro-
ceeded, the pH value of these soils was lowsred from 5.4
to 4 and then remained constant, but notwithstanding the
high acidity, nitrification proceeded unhindered.
Pfeiffer (54) found that in one culture of Bacillus
denltrif loans, admitting purs oxygen or air did not affect
denltrif i cat ion.
This was corroborated by Knovalov (42).
Pfeiffer (54) also found that when oaustio lime and marl
were mixed with a small amount of soil and a large amount
of fresh horse manure, no denltrif icatlon was noted.
It
was concluded from Pfeiffer' s studies that ths danger of
loss by dsnitrif icatlon is not so great as it was formerly
supposed to be.
Arnd (6) found that denltrif icatlon reached a maximum
in neutralized soil, but excessive liming caused no note-
worthy increase in microbial activity.
Fischer (18) found that the addition of citric acid
completely prevented denltrif Icatlon.
When, however, the
aoid was neutralised, denltrif icatlon went on normally.
These results and others unmentioned seem to point to the
faot that both the nitrifying and denitrifying organisms
work to somewhat better advantage in soils near the neu-
17
tral point.
Also that when such soils are moderately
continue,
aerated, the denitrif lcation process doss not
aerated
all of which points to the fact that a moderately
and
neutral soil is a favorable medium for nitrification
less favorable for denitrif ioation.
6.
|hf.
Sffeot o£ Moisture and Temperature or Pilars
on nitrification and Danltrlf lcation.
Greaves (27) and Waksman (63) reported that Deherain
to be
found the optimum moisture content for nitrification
about 20 - 25 per cent,
an insufficient supply of mois-
fixation.
ture checked both nitrification and nitrogen
soil.
Greaves (27) reported that this would vary with ths
soils than
The bacterial activity was less in fine-grained
in lighter, coarse-grained soils.
In order that nitrifies-
soils, a
tion be equally active in both light and heavy
ie
diffsrence in moisture content of a soil of 1 per cent
oxidation
suff loisnt to produce a marked change in the
going on in the soil.
Waksman (63) reported that air drying has a favorable
This
soil.
effect upon the formation of nitrates in the
2H hours
may be noticed when the soil is spread out for
the nitriand then remoistened. Free*ing also improved
fying power of the soil.
Warrington (65) pointsd out that denitrif lcation is
and
not a process of general occurrence in arable soils
when
that the reduction of nitrates is to be feared only
- is
time.
been saturated with water for some
denitrifying
Giustlniani (23) compared the action of
In the former they
organisms in liquid media with soil.
temperature which retards
acted most energetically at a
With soils the rethe action of nitrifying organiems.
took plaoe to
wits were more deoided. "Denitrificatlon
humidity (sio) was less
a marked extent only when the
insufficient to promote the
than 6 per cent, an amount
The latter became
activity of ths nitrifying organisms.
rose to 10 per
decidedly active when the humidity (sic)
of moisture,
In soils containing a small amount
cant.
of organic
denitrifioation is proportional to the amount
the soil
hu
matter present."
The results thus show that water is am
action of the oxiimportant factor in controlling the
soil and in transdising and reducing organisms in the
compounds present.
forming and conserving the nitrogen
most nitrates
Lemmerman and Wichers (*5) found that
point of soil. The same
were destroyed at the saturation
reported by Oerretsen
held true with tropieal soils as
(22).
ery
take
-in liquids and
Koch and Pettit (*3) informed us that
the bacteria
wet eoils from which oxygon is excluded,
in the soil
their oxygen from the nitrates preeent
well aerated soils this
and thus liberate nitrogen, but in
then use oxygen of the
does not occur as the bacteria can
practically quiThess denitrifying bacteria remain
air.
- 19
per csnt
escent in soil* with a water content below 25
become suddenly acbut at 25 to 30 per oent or more they
of nitrogen."
tive and liberate considerable quantities
that nifraaen (59) obtained similar results by finding
contained
trogsn fixation was moat active when the soil
medium amounts of moisture.
that
Reports from soil work in Washington (7*0 showed
during ths warm
moisture held in the surface foot of soil
upon nitrificaportion of the year had a favorabls effect
to the distribution
tion. This condition was no doubt due
of bacteria in the soil.
Basareweki (10) pointed out that
of the soil
denitrifying bacteria are in the upper layers
deeper layers, but
and are irregularly distributed in the
meter. The
frequently occur abundantly at a depth of one
the same for
optimum temperature appears to be nearly
cultures.
denitrifying and nitrifying bacteria in mixed
influence of
Buhlert and Feokendey (13) studied the
aeration on the decomposition of peptone.
The peptone was
water. The results
shaken with a fixed amount of soil and
of ammonia from
showed that aeration reduced the formation
Increased nitripeptone, decreased denitrif ioation, and
fication except in the case of humus soil.
tend to
Waksman (63) summarised the conditions which
follows: "(a)
promote nitrate formation in the soil as
of air
temperature of 37-5° 0. , (b) an abundant supply
favorable
(oxygen), (c) proper moisture supply, (d) a
- 20 -
carbonates
reaction (pH greater than 4.6), (e) presence of
quant
or other buffering agents, and (f) absenoe of large
nature
ties of soluble organic matter in the soil, and (g)
of the crop grown."
Anaerobic conditions.
A series of experiments were
reported by Kuhl (44) which showed (a) that the activity
under anof denitrifying organisms was greatly increased
aerobic conditions (covering the culture solutions with
of pure
oil, paraffin, etc.), (b) the denitrifying power
cultures was greatly increased by adding mixed cultures,
in
and (c) that sea slime set up rapid denitrif ication
culture solutions.
that
It is evident from the foregoing references
action of
water is an important factor in controlling the
soil and in
the oxidising and reducing organisms in the
prestransforming and conserving the nitrogen compounds
ent.
Medium amounts of water, a warm soil and proper
organic
aeration are invaluable aids to nitrification of
matter in soils.
- 21
DISCUSSION Of AMD DEDUCTIONS DRAWN
FROM THE REVIEW Of LITERATURE
From the literature reviewed we find that many factors eater into and affect the rate and degree of nitri-
fication, denltrif ioation and ammonif ioation of the different materials under consideration.
Theee factors
seea to have a more or lees similar effect upon all of
the different materials whether organic or inorganic.
The factors, in a general way, with their reactions may
be listed as follows:
1*
Lime applied to an aoid eoll accelerates both
the activities of nitrifying and denitrifying organisms
and if moderately aerated only the nitrifying organisms
function.
If either too acid or too alkaline both nitri-
fication and denltrif ioation are hindered or stopped.
2.
litrate formation is very slight in a soil with
a very low moisture content, 5 per cent or below, inoreases with a 10 per cent, and reachee a maximum with
13 to 20 per cent (dry basis).
When near the saturation
point denltrif ioation takes place because of the anaero-
bic condition whioh favors the action of the denitrifying baoteria.
3*
Timothy sod ranks very low as compared with
other materials in its ability to nitrify in the soil.
4.
Early investigators suggested that nitrification
- 22
was solely a chemical process but more recent data show it
to be a chemical change brought about by the action of
microorganisms.
5.
The rate of denitrlf loation ie dependent largely
upon the amount of starch and similar compounds In the
eoil ae well ae a lack of oxygen resulting from ths presence of too much water,
6.
The nitrogen in manure and other similar organic
materials Is not as eoaplstely utilised as in artificial
fertilisere beoauee of the high carbon-nitrogen ratio.
7*
Results show that aamonif icatlon is caused by
fungi rather than bacteria in soils containing acid phos-
phate and organic nitrogen in the form of dried blood.
8.
Ammonium sulfate has a tendency to make a soil
sold and does not nitrify as readily in an acid eoil as
do othsr fertilisere.
When lime is addsd to such soils,
however, ammonium sulfate nitrifies as well as any of the
other substances.
9.
Danger of loss of nitrogen by denitrlf loation is
not so great as it was formerly supposed to be.
This review of literature shows that oonsidsrable
study has been made of the various factors affecting ni-
trification and denitrlf Icatlon processes of the soil.
Much of ths work has bsen with reference to the natural
supply of soil organic matter and soil nitrates.
Borne
of
it has involved the use of applied nitrogenous materials,
- 23
including green manures, orop residues, and organic and
inorganic nitrogen compounds.
It appears that little study has been mads of the
interrelationship among timothy sod, cottonseed meal and
ammonium sulfate on the one hand and temperature and
moisture conditions on the other.
Moreover, little study
of these biological processes has been made at the high
level of fertilisation used in growing tobacco in the
Connecticut Valley.
With these ideas in mind the problem
of this thesis was formulated.
The following pages con-
tain the results and conclusions of the investigations.
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATIONS
PART
I
NITRIFICATION AND AMMONIFIOATION STUDIES
UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS
The purpose of this phase of the work was to study
the effect of field conditions upon the nitrification and
ammonif ioation of various fertilizers.
The very wet sea-
son of 192S and the very dry season of 19 2 9 made it pos-
sible to study the effect of extremes in regards to moisture.
DESCRIPTION OF SOILS
Field "B" is looated direotly north of the lawn between Stookbridge Hall and the Dining Hall.
Plots 23, 24, 25 and 26 (See Fig.
I)
have been
growing tobacco ever since the Spring of 1926.
Plots 19,
20, 21 and 22 grew corn in 1926, timothy hay in 1927, and
tobacco in 1928 and 1929.
Prior to 1926 the field was
divided into smaller plots and various sorts of nitrogenous fertilizer experiments conducted.
Plots 15, 16, 17 and 18 grew timothy in 1927 and
1928, and tobacco in 1929.
Plots 11, 12, 13 and 14 grew
potatoes in 1928 and tobacco in 1929.
A mechanical analysis (See Table
I)
of the soil
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- 26
classification of the
showed it to be. according to the
fine eandy loam. At
United States Bureau of Soils, a very
eoil is gravelly thus
a depth of three or four feet the
drainage so that in
permitting a natural, rather excessive
sxperienoed during the
extremely dry seasons, suoh as was
influences normal
summer of 1929, the lack of moisture
crop growth very materially.
Determinatlone made on the organic matter
in the
oent for taa old
soils experimented with showed 5-88 P«*
2 5 and 26) and 7-28 per cent
tobacco soil (plots 23.
-
(2)
for the timothy sod.
PREPARATORY TRSATmEMT AMD FERTILIZERS USED
comprisss plots
In the fall of 1928 the land which
was plowed. This made it
11 to 18 inclusive of field *B*
at least partially,
possible for the timothy sod to decay,
following spring.
before the time for planting the
inclusive were fertiOn June 26, 1928 plots 19 to 26
of a 5-*-5 fertiliser
lised at the rate of 3.500 pounds
In
tobacco the same day.
per acre and planted to Havana
and were fertilised and
1929 additional plots were added
determinations are recorded in appendix.
(1) Organic matter
sod was obtained in the fall of
(2) Thie eample of timothy
Tig. I) before the
1928 from what is now plot 16 (see
timothy sod was plowed under.
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28
planted to Havana tobacco In the ease way on or about
June 10.
(See Fig* %}•
in
The fertilizer applied to all plote wee uniform
nitrogen
reepect to all ingredients except the oarrier of
which varied as shown in Fig.
I.
equivalent to 3500 pounds 5*
«3
Mixtures applied were
-
p 2°5 - 5* *20.
The
aagnesla and
basic aixturs consisted of sulfate of potash
bone
sulfate of potash for the potash, and precipitated
for the phosphoric acid.
WEATHER OOMDITIOM
and 1929
The weather conditions for ths ysars 1928
of thees
mads it possible to study the nitrification
as ths
plots under extreme conditions of moisture,
and the
growing season of 1928 »*• sxoeptionally wet
growing eesson of 1929 exceptionally dry.
Table II shows
of June, July
ths monthly precipitation for the aonthe
Daily temperature
and August for the years 1928 and 1929in ths appsndix.
and precipitation tables are rscordsd
Ounness (29).
All weather observations wsre made by
was a littls
In Table II it is shown that there
the growing
more than four times as such rain during
ssason of 1929season of 1928 than during ths growing
dsterainations were mads
Soil samples upon which aoisture
to 20 per
varied from 20 to 30 per cent in 1928 and 10
oent in 1929 on the dry soil basis.
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30
Plots
1*1,
18, 22, 23 and 26 which lie on the east
side of the field are a little lower and the drainage
while good
Is
not as good as the reet of the field.
Mois-
ture determinations showed that these plots contained from
1 to 2 per cent sore water than the others.
PROCEDURE
During the months of June , July and August of each
.
year, composite soil samples of ths uoper six to eight
Inches of surface soil were obtained at weekly intervals
from each plot by making about twenty eoattered borings
with the soil auger.
The soil thus obtained was placed in
a clean pan, thoroughly mixed, plaoed in a clean jar,
sealed and taken Immediately to the laboratory where nitrate, ammoniaoal and moisture determinations were mads on
the same day that samples were taken.
The phenol-dl-
sulphonlc aoid method as described in Bureau of Soils,
Bulletin 31, was used for the nitrate determinations, and
Harper* e method (30) slightly modified was used for de-
termining the ammonia in the soil.
The method as carried out is as follows:
Fifty grams
of moist soil were weighed out and placed In a tall glass
bottle to which was addsd 500 cubic centimetere of a ten
per cent solution of potassium chloride.
The bottle was
then shaken on a mechanical shaker for half an hour.
The
solution was then filtered and kOQ cubic oentimeters of
ths filtrate saved and placed into a distilling flask.
This was distilled over into ten cubic centimeters of 0.02
normal sulfuric acid and by titrating with 0.02 normal
sodium hydroxide the actual amount of sulfuric acid neutralized by the ammonia distilled over was determined.
MgO was used in distillation of NH3 and methyl red was
used as an indicator.
Ammonia determinations were made during the summer
of 192S but not during the summer of 192}.
Kltrate de-
terminations, however, were made during the summer months
of both years, the results are plotted on graDhe, and the
data is recorded in Tables III, IV and V.
Plots 19, 20, 21 and 22 were in timothy in 1927 and
tobacco in 1928 and the nitrates are shown as parts per
million of nitrogen on Graph I, and the data are in Table
III.
Plots 23, 2k t 25 and 26 were planted to tobacco
both in 1927 and 1928, the nitrates, as nitrogen, are
shown on Graph II, and the data in Table III.
These same plots in the year 192} were arranged differently, (see Fig. I).
The nitrates, as nitrogen, on
plots 19, 20, 21 and 22 are shown in Graph III, and for
plots 23, 24, 25 and 26 in Graph IV.
The data for both
are tabulated in Table IV.
Plots 11 to 18 inclusive were planted to tobacco in
1929.
In 1928 plots 15 to 18 grew timothy and plots 11
to 14 grew potatoes.
The nitrates, as parts per million
of nitrogen, for plots 11, 12, 13 and 14 are shown in
- 32
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The data for both are tabulated in Table V.
During the summer of
1^8
Harper* s method (see page 30).
ammonia was determined by
lot nearly ae many de-
terminations were made nor as oftsa as with the nitrates.
Ammonia was determined every two weeks from July 11 to
August 29.
It was also determined in the aqueous sxtraot
by Hssslerisation but the results wsre unsatisfactory
because of the extremely small amounts found.
Tabls VI
shows the results obtained by Harper's asthod for de-
termining ammonia*
DIS00S3I0H OF RESULTS
In comparing Graphs
I
and II with Graphs III and IT
it can be seen that there were about twice as many ni-
trates in all of the fertiliser plots in 1929 as com-
pared to 1928 at the time when the peaks were reached,
also that the sodium nitrate plots showed the greatest ni-
trification in 1929 and all of ths others showsd approximately 50 per cent as much except that ammonium sulfate
in 1929 nitrified the leaet of all on the old tobacco
soil.
Within the wet season of 192S, however, ammonium
sulfate was slightly better than sodium nitrate, which
was followed by the regular tobacco fertiliser and cottonseed meal respectfully.
Toward the end of the dry eeason sodium nitrats was
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the highest of thee all but toward the end of the wet
season the sodium nitrate plot wae ae low ae any of the
reet of the plots.
Just preceding the last drop sodium
nitrate was second to ammonium sulphate.
It doeen't
seem justifiable to compare the earns datss of both seasons because the 1928 season was about ten days to two
weeks later than the 1929 eeason and the general curves
of the two years are 3 weeks apart.
Possible explanatione of the greater nitrification
during the 1929 season as a whole are: (a) the chances
of leaching the nitrates in 1929 were not as great as
during the 1928 wet season, and (b) there wae not as
large a orop to draw the nitrates from the soil.
In 1928, before the fertiliser was applied, there
was a general decrease in the nitrification of all of
the nitrogenous materials on the old tobacco soil but a
slight increase in the nit rat ee on the plot which had had
timothy the year before.
Field "B* was planted and fer-
tilised, however, on June 26 and the next determination
of nitrates showed an increaee in both the old tobacco
soil and that which had had timothy the year before.
From this alone it appears as though the timothy sod
which had been plowed under gave a slight advantage in
respect to nitrification in the early part of the season,
either the literature nor the experiments carried out
by the writer under controlled conditions bear out this
- 3*
organic
contention but in all oases timothy sod and
decrease nitrate
mattex with a high carbon-nitrogen ratio
fact that the
production. It may, however, be due to the
the carbontimothy had decayed sufficiently to reduce
nitrate accumunitrogen ratio enough for the process of
lation to take place.
surpassed all the
In the wet season ammonium sulfate
nitrate, then by
others followed fairly close by sodium
cottonseed meal, the
the regular tobacco fertiliser and
last two being nearly the same.
Within the dry season, on the other hand, sodium
generally thruout
nitrate held itself at a higher level
others near the bethe season. It stood well above the
but during the
ginning of the season and also at the end
materials seemed
middle of the season some of the other
to nitrify equally as well.
The curves on Graphs I, II. Ill, IV, *
VI 8how
decided peak was
that in the middle of the summer a
noticed and then anreached, after which a decline was
The peak
the season.
other slight rise toward the end of
weeks earlier in the
for the dry year was reached three
probable that the wet
dry season then in the wet. It is
at certain intervals
season provided anaerobic conditions
or it may be due
which retarded the nitrif ioation process
general, or to the
to the lateness of the season in
planting and earlier application of the fertili-
earlier
39
zers in the dry year of 1929.
This would suggest that ae
soon ae the fertilisers were added they began to undergo
down
a cycle of change I.e. the organic matter was broken
ammonito ammonia and the ammonia salts ae well ae other
atee were changed to nitritee and finally to nitratee.
This theory ie obviously corroborated by Graphs VII
and Till which show a comparatively high ammonia content
production
in the eoil }ust before the abundant and rapid
when the
of nitratee is noted, and a decrease in ammonia
increaee of nitratee ie noted.
In a general way the ammonif Ication and nitrif ioatlon
fertiliser le
of cottoneeed meal and the regular tobacco
and
much less pronounced than with the ammonium sulfate
the sodium nitrate under field conditions.
Graph I shows a gradual decrease at first and Graph
nitrate plot than
II shows fewer nitrates from the sodium
some of the other plots to begin with.
Thle Is accounted
fertilised
for by the fact that the field was plantsd and
deJune 26, 1928, three weeke after the first nitrate
terminations of the season were made.
- ho
PART II
NITRIFICATION AND AMMONIFIOATION STUDIES
UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITIONS
the work was to deThe purpose of this phase of
ammonif ication of the matermine the nitrification and
somewhat similar to
terials in question under conditions
better controlled conditions
those of the field but under
of temperature and moisture.
PROCEDURE AND METHODS
soil from plots 23 and 25
In September 192S, surface
the timothy sod located on what
of Field "B" and also of
17 and IS was brought
was later divided into plots 15,16,
for potting. Earthen 3 ars
to the headhouse and prepared
used and to each was added
of one-gallon capacity were
2.3 kilograms of dry soil.
pots at the rate of
Fertilizers were applied to the
compared with 3.500 pounds for
5,250 pounds per acre as
nitrogen varied as follows:
the field. The sources of
ammonium sulfate
Pots 1-36
Pots 37 - 72
cottonseed meal
Pots 73 - 90
timothy sod
each run in triplicate.
There were thirty treatments
of moisture on ammoniIn order to study the effect
pots was
flcation and nitrification, the soil of certain
per cent,
adjusted to moisture contents of 25 per cent, 50
water holding
and 75 per cent respectively of the total
method and
capacity which was determined by the Hilgard
(3)
for both the timothy
found to be around 60 per cent
soil and the old tobacco soil.
placing one
The effect of temperature was secured by
another lot in the
lot of pots in the warm headhouse and
in either case
cool root storage cellar. The temperature
97°
was not constant, fluctuating from 67° to
^ol root room
*>*
headhouse and from ^7° *o 72°
the temperature of
as shown by data in the appendix; but
that of the root
the headhouse averaged 20.9° higher than
cellar.
evaporation.
All pots were covered to prevent
in
Determinations were made of nitrates and ammonia
from the field before
a sample of each soil as taken
eoil had *7-3
adding the fertilisers. The old tobacco
5)
the timothy sod had
parts per million of nitrates* and
Boil.
none, calculated on the basis of dry
when necesThe pots were weighed occasionally, and,
(3) Table in appendix.
pots 23, 24, 25 and 26.
(10 Old tobacco soil refers to
million of nitratee or 10.7 P**ts psr
(5) ^7.3 Parts per
million of nitrogen.
sary, water was added to bring then up to the proper
weight.
They were covered, however, and it wae there-
fore unneoeeaary to add much additional water.
At the end of every three weeks and cowering a period
of twelve weeks in all, the parts per million of nitrates
and ammonia on the dry basis was determined in the soil
of each pot.
Table VII gives in a condensed form the parts per
million of nitrates obtained from the thirty different
treatments.
Sach figure in the table is an average of
the triplicates which were run four different times thru,
out the twelwe weeks period from October 2 until December
22, 1928, or from twelwe different determinations.
De-
terminations were made at the end of each of the four
three-week periods.
The term warm in Table VII refers to those soils
whioh wars kspt at headhouee temperatures and the term
cold refers to those soils whioh were kept in the root
cellar as described above.
Results show that nitrate accumulation was on the
whole somewhat greater under warm and medium moisture
oonditione.
There was only a slight and not consistent
excess of nitrates in soils hold at 50 per oent of the
water holding capacity, but there was a pronounced difference between the accumulation at
cent.
j?0
per cent and 75 P*r
This is true of the soils kept cool as well as
- *3 -
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those kept warm.
This bears out the work of Lemmerman and
Wiohers (45) *bo found that the most nitrates were destroyed when the water content approached the total water
holding capacity of the soil.
This oondition is brought
about no doubt, by the anaerobio conditions which are
caused by the presence of much water.
Kuhl (44) has shown
definitely that the activity of denitrifying organisms was
greatly increased under anaerobic conditions, which was
accomplished by covering the culture solutions with oil,
paraffin, etc*
A deorease in temperature is apparently associated
with a reduction in the production of nitrates.
This is
due to the fact that the soil microorganisms are more
active at the "warm* temperatures of this experiment.
This fact is fully corroborated by Giustiniani (23) and
also by Bazar ewski (10).
Table VII also shows that all of the fertilizers
nitrify more on the old tobacoo soil than on timothy sod.
This is in general agreement with results reported con-
cerning the effeot of incorporated organic matter on soil
nitrates.
This is, without doubt, a probable explanation
as to why the timothy sod has a tendency to reduce ni-
trates.
One other fact which materially substantiates
this viewpoint is that nitrate determinations on the old
tobacco soil before being prepared for the pot tests
showed 4-7*3 parts per million whereas there was none for
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the timothy sod.
Ammonium sulfate , under the most favorable conditions of the experiment, showed about the same amount of
nitrification as did the cottonseed meal under the most
favorable conditions of the experiment.
The timothy eod
alone ranked far below the other materials under the same
conditions.
Table VIII gives the parts per million of ammonia
determined at the same time and from the same pots ae for
the nitratee already described.
Results recorded in Tables VII and VIII show that
where there is an abundance of moisture either under warm
or cold temperatures, ammonlfication is more pronounced
than when drier.
The soils which contained 75 P8r cent
of their total water holding capacity were very wet and
contained some free water which made the conditions
anaerobic rather than aerobic.
The denitrification whloh
goes on results in an increased amount of ammonia.
There was more ammonia found in the pots containing
ammonium sulfate than in the pots containing timothy sod
and cottonseed meal under the same conditions of temper-
ature and moisture.
It is also of interest to note that
cottonseed meal ammonifies more in timothy sod than it
does in the old tobacco soil, exactly opposite to that of
nitrification.
(Compare Tables VII and VIII).
With
ammonium sulfate, however, this condition does not prevail
except with the cold wet and medium warm conditions.
Timothy sod, when in the soil by itself, ammonifies
but very little except when subjected to very moist conditions.
This theBie gives the results of the aaaonif ica-
X.
inorganic fertiliser
tion and nitrification of organic and
conditiona and
aaterials (a) under aolet and dry field
and aoisunder controlled conditions of temperature
(b)
ture.
quantiThe eodiua nitrate plots showed a larger
latter parts of the dry
ty of nitrates in the early and
within the wet
aeason than did aaaoniua sulfate, but
higher; cottonseed
season asaoniua sulfate was generally
2.
steal
waa generally low.
season
During the aiddle part of the dry growing
in the amount of
there were no outstanding differences
3.
nitrates found in the different plots.
h.
sod had
on plots growing tobacco where tiaothy
there was less aoouaubeen plowed under the fall before
cultivated aoils.
latlon of nitrates than on ths older
plowed showed no
The tiaothy sod which had not been
wide carbon-nitrogen
nitrates at all. This is due to the
ratio in tiaothy sod.
and
Soils fertilised with aaaoniua sulfate
controlled conditions
sodiua nitrate both under field and
receiving the other
showed aore nitrates than the plots
5.
fertilisers.
6.
that nitrate
The results of the pot work showed
- *9
accumulation is more pronounced under warm and medium
moisture conditions with all of the nitrogenous fertilizer materials used in the experiment.
7.
The soils of pots low in moisture showed a
slight decrease in nitrates under both warm and cold con.
ditlons as compared to the soils in pots containing a
medium amount of moisture
8.
The soils in pots having a high moisture content
showed a very marked decrease in the nitrate content ac-
companied by an increase in the amount of ammonia present.
This was true in practically all cases.
9.
In general, nitrification was more rapid under
the warm conditions of the experiment than under the
colder temperatures.
10.
Ammonif ication apparently took place after the
fertiliser was added to the soil and the amount of ammonia
decreased in all of the plots after the first week, and
the nitrates showed a corresponding increase thus showing
that ammonia was probably being changed to nitrates.
11.
At the beginning of tne season ammonif ication
was greatest in plots which had been fertilised with
cottonseed meal, while ammonium sulfate and the regular
tobacco fertiliser plots showed about the same amount of
nitrates once they got started.
12.
For the season as a whole the sodium nitrate
plots showed less ammonia than any of the others, es-
peoially at the beginning.
13.
The ammonium sulfate pots contained more am-
monia than either cottonseed meal or timothy sod.
lk.
In the pot experiments the cottonseed meal am-
monified more in timothy sod than in the old tobacco
soil, while with ammonium sulfate it was just the reverse.
13.
Timothy sod, when in the soil by itself, am-
monified but very little except when subjected to very
moist conditions.
- 51
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
Aeby, J; Dorsch, R: Matz, F; and Wagner, P.
1897 The fertilising value and preservation of
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Hos. 3-5. PP. 2^7-360.)
Albrecht, W. A.
1919 Nitrate production in soil as affected by the
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Missouri Sta. Bui. 163,
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3.
Ampola, G.
1908 Denitrif ication in cultivated soils.
Staz. Ohira. Agr. Sper. Roma, 2. ser.
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Ampola, G. and Ulpiani, 0.
1900 Denitrif ication in cultivated soil.
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1903 On denitrif ication in cultivated soil.
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IGaz.
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Arnd, T.
m^
1925 Influence of humus acids on the life of micro-
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,
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Barthel, 0.
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Msddel Centralanst
Foraokev. Jordbruksoaradet , lo. 8, pp. 518-533.
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Nitrification and dealtr if ioation in soils.
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Denitrif ikation la Boden (etc.).
11. Bonaae, P.
I896
Izpsriasnts on the nitrif ioation of the
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189©
Ob reduotion of nitrates in arable soils.
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1906
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1**.
Ohristenaen, Harold R.
1923 Influence of soil conditions on bacterial life
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II Ability of
:
Soil Science,
?el. 15, »©. 5, PP. 32 9-3bO.
15. Chirikov, F. V. and Shauk, A. A.
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1677
The reduction of nitrates in cultivated soil.
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1909
Investigations on denltrif icat ion.
Moskov. Sslsk. Khoz. Inst.
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IS. Fischer, H.
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A dsnitrlfioation experiment.
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- 5*
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An investigation on nitrification and denltri-
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,
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1912 Bacteriology of the general fertiliser plots.
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*
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1898
On the availability to grass of nitrogen in the
form of nitrate of soda, cottonseed meal, and
fine hard bone.
Oonn. State Sta. Rpt. pp. 289*
296.
3*1.
Jenkins, E. H. and Briton, I. S.
1899 On the availability to grass of nitrogen in the
form of nitrate of soda, cottonseed meal, and
fine hard bone.
Oonn. State Sta. Rpt. 1899,
pt. 3. PP. 197-210.
35* Jensen, H. L.
1929
On the influence of carbon-nitrogen ratios of
organic material on the mineralisation of
nitrogen.
(Jour. Agr. Sol. (England), 19,
lo. 1, pp. 71-82.)
36. Johnson, 3. i.
1897
E. H. ; and Brltton, f. E.
, Jenkins,
Experiments on the availability of fertiliser
nitrogen.
Conn. State Sta. Rpt. pp. 257.277.
- 56
37. Joehi, V. V.
1919
Rate of nitrification of different green aanuree
and parte of green aanuree and the influence of
orop reeiduee on nitrification.
(Agr. Jour.
India, 1*, lo. 3. PP- 395-41336- Karpinskl, A. and llklsvskl
1907
Influence of organic natter on nitrification of
impure cultures.
(Bui. Acad. Sol. Oracovie,
pp. 596-615).
39* telley, w. p.
The biochemical decomposition of nitrogenous
substanoes in soils.
Hawaii Sta. Bui. 39,
p. 25.
40. Keser, A.
1926
Soil nitrate studies.
Colo. Sta. Rpt. pp. 11,
12, 16 and 19.
41. Xlyucharev , A. V.
1902
The nitrifying ability of normal soils and the
loes of nitrates by leaching.
(lev. Hosoou
Selsk. Khoz. Inst. (Ann. Inst. Agron. Mosoou)
B, lo. 2, pp. 107-1*9.
42. KnovaloT
1900 1st. Mosoou Selsk. Khos. Inst., 6 (1900), pt.
t$ PP. 62-65.
kj. Koch, A. and Pettit, H.
1910
Oenltrlficatlon in soils and liquids.
Bakt. (etc.), 2. Abt.
3*5.
,
(Oentbl.
26, lo. 10-12, pp. 335-
- 57
44. luhl, B.
1908
Contribution to the knowledge of denitrif ioation
proeeee.
(Oentbl. Bakt. (etc), 2. Abt., 20,
Mo. 8-9, pp. 258-2©l; Abe. in Ones. Zentbl.
(1908) I, No. 10, pp. 980, 9«1).
45. Leaaeraan, 0. and Wieners, J. L.
1914
The course of denitrif ioation in eoile of
different water oontent.
(Oentbl. Bakt. (etc.),
2. Abt., 41, Bo. 18-23 pp. 6O8.625.
46. Llpaan, Blair, A. I. and Prince, A. L.
1925
field experiments on the availability of
nitrogen fertilizers.
1918-1922
Boll Science,
Tol. 19, Bo. 1, pp. 57-75.
47. Lipaan, 0. A.; Burgess, P. 8.; and Klein, a. A.
191o
,
Comparison of nitrifying powers of some huaid
and eoae arid soils.
(K. 8. R.
Jr. Agri. Res.
7
:
47.82.
36 p. 119).
48. Lyon, T. L. and filssell, J. A.
1913
The influence of alfalfa and tlaothy on pro-
duction of nitratee in soils.
Oentbl. Bakt.
(etc.), 2. Abt., 37, Boe. 7-10.
49. Lyon, T. L. and Bissell, J. A.
Soae relatione of higher plants to the formation
of nitrates in eoile.
Bew fork Cornell Sta.
Mea. 1, pp. 9-109*
50. Maereker, M.
1895
Experiment on the fertilising effect of barnyard manure and of its different constituents.
(Jahrb. Agr. Chea. Vers. Stat. Halle, pp. 41-56.
- 5&
51. Mas*, P.
1911
The phenomena of fermentation as acts of digestion,
lew evidence from the study of deni-
trifieation in plaate.
Ann. Inst. Pasteur,
25 (1911), los. 4, pp. 2*9.312; 5, pp. 369-391.
52. McLean, H. 0. and Bllson, 0.
191*1
ff.
Aamonif ication studies with soil fungi.
lev
Jersey Sta. Bui. 270, pp. 3-39.
53. Bolte, 0.
1919
Denitrif leation on account of the presence of
difficultly decomposable organic substances.
(Oentbl. Bakt. (etc.)., 2.
am.,
49, Bo. 7-9,
pp. 162-154.
54. Pfeiffcr, T.
1697
On the denitrificatlon process.
(Ohea. Ztg.
21 (1897), Bo. 81, p. 841).
55. Plchard, P.
1892
The comparative nitr if ioation of humus and
unaltered organic matter, and the proportion
of nitrogen in humus on nltrif ioation.
(Ann.
Agron., 18 Bo. 7, PP. 337-35D.
56. Potter, R. 8. and Snyder, R. 8.
1915 Determination of amino acids and nitratss in
soil.
Iowa Res. Bui. 24.
57. Skalskii, 8.
1912
Bork of the cheaioal laboratory of the Plotl
Ixp. 3ta.
,
Oodiehnyi otchet Plotl. Selsk.
Khos. Opytn.
380.
Stantsii, 18, pp. 133-227, 349-
58. Stoklasa, J.; Jellnek, J. and Ernest, A.
1906 The loss of nitrogen from soils in fertilising
with nitrate of soda.
(Ztschr. Zuokerindua.
Bona en. 30, Ho. 5, pp. 223-233.
59 • Traaen, A. S.
1916
Influence of moisture on the nitrogen changes in
soils.
(Centbl. Bakt. (etc), 2, Abt., 45, Wo.
1-5, PP. 119-135.
60* Temple, J. 0.
1912
Why do some soils nitrify organic nitrogenous
substances and the ammonium salts of organic
acids faster than they do ammonium sulfate or
ammonium chloride?
Abe. in Science M. ser.
35, Ho. 893, PP- 227, 228.
6l • Temple, J. 0.
1914 Soil nitrogen. - Green manures.
Georgia Sta.
Giro. 71, P* 2.
62. Voorhees, E. B.
1902 Studies in denltrif icatlon.
(Jour. Amer.
Chem. Soc. 2*, Ho. 9, pp. 7*5 -*23).
63. Waksman, S. A.
1927
Principles of Soil Microbiology,
pp. 536, 537,
538 and 539.
64. Waksman, 8. A.
1929
Chemical and microbiological principles under-
lying the decomposition of green manures In
the soil.
Jour. Amer. Soo. Agron. 21
:
1-18.
65. Waring ton, R.
I891
Lectures on investigations at Rothamstead Bxp.
Sta. U. S. 0. A. Bui. Ho. 8.
66. Waring ton, R.
1697
Denitrif loatlon and farmyard manure.
(Jour.
Roy. Agr. 3oc. England, 3. •or., 8, pt. 17
PP. 577-607.
67. Withers, V. A. and Fraps, 0. 3.
The relative values of some nitrogenous ferti-
Horth Carolina Sta. Bui. 176, pp. 15-
lizers.
22.
68. Withers, f. A. and Fraps, 0. 3.
1902 nitrification in different eolls.
Horth
Carolina Sta. Rpt., pp. 31-4l.
69. Withers. W.
1903
A. and Fraps, 0. 3.
nitrification of diffsrent fertilizers.
Worth
Carolina Sta. Rpt. 1903, pp. 27.32.
ff.
A. and Fraps, 0. 8.
nitrification in different soils.
70. Withers,
1902
Cheat.
Soo.
,
Jour. Aaer.
24, Ho. 6, pp. 328.534.
71. Withers, W. A. and Fraps, G. 3.
1903
Hltrif loatlon of ammonia fixed by chabasite.
(Worth Carolina Sta. Rpt. pp. 55-56.
72. Wolff, E.
1900
Denitrif loatlon and Fermentation.
Hyg.
Rundschau, 9, pp. 1169-1172; abs. in Chem.
Centbl.
,
(1900),
I
pp. 52-53; Jour. Chem. Soc.
(London), 78 (1900), Ho. 4^0, II p. 298).
73. Wood, T. B.
1900
Experiments in denitrif loatlon.
Bd. Agr.
(London), Rpt. Agr. Education and Research,
pp. 124, 125).
- 61 -
1919
Report on soil work in Washington.
Wash. 3ta.
Bui. 153, PP. 10, 11, 27-32.
75.
1555
Methods to determine the availability of organic
nitrogen in fertilisers.
Oonn. Sta. Annual
Report (1555), PP. 115-131.
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5*80$
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FERTILIZER MATERIALS ADDED TO FIELD *B* JURE 26, 1928
Plots 19, 23
Ammonium 3ulfate
Sulfate of Potash magnesia
Sulfate of Potash
Precipitated Bone
700 pounds per sore
•
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368
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972
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The P2O5 and KgO same as above
2050
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94
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MECHANICAL A WALT SIS OF SOIL FROM FIELD *B* •
TAKES
FROM THE SURFACE SEVER IIOHES.
Sample No. 1
9&BP16 HO. *
3-«2*
Flae gravel
Goaree sand
2.5«*
4.00*
Medium sand
2-5011
3-56*
Fine eand
6.16*
7.2S*
11.66*
^9.68*
5*. 1**
5S.3*»*
Very fine sand
Total of sand separatee
l.SH*
Lose thru sieve
57.82*
60.18*
Silt
30.00*
30.68*
Clay
12.18*
9.1H
100.00*
100.00*
Total sand
J
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