Table of Contents
Learning
Expectations
Letter to the Student . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Letter to the Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Tennessee Learning Expectations Correlation Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Pretest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chapter 1
Forces and Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Lesson 1
Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.1
Lesson 2
Newton’s Laws of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.2
Lesson 3
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.3
Lesson 4
Work, Power, and Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.4
Lesson 5
Conservation of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.5
Chapter 1 End-of-Course Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Chapter 2
Structure and Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Lesson 6
The Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.2
Lesson 7
Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures . . . . . . . 80
2.1
Lesson 8
Phases of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.2
Lesson 9
The Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.1, 2.2
Lesson 10
Chemical Symbols and Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.1
Lesson 11
Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.2
Chapter 2 End-of-Course Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Chapter 3
Interactions of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Lesson 12
Chemical versus Physical Changes . . . . . . . . . 112
3.1
Lesson 13
Atomic Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.2
Lesson 14
Chemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.3
Lesson 15
Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.4
Lesson 16
Conservation of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.5
Chapter 3 End-of-Course Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
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Chapter 4
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Lesson 17
Behavior and Properties of Waves . . . . . . . . . 140
4.1
Lesson 18
Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.2
Lesson 19
Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.2
Lesson 20
Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.3
Lesson 21
Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
4.4
Lesson 22
Fission versus Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.5
Lesson 23
Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
4.6
Chapter 4 End-of-Course Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Posttest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Formula Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Periodic Table of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
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11
1
Abc Laws
Gas
X.X.xx
PS-2.2
Getting the Idea
Key Words
pressure
compressible
Boyle’s law
Charles’s law
Gay-Lussac’s law
Bernoulli’s
principle
Gas particles are constantly moving. They move so quickly that they
are not bound by the forces that hold the particles of liquids and solids
together. Unlike solids and liquids, gases are highly compressible,
which means that they can be squeezed into small spaces or expand
to fill very large spaces. These behaviors give gases several unique
properties. Their pressure, temperature, and volume are interrelated
and can be predicted by three gas laws: Boyle’s law, Charles’s law,
and Gay-Lussac’s law. Gases are fluids, which means their velocity and
pressure are related by Bernoulli’s principle.
Pressure
Gas particles move randomly in straight lines until they bump into other
gas particles or the walls of the container. When a gas particle hits
another particle or the wall of the container, it bounces off and continues
to move. This bouncing exerts a force on the side of the container. The
collective force that all of the gas particles exert on the sides of their
container results in pressure. Pressure is an amount of force exerted
over a certain area. The more often the particles hit the walls of the
container, the greater the pressure. Recall that the particles in gases are not in contact with one another
because they are moving quickly enough to overcome the attractive
force between them. Thus, there is a lot of space between gas particles. This means that gases are compressible, or easily pushed into a
smaller space. If you cap off a tire pump, you can push down on the
pump handle and compress the gas that is trapped inside. The more
you compress it, the harder it is to hold the pump handle down. This
is because the gas inside is at a higher pressure. It is exerting more
force on the walls of the pump. The gas particles are also much closer
together. Contents under high pressure
CO2 gas
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Contents under lower pressure
CO2 gas
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Lesson
Lesson
XX: Lesson
11: Gas Name
Laws
Boyle’s Law
When the gas particles are compressed into a smaller space, they have
a shorter distance to move before they hit the walls of their container
again. This means that they hit the walls of their container more often. When temperature does not change, decreasing the volume of a gas
will cause the pressure to increase. Increasing the volume will cause
the pressure to decrease. This relationship between the volume and
pressure of a gas is called Boyle’s law.
Boyle’s Law
For a fixed amount of gas at constant temperature,
the volume of the gas increases as the pressure
decreases.
The graph below shows the relationship between pressure and volume
at a fixed temperature. It is an inverse relationship, meaning the line has
a slope of 21 (slopes downward from left to right at a 45º angle). Volume
Boyle’s Law
Pressure
Boyle’s law explains in part why scientists who study the weather
using equipment attached to large weather balloons will only partially
inflate the balloons. At ground level, air pressure is much greater than
it is higher in the atmosphere. As the weather balloon rises, and the
surrounding pressure decreases, the balloon expands. The weather
balloon is still sealed and has the same amount of gas in it. It just has
a larger volume at the lower pressure of the upper atmosphere. If the
balloon was fully inflated at Earth’s surface, it would expand and burst
at higher altitudes.
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Charles’s Law
Recall that temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of
the particles in a substance. The faster the particles move, the higher
the temperature of a substance. Conversely, the slower the particles
move, the lower the temperature. When the temperature of a gas
increases, its particles move more quickly and hit the sides of their
container more often. This pushes on the sides of the container. If the
container is flexible, as with a balloon, it will expand until the pressure
outside the balloon is equal to the pressure inside the balloon. So, when
pressure is constant, as temperature increases, volume increases. As
temperature decreases, volume decreases. This relationship between
the temperature and volume of a gas is called Charles’s law. Charles’s Law
For a fixed amount of gas at constant pressure, the
volume of the gas increases as the temperature
increases.
The graph below shows the relationship between temperature and
volume at a fixed pressure. It is a direct relationship, meaning the line
has a slope of 1 (slopes upward from left to right at a 45º angle). Volume
Charles’s Law
Temperature
Charles’s law explains why tires inflated on a warm day will look flat .
on a cold day. The temperature of the gas inside decreased, so the
volume of the tire decreased. The same is true for a balloon. If you blow
up and tie off a balloon and then place it in your freezer, you will notice
that it will get smaller. Its volume will decrease with the decrease .
in temperature.
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Lesson
Lesson
XX: Lesson
11: Gas Name
Laws
Test Tips . . .
Every test has some
problems that will
seem easy and
others that will
seem hard. When
you encounter a
problem that you
are not able to
solve, try skipping
the problem and
coming back to it
later. Do not let a
difficult problem
keep you from
finishing a test.
Gay-Lussac’s Law
When the temperature of a gas increases, its particles hit the sides
of their container more often. In a container with sides that are rigid
(do not move), the volume is fixed. Thus, as temperature increases
particle collision increases, which means that pressure increases. So, as
temperature increases, pressure increases. As temperature decreases,
pressure decreases. This relationship between the pressure and
temperature of a gas is called Gay-Lussac’s law. Gay-Lussac’s Law
For a fixed amount of gas at constant volume, the
pressure of the gas increases as the temperature
increases.
The graph below shows the relationship between pressure and
temperature at a fixed volume. It is also a direct relationship. Pressure
Gay-Lussac’s Law
Temperature
Have you ever seen aerosol cans that warn you not to overheat them?
Because of Gay-Lussac’s law, if you heat a sealed can containing a
gas, the pressure inside the can will increase. Heating the can too much
may result in an explosion when the can is no longer able to contain the
increased pressure within its fixed volume.
Bernoulli’s Principle
Recall that fluids are substances whose particles can flow past one
another. Gases and liquids are fluids, while solids have particles that
are in fixed positions. When a fluid moves, its velocity is related to its
pressure. This relationship between the pressure and velocity of a fluid
is called Bernoulli’s principle.
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Bernoulli’s Principle
The pressure of a fluid decreases as its velocity
increases.
As the velocity of a fluid increases, its pressure decreases. As the fluid
moves more slowly, its pressure rises. Bernoulli’s principle can explain
many different effects. For example, when you turn on the shower with
the shower curtain drawn shut, the curtain will move in toward the
flowing water. The shower water and the air nearby are fluids that are
moving more rapidly than the surrounding air outside of the shower. The
surrounding air moves very slowly in comparison and is therefore at a
higher pressure. This higher pressure pushes the shower curtain toward
the flowing water.
Bernoulli’s principle also explains why airplane wings can lift a plane off
the ground. The curve of the plane’s wing is designed to move air more
quickly across the top of the wing than across the bottom of the wing. The difference in air speeds causes a difference in pressure. The greater
pressure of the slower-moving air below the wing creates a net upward
force against the lower pressure of the faster-moving air above the wing. This net upward force at high speeds causes the plane to lift off .
the ground.
DISCUSSION QUESTION
Why might it be difficult to demonstrate Guy-Lussac’s law with a balloon?
LESSON REVIEW
1. Which rule relates the temperature and pressure of a gas at a fixed
volume?
A. Boyle’s law
B. Charles’s law
C. Gay-Lussac’s law
D. Bernoulli’s principle
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Lesson
Lesson
XX: Lesson
11: Gas Name
Laws
2. Rita constructed the following graph during an investigation. Which
rule does her data illustrate?
Volume/Temperature Relationship
2.7
2.4
Volume (L)
2.1
1.8
1.5
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.3
0
100 200 300 400 500 600
Temperature (°C)
A. Boyle’s law
C.
B. Charles’s law
D. Bernoulli’s principle
Gay-Lussac’s law
3. Xavier filled a balloon to its maximum capacity inside his airconditioned home. He walked outside into the intense summer heat.
According to Charles’s law, what could happen to his balloon?
A. It could pop because the increase in temperature would cause an
increase in volume.
B. It could pop because the increase in temperature would cause a
decrease in pressure.
C. It could get smaller because the increase in temperature would cause
a decrease in pressure.
D. It could get smaller because the increase in temperature would cause
a decrease in volume.
4. Which of the following graphs best illustrates Boyle’s law?
A.
C.
B.
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D.
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