CAUSES OF STRESS AMONG TEACHERS IN PUBLIC SECONDARY
SCHOOLS: A CASE OF PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN STAREHE
DISTRICT
BY
PACIFICA MORAA NYAMBONGI
D53/R1/11764/2004
A RESEARCH PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF BUSINESS IN
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF
THE DEGREE OF EXECUTIVE MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
[HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT] OF KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
JULY 2013
i
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this Research proposal is my original work and has not been
presented for a degree in any other University.
Sign……………………………………………
Date…………………….
PACIFICA MORAA NYAMBONGI
D53/R1/11764/04
This proposal has been submitted to the School of Business for examination with my
approval as University supervisor.
Sign………………………………………….
DR. OMBUKI CHARLES
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMIC THEORY
KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
ii
Date…………………….
DEDICATION
This project work is dedicated to my family members - my husband Nathaniel, my
children Irene, Geoffrey and Silas and nephew Alfonce.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my heavenly father for giving me life, strength and health to
accomplish this work.
I also acknowledge the input of other people who made this research work a success.
These are my supervisor Dr. Ombuki for his guidance, availability and willingness to
assist me; the Principals and their staff of the public secondary schools in Starehe
District, my colleagues at Pangani Girls for the peace of mind and encouragement I found
out of their team work.
I also acknowledge the patience and support that my family accorded me during the time.
They were patient with my late night studies, unavailability for family time as well as
their financial assistance.
To you all I say may the good Lord bless you abundantly and in a big way.
Thank you all.
P M Nyambongi
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework .................................................................................. 21
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Discipline Cases (2003 – 2008) ......................................................................... 7
Table 3.1: Target Population............................................................................................. 23
Table 3.2: Sample Size ..................................................................................................... 24
vi
ABSTRACT
This study is aimed at finding out the causes of stress among teachers of public
Secondary Schools in Starehe District in Nairobi. The study looks causes of stress among
the teachers of Secondary Schools. The study will use descriptive research design. The
target population will be two hundred and sixty eight (268) teachers in the six (6) public
Secondary Schools in Starehe District but a sample of eighty one (81) teachers will be
taken using stratified random sampling.
Data will be collected from both primary and secondary sources which will then
bevanalysed using descriptive statistics. The use of Microsoft Excel and the Scientific
Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) will enable the researcher to come up with
correlations of the variables. Frequency tables, curves, bar graphs and pie charts will be
used to present the results of the analysis. The study is expected to come up with the
research report on key factors causing stress among teachers in Kenyan Secondary
Schools and identify the gaps that require further research by other researchers.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ................................................................................................................ ii
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ v
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. vi
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................. viii
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................... x
DEFINITIONS OF OPERATIONAL TERMS ................................................................. xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1
1.1
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1.
Stress .................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.2
Stress and Teacher Performance .......................................................................... 3
1.2
Statement of the Problem .................................................................................... 7
1.3
Research Objectives ............................................................................................ 8
1.3.1
General Objective ................................................................................................ 8
1.3.2
Specific Objectives .............................................................................................. 9
1.4
Research Questions ............................................................................................. 9
1.5
Significance of the Study .................................................................................... 9
1.6
Scope of the Study ............................................................................................ 10
1.7
Limitations of the Study.................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................
2.0
Introduction ....................................................................................................... 12
2.1
Stress and Performance ..................................................................................... 12
2.2
Review of Past Studies...................................................................................... 14
2.2.1
Teacher Cognitive Factors and Stress ................................................................ 14
2.2.2
Factors intrinsic to teaching and stress .............................................................. 17
2.2.3
Systemic factors and stress ................................................................................ 19
2.3
Summary and Gaps to be filled by the Study ................................................... 20
viii
2.4
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN .................................................................... 22
3.1
Research Design................................................................................................ 22
3.2
Target Population .............................................................................................. 22
3.3
Sample Design .................................................................................................. 23
3.4
Data Collection tools and instruments .............................................................. 25
3.5
Data Analysis .................................................................................................... 25
3.6
Expected Output................................................................................................ 26
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 27
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................
APPENDIX I: LETTER OF INTRODUCTION .............................................................. 29
APPENDIX II: QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................................................. 30
APPENDIX III: LIST SCHOOLS AND THEIR STAFF ESTABLISHMENTS .......... 34
APPENDIX I– WORK PLAN .......................................................................................... 35
APPENDIX II – BUDGET ESTIMATES ........................................................................ 36
ix
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
BOG
Board of Governors
GOK
Government of Kenya
TSC
Teachers Service Commission
PTA
Parents Teachers Association
NAHT
National Association of Head Teachers
MORI
Market and Opinion Research International
PE
Physical Education
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
KCSE
Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education
x
DEFINITIONS OF OPERATIONAL TERMS
Constituency
The constituency in which the study is being undertaken
(Starehe in Nairobi)
Burn out
A debilitating psychological condition brought about by
unrelieved work stress, resulting in depleted energy and
emotional exhaustion, lowered resistance to illness,
increased depersonalization in interpersonal relationships,
increased dissatisfaction and pessimism and increased
absenteeism and work inefficiency
Stress
condition or feeling experienced when a person perceives
that demands exceed the personal and social resources the
individual is able to mobilize. Stress is the mind and body’s
reactions to everyday demands.
xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1
Introduction
Teacher stress is a much talked of phenomenon, however there is little consensus
between different professional groups regarding its etiology, or how to tackle it. Based on
a review of international research, it is concluded that teacher stress is a real phenomenon
and that high levels are reliably associated with a range of causal factors, including those
intrinsic to teaching, individual vulnerability and systemic influences.
1.1.1. Stress
The understanding of stress originated in the empirical research of Derogatis (1987), who
conducted his research using the Derogatis Stress Profile (DSP), a psychological
questionnaire to measure individuals’ stress dispositions. Derogatis based this
questionnaire on Lazarus’s (1966) social interaction theory of stress which consequently
led us towards Lazurus’s more recent research and theories of stress and how to cope
with it. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) define stress as a particular interaction between the
person and the environment. The person appraised or evaluated the environment as being
taxing or exceeding his or her personal resources. This disrupts his or her daily routines.
According to Derogatis, stress may be defined as a state of psychological pressure
influenced by three main sources or domains: personality mediators (put together of time
pressure, driven behaviour, attitude posture, relaxation potential, and role definition);
environmental factors (constituting of vocational satisfaction, domestic satisfaction, and
health posture); and emotional responses (such as hostility, anxiety, and depression).
1
Derogatis accordingly explains that these three sources must be studied interactively to
develop a comprehensive account of psychological stress.
With nervous energy skyrocketing, the teachers need understanding and support, they
need voices of reason to counteract both the stress-inducing messages they get from this
culture, work and the demoralizing, self-defeating beliefs, some of them persist in telling
themselves. Many signs of stress are so common that they are accepted as the normal,
even expected, cost of leading busy, productive lives. Teachers should be aware of basic
truths about the insidious, sometimes devastating, effects of stress on people throughout
the live.
Individuals may experience burnout as a result of stress itself, a sudden breakdown of
their mediating coping mechanisms, or an ineffectiveness of their mediating coping
mechanisms over a Long period of time (Guglielmi & Tatrow, 1998; Vandenberghe &
Huberman, 1999). Burnout has traditionally been viewed as having three components:
emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of personal accomplishment. Burnout
is most frequently measured using Maslach’s Burnout Inventory (Maslach & Jackson,
1981). A feeling of burnout is not a direct effect of repeated exposures to stressful
situations. However, Burnout is mediated through various active and passive coping
mechanisms and is a result of the accumulation of positively and negatively oriented
emotional responses that have arisen through coping mechanisms.
2
1.1.2 Stress and Teacher Performance
Too much stress can contribute to health problems. Stress can also reduce the ability to
perform at the highest levels (Chan, 1998). The negative effects of stress can impact
negatively on performance and quality of life. The effects of stress are unmistakably
many. They include increase heart rate, speed breathing or held breath, tightens muscle
to prepare to fight or to flee, directing blood to the brain and major muscles (away from
digestion, hands/feet, Reproductive organs), releases stress hormones like cortisol and
adrenaline, slows or stops digestion, causes the brain to be more reactive/less thoughtful,
increases perspiration, reduces immune system response (Guglielmi and Tatrow, 1998).
Tension headaches, neck/back/shoulder pain, tight jaw, sleeping problems, fatigue, loss
of concentration, learning problems can increase, irregular or rapid heart rate, migraine
headaches, poor circulation, Raynaud Syndrome, high blood pressure, sexual dysfunction
(in either sex), digestive problems, upset stomach, ulcers, colitis, hormone imbalances,
reduction of immune system function, over reaction by immune system (allergies or
autoimmune diseases worse), increased asthma activity, increased aging rate, anxiety,
depression, substance abuse, poor habit control, over-eating, low energy, prone to
accidents or mistakes, can impair communication, poor performance, among others
effects are characteristics of stress (Guglielmi and Tatrow, 1998).
According to Kobasa et al. (1985), competitive athletes have been aware of the negative
effects of stress on their performance. Tight muscles can drop their time in a track and
field sprint by fractions of a second. This can be the difference between winning or losing
an event. Since the Eastern European athletes began their mental training in the 1970's,
3
world class athletes have begun spending as much as 70% of their training time in mental
preparation for controlling stress during competition. In the same preparations are
golfers, tennis players, softball players, pilots, even law students preparing for the state
bar examinations. Their performance has been enhanced with the use of a program that
includes stress management, visualization, and skill development. This process has also
worked for managers, executives, policemen, professional sales people, teachers, and
even dentists.
Scheier and Carver (1985), argue that learning to control responses of stress and to get
out of one’s own way has saved companies money, increased production, encouraged
creativity, enabled teams to communicate more effectively, reduced the anxieties which
surround the process of change, increased the pace of professional learning and
development, and even reduced accidents and harassment claims. Any organization needs
to save money, reduce turn over, increase sales and productivity, or improve the quality
of work life.
It should give consideration to the return on investment of stress
management coaching or training. Every organization is different and requires a tailored
approach when installing an effective program. The process can work with individuals,
teams, departments, or company wide. It is recommended that you test the process by
working with a sampling from the departments in the company. The process may require
time for assessments and benchmarking, and then implementation.
According to \TSC (2008), the significant challenge facing secondary education today is
not the shortfalls in the number of teachers in schools but teachers who have no ability to
4
work with students to improve performance. Increased access to primary and secondary
schooling has placed great demand on teachers, especially since the free primary
education was introduced in 2003. Most teachers work under stress, in overcrowded
classrooms and dilapidated buildings without the necessary learning resources. This
aspect has escaped many stakeholders and more so the Kenya National Union of
Teachers (KNUT), which has been campaigning for teacher quantity across the board.
Even without the burden of having to deal with large classes and insufficient learning
resources, there is need for improvements in teacher recruitment and training.
Statistics from the Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC) indicate performance
in KCSE has been on a downward trend. For instance, in 2008, only 24 per cent of
candidates obtained mean grades of C+ and above compared to 30 per cent the previous
year and 26 per cent in 2006. The number of candidates who scored mean grade E rose to
7,067 in 2008 from 2,952 in 2007 and 3,711 in 2006. Similarly, the number of candidates
who obtained grade D- cascaded to 42,084 in 2008 from 24,467 in 2007 and 27,583 in
2006 while those who scored mean grade of A went down to 817 in 2008 from 1,157 in
2007 and 1,165 in 2006. Unless there are other unexplained factors behind the picture
provided by those statistics, it seems teachers’ effectiveness has been on a downward
trend. According to United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNESCO, while financial resources invested in schools could influence learning they
cannot replace the teachers. "Teacher effectiveness is a strong determinant in student
learning," says Prof Lorin Anderson of the University of Carolina and a senior education
consultant to United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNESCO.
5
In a UNESCO study, Increasing Teacher Effectiveness," Lorin argues students who are
assigned ineffective teachers have lower gains in academic achievement than those who
are taught by a sequence of several highly effective teachers. Commenting on factors that
impact on teachers ‘ effectiveness, Prof Dylan William of the Institute of Education,
University of London recently singled out professionalism, clear thinking, expectations
and leadership skills. He also cited stronger emphasis on selection of teachers and their
quality teacher education. But in recent months there has been public debate on
recruitment, training and promotion of teachers.
The issue is that whereas teacher development needs to be viewed as a lifelong process,
more emphasis should be put on professional development rather than acquisition of
certificates that cannot be directly used towards student achievement. In a comprehensive
review of the school-based learning programmes in 2008, TSC noted a decline in the
performance of subjects taught by teachers undertaking those courses. "Inadequate
preparation and absenteeism among teachers on the programmes has increased," states
the Report on School Based Learning Programmes (2008). According to the report most
teachers attending those courses failed to mark examinations and prepare report forms.
Nevertheless, ineffectiveness of teachers is amplified by lack of resources to meet
educational requirements of their students, especially those from poor backgrounds.
According to the Teachers Service Commission (TSC), most of the cases reported for
disciplinary actions are either absenteeism or negligence which is highly related to the
level of stress among the teachers. According to the report on discipline cases between
2003 and 2008, there were 6439 cases out of which over 50% of them are direct effects of
stress among the teachers.
6
Table 1.1: Discipline Cases (2003 – 2008)
Province
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Eastern
180
216
154
142
142
185
1019
Rift Valley
347
404
398
317
273
340
2079
59
67
79
69
33
82
389
164
187
167
197
126
108
949
25
29
31
25
25
26
161
Nyanza
219
219
165
153
116
107
979
Western
106
106
104
114
72
102
604
Nairobi
35
44
75
41
32
32
259
1135
1272
1173
1058
819
982
6439
Coast
Central
North Eastern
Totals
2008 Totals
Source: TSC (2009)
1.2
Statement of the Problem
According to Kyriacou (2001), the sources of stress experienced by a particular teacher
will, of course, be unique to him or her and will depend on the precise complex
interaction between his or her personality, values, skills, and circumstances. Moreover,
coping mechanisms, personality traits, or the environment can interactively influence the
degree to which stressful situations are being perceived, and influence the teacher’s
emotional and cognitive well-being. The syndrome of burnout and stress at work refers to
a combination of emotions, physical symptoms and behaviours that develop as a
consequence of the conditions and characteristics of the so-called helping professions
(Ben-Zur & Yagil, 2005; Buunk & Schaufeli, 1999; Gil-Monte & Peiró, 1997; Maslach,
Leiter & Schaufeli, 2001).
7
Although stress always involves a transaction between the individual and their
environment (Cox, 1978), for heuristic purposes, causal factors in teacher stress can be
divided into three broad areas; factors intrinsic to teaching, cognitive factors affecting the
individual vulnerability of teachers and systemic factors operate at the institutional and
political level. Systemic denotes a broad cluster of organisational factors that are not
intrinsic to the nature of teaching, but rather dependent on the climate of the educational
institution or the wider context of education, including the political domain. Travers &
Cooper (1997) found that teachers named lack of government support, lack of
information about changes, constant change and the demands of the National Curriculum
as among their greatest sources of stress. These 'trickle-down' to systemic factors in
addition to and feed into the dynamics of individual organisations (Jennings & Kennedy,
1996).
The background provides an overview of what entails stress and burnout among the
teachers. However it does not provide categorically the causes of the stress among
teachers in Secondary Schools. It is against this background that the study is set to find
out the causes of stress among the Secondary Schools in Starehe District.
1.3
Research Objectives
1.3.1 General Objective
The general objective of the study will be to find the causes of stress among teachers of
public Secondary Schools in Starehe District.
8
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
However, the study will specifically seek:
1. To find out the contribution of cognitive factors in causing stress among teachers
in public Secondary Schools in Starehe District.
2. To determine the extent to which intrinsic factors cause stress among teachers in
public Secondary Schools in Starehe District.
3. To establish whether systemic (organizational) factors within the school setup
enhance stress among teachers in public Secondary Schools in Starehe District.
1.4
Research Questions
The study will seek to answer the following questions during the research.
1. Do cognitive factors affecting the individual teacher cause stress among teachers
in public Secondary Schools in Starehe District?
2. To what extent do the intrinsic factors to teaching (workload, poor pay, classroom
discipline and the low status) influence the level of stress among teachers in
public secondary schools in Starehe District?
3. Do the systemic (organizational) factors within the school setting enhance stress
among teachers in public Secondary Schools in Starehe District?
1.5
Significance of the Study
The study will be of great significance to the Teachers Service Commission (TSC) who
employs teachers in that they will be able to know the factors that enhance stress among
the teachers, the effects that the stress has on its employees and the steps they need to put
9
in place to address the stress - causing factors. Schools management within Starehe
District and the entire country will also benefit in that they can be able to understand the
reasons behind the poor performance by the teachers in their schools or vice versa.
A serious and thorough look and analysis of the study results will also help the
management (Board of Governors – (BOG) and Parents Teachers Association – (PTA))
to address these problems and not only institute solutions but improve the welfare and
working conditions of the teachers.
The Government and especially the Ministry of Education will also benefit from the
findings so that they can meet their part of the bargaining for example enhancing better
salaries and welfare for the teachers in public schools.
On the academic realm, other researchers will develop their researches on the gaps that
this research will identify in the final report. Thus, they (other researchers) will build
their researches on the recommendations of the research report.
1.6
Scope of the Study
The research will be limited to teachers in public secondary schools in Starehe District.
There are 11 schools within the constituency with a total teaching staff population of 342.
Starehe District is taken as the scope since it is the District that covers the capital city of
Kenya with very unique and heavily challenging issues for teachers within this District.
Indeed, the District is unique given the cost of living, the traffic flows and jams thereof
10
including the nature of students that are admitted, who are mainly urban and have their
unique personalities,
1.7
Limitations of the Study
The study will be carried out with a view of overcoming all possible limitations that may
be there. They include the limited available time to carry out an exhaustive research.
However, to overcome this, the researcher intends to carry out the research within the
constituency so that all the schools are covered and a sample taken to cover for all the
teachers in these schools.
The possible limitation of finances will also be dealt with by taking a representative
sample so that the costs and expenditure involved could be minimized. Questionnaires, as
the collection instruments will be designed in such away that the respondents are able to
understand all the questions which will ensure that the limitation of non response is
addressed. The questionnaire will use open ended and closed ended questions and be as
probing as possible to collect the information relevant to the study.
11
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0
Introduction
This chapter deals with the past literature on the effects of stress among the secondary
teachers. The chapter outlines the relationship between stress and performance,
highlighting how cognitive and intrinsic factors contribute to teaching as well as the
organizational factors. The chapter also provides the conceptual framework that the study
will use to explain the effects of stress among the teachers.
2.1
Stress and Performance
The existence of factors other than those intrinsic to teaching can be demonstrated by
cross-national comparisons of teacher stress. Travers & Cooper (1997) surveyed 800
teachers in England and France about stress and found substantially different responses.
22% of sick leave in England, as opposed to 1% in France was attributed to stress. 55%
of the English teachers as opposed to 20% of the French sample reported recently
considering leaving teaching. Interestingly, there was substantial agreement between the
English and French teachers as to the sources of pressure, both groups citing classroom
discipline, low social status and lack of parental support. However, English teachers
reported more problems emanating from long hours of work, overwork and political
interference. The original idea of the present study was to study stress in teaching, and
the effects that it has on the performance of the teachers. However, its profound
relationship with the more generalized concept of occupational stress highlights the need
to examine the incidence and characteristics of stress and burnout in the teaching
12
profession in a combined way. Stress and burnout in the context of teaching (though by
no means limited to this profession) are pathological syndromes suffered by teachers.
They are caused largely by the conditions (organizational and of many other types) in
which teaching takes place. A summary analysis of the current situation in education
permits the identification of some of the social and organizational factors that constitute
sources of stress and burnout: The combination of changes in society and the educational
system itself has led to a growing complexity of the teacher’s role and has increased the
demands of the school environment. Paradoxically, these growing demands are
accompanied by a devaluation of, and a reduction in support for, the school system,
which in turn leads to severe occupational dissatisfaction (working conditions) and health
problems among the teaching staff. In general terms, burnout in the teaching profession,
results from the imbalance between the demands of the profession and the rewards
received, perceived self-efficacy in the achievement of this objective, observing progress
in students, receiving recognition from others, among other factors. This profession
shares a set of basic characteristics (Pines and Aronson, 1988): it is emotionally draining,
focus on the client, and the people who choose to work in them have certain personality
characteristics in common. The teaching profession also involves some aggravating
factors which contribute to exacerbating burnout problems among teachers: there is
constant personal contact and interaction with students; teachers need to be experts, to
display patience and sensitivity and to be useful; their work is constantly open to scrutiny
and evaluation by a variety of people; they work with people who may not wish to work
with them or to benefit from their efforts; salaries tend to be lower than those in
13
comparable jobs; and teachers’ expectations of different aspects of their work, such as its
perceived value and student motivation often exceed reality.
2.2
Review of Past Studies
2.2.1 Teacher Cognitive Factors and Stress
Teacher stress is a much talked of phenomenon. However there is little consensus
between different professional groups regarding its aetiology, or how to tackle it. Based
on a review of international research, it is concluded that teacher stress is a real
phenomenon and that high levels are reliably associated with a range of causal factors,
including those intrinsic to teaching, individual vulnerability and systemic influences.
Limitations with the current research base of teacher stress are identified; we have a
reasonable understanding of the aetiology of teacher stress, but little is known about the
effects of reducing or mediating the impact of stressors.
In a survey of head teachers by the National Association of Head Teachers (NAHT) in
May 2000, 40% of respondents reported having visited their doctor with a stress-related
problem in the previous year. 20% considered that they drank too much and 15%
believed they were alcoholics. 25% suffered from serious stress related health problems
including hypertension, insomnia, depression and gastrointestinal disorders. According to
a study conducted by Times Educational Supplement in 1997, Stress impacts greatly on
teacher retention. It was found out that 37% of secondary vacancies and 19% of primary
vacancies were due to ill-health, as compared to 9% of nursing vacancies and 5% in
banking and the pharmaceutical industry. Recruitment was found out to be affected by
representations of stress. A MORI poll of 2017 British adults conducted in April 2001
14
revealed that teaching is seen as hard, poorly paid and held in low public esteem.
Graduates had significantly more negative beliefs about teaching than non-graduates.
The ante of teacher stress was upped in 2000 when Jan Howell won a landmark victory
against Newport County Borough Council for failing to respond to her suffering stress in
the classroom and was awarded £250,000 compensation. Teacher stress is now firmly on
the political agenda, and representations of the nature of stress have become unhelpfully
polarised between unions and employers, the former seeing stress as organisational and
the latter as an individual issue.
The commonality of reported sources of pressure between English and French teachers
could lead us to a social representations interpretation of teacher stress in Britain, in
which teachers experience stress because they take on a consensual belief about teaching
in which its stressful nature forms part of the figurative nucleus of its social
representation. However, there are also notable differences in the reported experiences of
the English and French groups, which could lead us to the more 'common sense'
interpretation that teachers in Britain operate in particularly stressful conditions, in
particular with regard to workload and political intervention.
A substantial body of contemporary research has examined the cognitive factors affecting
individual susceptibility to stress amongst teachers. Chorney (1998) investigated selfdefeating beliefs by asking 41 teachers to identify what they must do to be good
teachers. 92% of responses were couched in absolute terms, such as 'must', 'need' among
other answers.
15
Endorsement of these beliefs was widespread in the sample and significantly associated
with high levels of stress. In another study by Bibou-Nakou et al (1999) the role of
attributions was examined. 200 primary school teachers were presented with four
hypothetical class management situations and they were questioned as to their
attributions in each case. There was a significant association between internal attributions
and symptoms of burnout, suggesting that teachers who blame themselves for difficulties
are more vulnerable to stress. Self-efficacy has also been researched as a cognitive
vulnerability factor. Friedman (2000) examined the self-reports of newly qualified
teachers and described his findings as the 'shattered dreams of idealistic performance'.
Respondents revealed sharp declines in self-efficacy as they found that they could not
live up to their ideal performances. Brouwers & Tomic (2000), in their study used
structural equation modelling to analyse the relationships between self-efficacy and
burnout in 243 secondary school teachers. It emerged that self-efficacy had a
synchronous effect on personal accomplishment and a longitudinal effect on
depersonalisation. However, low self-efficacy had a synchronous effect on emotional
exhaustion. The direction of the causal relationship between self-efficacy and stress
symptomatology is particularly significant as it suggests that cognitive interventions
designed to improve self-efficacy may mediate the effects of stress.
The greatest volume of contemporary research concerning cognitive vulnerability to
teacher stress relates specifically to individual differences in coping style. In the study
Griffith et al (1999) interviewed 780 primary and secondary school teachers, aiming to
assess the associations between stress, coping responses and social support. High levels
16
of stress were associated with low social support and the use of disengagement and
suppression of competing activities as coping strategies. Interestingly, stepwise multiple
regressions revealed that coping style not only mediated the effects of environmental
stressors, but also influenced teachers' perceptions of their environment as stressful. This
is significant as it suggests that some of the stressors associated with teaching may not be
inherently stressful but act as stressors only in transaction with coping style. A different
approach to assessing the relationship between coping strategies and teacher stress was
employed by Admiraal et al (2000), concerned with active or passive responses to
disruptive behaviour in the classroom. 27 student teachers gave a total of 300 responses
to indicate their coping responses to everyday stressful classroom situations. A strong
relationship emerged between a coping style involving active behavioural intervention
and teacher satisfaction, and a weaker relationship with pupil time on task was also
evident.
2.2.2 Factors intrinsic to teaching and stress
Research has suggested that a number of stressors are intrinsic to teaching. In their study,
Travers & Cooper (1997) found out that the workload and long working hours emerged
as particular issues for English teachers as opposed to colleagues in France. When
Travers & Cooper (1997) questioned British teachers across all educational sectors high
workload, poor status and poor pay emerged as three of the seven major sources of stress
- the others being systemic in origin. A study by Male & May (1998) of learning support
coordinators in Further Education colleges further illustrates the importance of these
factors. 35 coordinators were assessed for burnout, stress and health. Overall mixed
evidence for heightened stress in this group emerged, but there was strong evidence for
17
work overload and excessive working hours, associated with emotional exhaustion. Role
overload occurs when an employee has to cope with a number of competing roles within
their job. Pithers & Soden (1998) highlighted role overload as a significant stressor in
teachers. They assessed levels of strain, organisational roles and stress in 322 Australian
and Scottish vocational and FE lecturers. Strain was found to be average in both national
groups, but there were high levels of stress, with role overload emerging as the major
cause. The research by research Kinnunen & Leskinen (1989) identified a cyclical pattern
in the effects of overwork, contingent on the academic year in their assessment of 142
teachers. The assessment was repeated during the autumn and spring terms of an
academic year. It was found that recovery from stress occurred each weekend during the
spring term, but that by the end of the longer autumn term weekend recovery no longer
took place.
Classroom discipline is also a significant source of stress. Lewis (1999) examined
teachers' estimations of stress arising from being unable to discipline pupils in the way
they would prefer. Overall, maintaining discipline emerged as a stressor, with those worst
affected being teachers who placed particular emphasis on pupil empowerment. A study
of 1000 student teachers (Morton et al, 1997) revealed that classroom management was
their second greatest sources of anxiety, the greatest being evaluation apprehension. Of
all the stressors reported, classroom management anxiety was the only one that did not
decline following teaching practice.
18
Evaluation apprehension is an issue of increasing import, as quality assurance procedures
increasingly demand lesson observation. The phenomenon is currently under-researched
in qualified teachers, although there is a modest body of research on student teachers.
Capel (1997) questioned student PE teachers following first and second teaching
practices on their levels and sources of anxiety. Evaluation apprehension emerged as the
stressor in both practices. Similarly, the Morton et al study (above) found that of all the
sources of stress for student teachers, evaluation apprehension was the greatest, although
it declined following teaching practice, suggesting that it is reduced by exposure and
positive experiences of observation feedback. The moderating effects of exposure to
lesson observation are an area requiring further research.
2.2.3 Systemic factors and stress
At the level of the institution factors such as social support amongst colleagues and
leadership style have found to be important in affecting levels of stress. Dussault et al
(1999) assessed isolation and stress in 1110 Canadian teachers and, as hypothesised,
found a strong positive correlation. In another study Van Dick et al (1999) questioned
424 teachers from across all German sectors about their work stress, social support and
physical illnesses. It was found that social support had both a direct positive effect on
health and a buffering effect in respect of work stress.
Leadership style has also emerged as a significant organisational factor. Harris (1999)
assessed teacher stress and leadership style in three American primary schools, using the
Wilson Stress Profile for Teachers. The Principal in each school was classified
differently, and teachers had significantly lower stress in the school where the Principal
19
was classified as high in both task and relationship focus - this leadership style being
associated with both strategic vision and a close personal relationship with staff.
Leadership style appears in part to be a response to 'trickle-down' stressors. Hoel et al
(1999) surveyed English teachers and found that 35% reported having been bullied by a
manager in the last five years, as opposed to an average of 24% across all occupational
sectors. Cooper interpreted this in terms of managers failing to cope with workloads and
resorting to bullying as a maladaptive coping strategy. Considering the vast literature of
generic stress management and that concerning the aetiology of teacher stress, the
volume of research into interventions to combat teacher stress is miniscule. PsychINFO,
ERIC and British Education Index searches revealed only two studies in the last five
years. In one of these, Hall et al (1997) examined the effect of human relations training
on teacher stress. 32 participants took part in a 2-year humanistic-experiential Masters
Degree programme and were interviewed at the end of the course. Stress was reported as
having been reduced as a result of the course. The other published study, by Anderson et
al (1999) concerned the effectiveness of meditation as a stress-management strategy. 91
teachers took part in a five-week course of meditation, levels of stress being compared
before and after. As hypothesised, levels of stress were lower following the course.
2.3
Summary and Gaps to be filled by the Study
Whilst the total volume of research into teacher stress is substantial, there are also notable
limitations and gaps. Whilst research has demonstrated that overwork, long working
hours, discipline and evaluation apprehension have been identified as intrinsic stressors in
teaching there has been little or no research into the effects of reducing or mediating
them, in part because they are determined at a national level and are not easily open to
20
experimental manipulation. Systemic factors are clearly important in the aetiology of
stress, but do not easily lend them to manipulation to reduce it. Again, outcome studies
for attempted strategies are lacking.
The limitations of using the existing research base to plan stress-management in British
education are compounded by other factors. Studies may not generalise well across
education sectors and the base of cross-national and cross-sector comparisons is
inadequate to make judgements as to when generalisation is justified. Thus the current
research intends to find out the effects of stress on the performance of teachers in public
secondary schools in Starehe District.
2.4
Conceptual Framework
Individual Cognitive factors
Causes
Teaching Intrinsic factors
Systemic / Organizational
factors
Independent Variables
Stress Among Teacher in Public
Secondary Schools
Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework
Dependent Variable
Source: Researcher (2009)
21
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN
This chapter presents the research methodology that will be used. It covers the research
design, target population, sample design, data collection analysis methods that will be
employed once the data has been collected.
3.1
Research Design
Descriptive research will be used carry out the research. Descriptive research is used to
obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena with respect to
variables or conditions in a situation (Mutai, 2000). The methods involves range from the
survey which describes the status quo, the correlation study which investigates the
relationship between variables, to developmental studies which seek to determine
changes over time. The respondents will be expected to describe effects of stress on the
performance of teachers in public secondary schools in Starehe Constituency. The
method is crucial for this study because the issue at hand requires to be described and the
phenomenon analysed for conclusions. The design is appropriate because according to
Mugenda and Mugenda (1999), descriptive research enables subjects to give more
information on the issue of interest to the researcher.
3.2
Target Population
Population has been defined by Mugenda and Mugenda (1999), as an entire group of
individuals, events or objects having observable characteristics. In this research, the
target population will be the teachers 342 secondary schools teachers in Starehe
Constituency. This is shown in table 3.1
22
Table 3.1: Target Population
School
Teacher Population
% of Total Population
Starehe Boys
57
16
St. Teresia Girls
30
08
Pangani Girls
48
14
Parklands Boys
30
08
Pumwani Boys
40
11
Pumwani Girls
14
04
Ndururuno Sec
18
05
CGHU
10
02
Muranga Road
09
02
Ngara Girls
39
11
Jamhuri High
47
13
Total
342
94
Source: MoE Statistics (2011)
3.3
Sample Design
From the target population of 342, stratified random sampling will be used because the
population will be stratified according to their gender giving two strata from where
random sampling will be taken. According to Kothari (2000), a stratified random sample
is used when the population is not homogenous making it the most appropriate technique
to come up with the sample. The techniques will also ensure that all the teachers will
have an equal chance of being the respondents of the study which checks any possibility
of biasness when sampling.
23
The study will sample using stratified random sampling using school and gender in each
school. This will ensure that the sample is representative both in terms of gender as well
as the schools. The table 3.2 provides the stratification and the sampling design that the
study employs. The study adopts discretionary a sample size of 30% given that a
representative sample must be at least 10% of the target population (Mugenda and
Mugenda, 2003).
Table 3.2: Sample Size
School
Teacher Population
Sample Size (30%)
Total Sample
F
M
F
M
Starehe Boys
27
30
9
10
19
St. Teresas
22
8
7
2
9
Pangani Girls
40
8
13
2
15
Parklands Boys
21
9
7
3
10
Ngara Girls
30
9
10
3
13
Pumwani Boys
29
11
9
3
12
Pumwani Girls
10
4
3
1
4
Ndururuno Sec
15
3
5
1
6
CGHU
7
3
2
1
3
Muranga Road
6
3
2
1
3
Jamhuri High
34
13
11
4
15
Total
241
101
78
33
109
Source: MoE Statistics (2011)
24
3.4
Data Collection tools and instruments
The researcher will use both primary and secondary sources to collect data for this study.
The primary data will be sought due to its nearness to truth and ease for control over
errors (Copper and Schindler, 2003). In this case, the researcher will administer
structured questionnaires, with mainly closed ended questions to the sampled respondents
who will fill them. Primary data will be collected from the teachers sampled from the 11
secondary schools within the constituency as regards the stress levels and causes among
them. The researcher will then collect the questionnaires later for analysis. Secondary
data will be sourced to supplement the primary data. This will be date that relates to past
related studies dealing with stress and performance among various professions and
moreso among the teachers. This will be conducted by referring to existing materials such
as, organizational reports, journals, other empirical researches in the area and any other
relevant document.
3.5
Data Analysis
The collected data will be thoroughly examined and checked for completeness and
comprehensibility. The data will then be summarized, coded and tabulated. Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) will be used to do the analysis. Descriptive statistics
especially, frequencies and cross tabulation will be applied to help establish patterns,
trends and relationships, and to make it easier for the researcher to understand and
interpret implications of the study. Pie charts and bar graphs will also be used to represent
data in a pictorial format, which can be easily used and understood by other users.
25
3.6
Expected Output
This research is expected to generate very useful recommendations regarding the effects
of stress on the performance of teachers in secondary school. The research project report
will also be realized, which will contain the research findings, conclusions, inferences
and suggestions that the stakeholders can employ. The research will also recommend
areas for further research studies by the world of academia.
26
REFERENCES
Admiraal, W. F., et al(2000). Effects of student teachers’ coping behaviour. British
Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 33-52.
Chan, D. W. (1998). Stress, coping strategies, and psychological distress among
secondary school teachers in Hong Kong. American Educational Research
Journal, 35(1), 145‐ 163.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd edition).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Derogatis, L. R. (1987). The Derogatis stress profile (DSP): Quantification of
psychological stress. Adv. Psychosom. Med., 17, 30-54.
Fern, E. F., & Monroe, K. B. (1996). Effect-size estimates: Issues and problems. Journal
of Consumer Research, 23, 89-105.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.
Guglielmi, R. S., & Tatrow, K. (1998). Occupational stress, burnout, and health in
teachers: A methodological and theoretical analysis. Review of Educational
Research, 68(1), 61‐ 99.
Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta‐ analysis. San Diego
CA: Academic Press.
Houston, B. K., & Vavak, C. R. (1991). Hostility: Developmental factors, psychological
correlates, and health behaviors. Health Psychology, 10, 9 - 17.
Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, F. L. (1990). Methods of meta‐ analysis. New York: Russel
Sage.
27
Kobasa, S. C., Maddi, J., Ouccelli, M., & Zola, M. C. (1985). Effectiveness of hardiness,
exercise and social support as resources against illness. Journal of Psychosomatic
Research, 29, 525‐ 533.
Kyriacou, C. (2001). Teacher stress: Directions for future research. Educational Review,
53(1), 27‐ 35.
Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological stress and the coping process. New York: McGrawHill Book Company.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.
Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal
of Occupational Behavior, 2, 99-113.
Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1985). Optimism, coping and health: Assessment and
implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychology, 4, 219247.
Vandenberghe, R., & Huberman, A. M. (Eds.). (1999). Understanding and preventing
teacher burnout: A sourcebook of international research and practice.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Watson, D., & Clark, L A. (1984). Negative affectivity: The disposition to experienceaversive emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 465-490.
28
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I: LETTER OF INTRODUCTION
July 2011
Dear Respondent
REF: REQUEST FOR RESEARCH DATA
I am a Master of Business Administration student at Kenyatta University, Nairobi. I am
required to submit as part of my course work assessment, a research project report on
“THE CAUSES OF STRESS AMONG TEACHERS IN PUBLIC SECONDARY
SCHOOLS: A CASE OF PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN STAREHE
CONSTITUENCY”
To achieve this, you have been selected randomly as a respondent of the study. I kindly
request you to fill the attached questionnaire to generate data required for this study. This
information will be used purely for academic purpose and your name will not be
mentioned in the report. Findings of the study, shall upon request, be availed to you.
Your assistance and cooperation will be highly appreciated.
Thank you in advance.
PACIFICA NYAMBONGI (MRS)
MBA STUDENT - RESEARCHER
29
APPENDIX II: QUESTIONNAIRE
This questionnaire has been designed to collect information from selected staff of Public
Secondary Schools in Starehe Constituency for academic purposes only. The
questionnaire is divided into two sections. Section I seeks to capture the profile of
respondents while section II will capture issues pertaining to the area of study. Please
complete each section as instructed. Do not write your name or any other form of
identification on the questionnaire. All the information in this questionnaire will be treated in
confidence.
SECTION I: BACKGROUND INFORMATION
1. Please indicate your department _____________________________________
2. Please indicate your gender (Tick as appropriate)
(a)
Male
[ ]
(b)
Female
[ ]
3. Please indicate your age bracket (Tick as appropriate)
Age (years)
18 to 25
26 to 35
36 to 45
46 to 55
Over 55
Response
4. Please indicate the highest academic level you have attained (Tick as appropriate)
Level
Secondary Undergraduate Postgraduate Others (Specify)
Response
5. For how long have you worked for Teachers’ Service Commission? (Tick as
appropriate)
Length (years)
1-5
6-10
11-15
Above 16
Response
6. For how long have you been in your current station? (Tick as appropriate)
30
Length (years)
1-5
6-10
11-15
Above 16
Response
7. What is your marital status?
Status
Married
Single
Widowed
Divorced
Separated
Response
8. How many children (dependants) do you have?
Number
None
1-3
4-6
Over 6
Response
Section B: Effect of Stress on Performance
9. Do you think that stress influences your performance as a high school teacher?
Yes
[]
No
[]
10. If yes to 9 above, briefly explain how it does …………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
To what extent do you agree that the following factors affect your performance at
the secondary school you are currently teaching? 5– Strongest, extent, 4 – some
extent, 3-don’t know, 2 – little extend and 1- No effect.
Factor
5
Cognitive factors personal to the teacher causes stress among
teachers
Family challenges causes stress among teachers
The workload of a teacher causes stress among teachers
31
4
3
2
1
The status of the school in you are, causes stress among teachers
The level of discipline among the students of the teacher causes
stress among teachers
School physical facilities and equipment causes stress among
teachers
Teachers with sicknesses or diseases are always stressed and thus
affects their level of performance in the school
The working hours of teachers in the school causes stress among
teachers
The Leadership styles in schools causes stress among teachers
Where 5 – Strongly Agreed, 4 - Agreed, 3 – Don’t Know, 2 – Disagree and 1 –
Strongly Disagreed
11. To what extent do you agree that the individual personality of a teacher affects the
performance of the teacher in school
Extent
5
4
3
2
1
Response
Where 5 – Great Extent, 4 – Some Extent, 3 – Don’t Know, 2 – Little
Extent and 1 – No effect
12. Please explain briefly your answer in 12 above………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
13. On the context of the workload in school, do you think it has got a great effect on
your performance?
Yes
[]
32
No
[]
Explain your answer briefly……………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
14. To what extent do you agree that the level of discipline of the school affects the
performance of the teacher in school
Extent
5
4
3
2
1
Response
Where 5 – Great Extent, 4 – Some Extent, 3 – Don’t Know, 2 – Little
Extent and 1 – No effect
Briefly explain your response…………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
..………………………………………………………………………
15. What other recommendations would you have for this study that may not have
been captured yet you consider important?……………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
END OF QUESTIONNAIRE
33
APPENDIX III:
S.NO
LIST SCHOOLS AND THEIR STAFF ESTABLISHMENTS
SCHOOL
CATEGORY
STUDENTS TEACHERS TOTAL
F
M
1
STAREHE BOYS
BOYS BOARDING
847
31
25
56
2
ST. TERESIA’S GIRLS
GIRLS DAY
380
23
5
28
3
PANGANI GIRLS
GIRLS BOARDING
1130
44
11
55
4
NGARA GIRLS
GIRLS BOARDING
756
29
10
39
5
JAMHURI HIGH
BOYS DAY
865
41
18
59
6
PARKLANDS BOYS
BOYS DAY
425
25
6
31
34
APPENDIX I– WORK PLAN
Activities
2009
May
Jun
Jul
Proposal Writing
Proposal Presentation
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Report Writing
Report Submission
35
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
APPENDIX II – BUDGET ESTIMATES
ITEM
SHS
CTS
Secretarial services
5,000
00
Photocopying and binding
2,000
00
Transport & Communication
10,000
00
Stationery
2,000
00
Internet & Consultation
3,000
00
Miscellaneous expenses
3,000
00
Total
25,000
00
36