ComparingNewWorldTraditions:ConflictandResistanceintheAppalachian
ProtestSongandtheMexicanCorrido
BenjaminDuvall-Irwin
Sinceatleasttheearly20thcenturytheAppalachianregionhasbeenlargelyperceivedin
thepopularmindasabackward,isolatedplace.Itspeopletoohavebeenstereotypedaspoor
whites,justasculturallyisolatedfrommodernmainstreamAmericaastheyareisolated
geographically.Appalachianstudiesscholarshiphasincreasinglychallengedthisuniversalist
viewofahomogenousregionbyhighlightingitsdiverseeconomic,ethnic,social,andreligious
realitiesanditsnationalandglobalconnections.Folkmusic,oncethoughttobeamarkerof
Appalachia’suniqueAnglo-Saxonheritage,hasbeenrevealedtocomefromavarietyof
heterogeneoussources.Thus,Appalachianfolksongshouldbeexaminedinanationaland
internationalcontext.SomescholarshaveindeednotedparallelsbetweenAppalachianballadry
andthecorrido,orMexicanballad.Whilethesetraditionsdifferinform,thereismuchto
compareincontent.EarlyparallelsweredrawnbyAmericoParedeshimself,thepreeminent
scholarofthecorridooftheU.S.-Mexicanborderlands.Recently,othershavefoundparallelsin
theseeminglymisogynistviolenceinthelyricsoftheir“lovesongs.”1InadditiontotheseareasI
suggestanewfacet:howthebordercorridoandballadsoftheAppalachiancoalfieldshave
beenshapedbyconflictandfunctionasameansofcollectiveresistance.Conflicthas
overwhelminglyframedthestudyofthebordercorridoandtheprotestsongsofCentral
Appalachia,butnostudyhasviewedbothtraditionsunderthissamelens.
ThisessaywillbeginwithabroadcomparisonofMexicanandAppalachianballadryasNew
WorldtraditionsinfluencedbyOldWorldballadry,andsummarizethehistoricalandquickly
growingpresenceofMexicansintheAppalachianregion.ThenIwillpresenttheballadsof
GregorioCortezandJoaquinMurrietaastypicalexamplesofconflictandthedialecticlanguage
ofthecorrido.Next,Iapplythesesameideastothepro-unionsongsofKentuckyfolksingers
like“Aunt”MollyJacksonandSarahOganGunning.Finally,Iexplorethemarriageofthecorrido
andunionsonginaballadaboutthe1914strikeandmassacreinLudlow,Colorado,andsuggest
thepossibilityofthecorridoinAppalachia.
NewWorldTraditionsandtheMexican-AppalachianConnection
ThepopularballadhasalongoralhistoryinEuropeandwasaliveandwellinSpainandthe
BritishIslesatthetimeoftheEuropeancolonizationoftheAmericas.Theromance,orSpanish
ballad,wasbroughttotheAmericasthroughSpanishconquestandsettlement,andlikewisethe
English-languageballadwasbroughttoNorthAmericafromtheBritishIslesbytheScots-Irish
andEnglishsettlers.ForgenerationstheseEuropeanballadswerepreservedintheoral
traditionsofthetworegions.2
TheseEuropeanrootsdominatedmostAmericanballadscholarshipuntilthemid-twentieth
century.BiasedbythecanonestablishedwithfolkloristFrancisChild’sEnglishandScottish
1
SimonJ.Bronner,EncyclopediaofAmericanFolklife(London:Routledge,2015),1052.
AméricoParedes,WithHisPistolInHisHand:ABorderBalladandItsHero(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,
1958),129.
2
PopularBallads,thefirstscholarsofAppalachianmusiclikeCecilSharpwerequicktorecognize
theoldEuropeansongspreservedinoraltradition,butlargelydismissedthenon-“Child”
Americancompositions.3
NotonlydotheNewWorldballadtraditionsofMexicoandAppalachiadrawfromtheir
respectiveOldWorldorEuropeanheritages,buttheSpanishromanceandBritishballad
traditionsalsooverlapincorpus.InSpainonecouldfindballadsofLancelotalongsidethoseof
theCid,4andsomeoftheseparallelsongsfromBritainandSpainthatsurvivedthevoyage
acrosstheAtlantic.Onesuchexampleofanidenticalstoryandstructurecanbefoundinthe
Appalachian“FourNightsDrunk”(“OurGoodman”Sharp32,Child274)andtheSpanish“La
BlancaNiña”(“LaEsposaInfiel”).ProfessorChildhimselfdrewsimilaritiesbetweenthetwo,
andgaveSpanishequivalentstomanyballadsinhiscollection.
InMexicoasinAppalachiatheOldWorldballadssurvivedforgenerationsintheoral
tradition,butmeanwhilefolksingersbegantocomposetheirownNewWorldor“Native
American”songsbasedontheoldEuropeanforms.Folksingersusedthesimple,unembellished,narrativestyleoftheballadtoexplorethenewsubjects,lifestyles,andeventsthat
developedonthenewcontinent.Folksongsbotholdandnewweredisseminatedorallyandin
printthroughbroadsides(hojasueltainSpanish).Between1980and2000censusdatashows
thattheHispanicPopulationofAppalachiatripledtonearly465,000.Between2000and2010
thisnumberdoubled.MexicansarethelargestsubgroupinAppalachia,comprising55%ofthe
Hispanicpopulation.Thesemigrantsarebringingnewculturestocommunitieswithdistinct
culturaltraditions,aswellasadaptingtheirownsocialpracticesinmusicandreligion.5
FurthermoretheyarearrivinginnewareasofAppalachiathathavenotexperiencedsignificant
immigrationinthepast,orcountiesthathaveexperiencedsignificantout-migration.6
Althoughitisonlyinthelastseveraldecadesthattheirnumbershavegrownsignificantly,
MexicansareknowntohavebeenpresentincentralAppalachiasinceatleasttheearly20th
century.Aseriesofphotographsfrom1938intheLibraryofCongressshowsaMexicanminer
andhisfamilyinWestVirginia.7In1920therewere98Mexicansreportedamongthevarious
otherethnicgroupsinHarlanCounty,Kentucky.8
MexicanfolksongalsoreferencestheirpresenceintheAppalachianregion.Inthe1920s,
theBethlehemSteelCompanyofPennsylvaniahiredMexicanandTexas-Mexicanstoworkin
3
AnnOstendorf,“SongCatchers,BalladMakers,andNewSocialHistorians:TheHistoriographyofAppalachian
Music,”TennesseeHistoricalQuarterly63(Issue3,2004):194.
4
JoséGellaIturriaga,Ed.,RomancesViejos(Zaragoza:EditorialEbro,1938),30.
5
HollyR.Barcus,“TheEmergenceofNewHispanicSettlementPatternsinAppalachia,”TheProfessional
Geographer59(Issue3,2007):299.DanielS.Margolies,“LatinoMigrantMusicandIdentityintheBorderlandsof
theNewSouth,”JournalofAmericanCulture32(Issue2,2009):251.
6
P.J.Carr,D.T.Lichter,andM.J.Kefalas,“CanImmigrationSaveSmall-TownAmerica?HispanicBoomtownsand
theUneasyPathtoRenewal,”TheANNALSoftheAmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocialScience641(Issue1,
2012):39;DanielS.Margolies,“TaqueriasandTiendasintheBlueRidge:ViewingtheTransformationofSpaceina
GlobalizedAppalachia,”AppalachianJournal39(3-4,2012):255.
7
See:MarionPostWolcott,photographer,MexicanMiner,BerthaHill,ScottsRun,WestVirginia,September1938.
https://www.loc.gov/item/fsa1998011513/PP/(accessed10October2016).
8
RichardJ.Callahan,SubjecttoDust:WorkandFaithintheKentuckyCoalFields(Bloomington:IndianaUniversity
Press,2009),77.
theirfactoriesandminesaroundBethlehem,someoftheminAppalachianPennsylvania.9The
song“CorridoPensilvanio”or“CorridodePensilvania”describesthistripfromTexasto
PennsylvaniaandgivesacluetoMexicanworkersinCentralAppalachia:10
Elenganchistamedijo,
–Nollevesatufamilia
paranopasartrabajos
enelestadodeWestVirginia–“.
[Thecontractorsaidtome,
“Don’ttakeyourfamily
soasnottopassupanyjobs
inthestateofWestVirginia]
Apparently,therewereotheropportunitiesforMexicanworkersinWestVirginia.Another
variantmentionschangingtrainsinKentucky.ThusthiscorridoevidencesMexicans’passing
throughorevenworkinginCentralAppalachia,aswellasworkinginnortheastern
Pennsylvania.
“Withapistolinhishand”:TheBorderCorridoandtheDialecticofConflict
In19thcenturyMexicothereexistedmanytypesoffolksongincludingtheromance,the
décima,thecopla,andthecorrido;bytheendofthecentury,however,thecorridohadcome
toreplacetheothersasthedominantformontheU.S.-Mexicoborder.11Foritwasduringthis
timethataseriesofconflictsofallsortschangedthelivesoftheborderpeopleandshapedthe
contentoftheirfolksong,resultinginthecorridoofborderconflict.Theyearsfrom1836tothe
1930s,dubbedthecorridocenturybyParedes,broughtviolenceandconflicttotheborderwith
skirmishes,revolts,andcivilwarsNorthandSouthoftheRioGrande,includingtheTexas
RevolutionandtheMexican-AmericanWar.12Ofcourse,the1948creationofaninternational
borderhadthelargestimpactonborderrelations,asSpanishandEnglishspeakersalikefound
themselvessubjecttonewlawsandregulationsandMexican-Americansfoundthemselvesin
aneconomicallyandculturallysubordinateposition.Thiscenturyincludedthestrongestracial
andclasssubjugationofthenativeMexicansandtheirsubsistencelifestylebytheprejudiceand
capitalistsystemoftheAnglos,andnotsurprisingly,includessomeofthebloodiestconflicts
andmosthostileballads.
Perhapsthemostcommonofbordercorridosarethoseofinter-ethnicconflict,which
criticizethepoorandoftenunjusttreatmentofMexicansandMexican-AmericansbyAngloAmericans.Inthesecorridosthereisanoverwhelmingthemeofdefianceandresistance,
usuallyanindividualstandingupforhisownrightsagainstanaggressiveAmericanauthority.
Indeed,thesocialandpoliticalinteractionsbetweenAnglo-AmericansandMexicanshavebeen
ladenwithconflictandcreatedaparticularatmospherethatbecameextremelyinfluentialin
thedevelopmentofthebordercorridotradition.ManuelPeñacallsthisthe“dialecticof
9
JamieJavierRodrıguez,“El‘AdiosTejas’inElCorridoPensilvanio:Migration,Place,andPoliticsinSouthTexas,”
MELUS40(Issue1,2015):76.
10
Ibid.,81.
11
Paredes,149.
12
Ibid.,132.
conflict”,oraclashofideological,economic,class,andracialforcesthatservedasamain
creativeinfluenceinthevariousmusicaltraditionsoftheSouthwest.13
Thisdialecticperspectiveofconflictismostevidentinthelanguageandimageryofthe
bordercorrido.TheheroisalwaysaMexicanorMexican-Americandriventoviolencebythe
unjustactionsofwhiteAmericans,whothenfightstodefendwhathebelievesisright,usually
withhispistolinhishand.14TheheroisalwaysreferredtobynamewhiletheAmericansare
reducedtoanamelessotheraseithercherifes(sheriffs)orrinches(rangers),whichrefertoany
sortofsheriff,deputy,TexasRanger,law-man,orposse.Eventhoughhemaybecapturedor
killed,theborderherogoesdownfightingtodefytheaggressingAnglosandtodefendhis
rights.Perhapsthemosttypicalexampleofthispatternisthatof“TheBalladofGregorio
Cortez.”Thereal-lifeGregorioCortezshotandkilledthesheriffofKarnesCounty,Texasaftera
misunderstandinglefthisbrotherdead.Hefledandthelawgaveamiraculouschase;bythe
timehewascapturedhehadkilledtwosheriffs,riddenhundredsofmiles,andevaded
countlessmen.
WhilethespokenlegendsofCortezaddothereventstothestory,thesongcloselyfollows
theactualeventsoftheordeal:thewoundingofhisbrotherRomaldoandthekillingofSheriff
Morris(referredtoastheMajorSherifforelCherifeMayor),thechase,andthecapture.Itisin
thesong’sdescriptionofCortez’sflightthatboththedialecticlanguageandtypicalcorrido
themesaremostprominentlypresented.Itisatthebeginningofhisflight,inthefifthandsixth
stanzasthatthemostimportantmessage,andmainthemeoftheborderherocorrido,isgiven:
“DecíaGregorioCortez
Consupistolaenlamano:
-Nosientohaberlomatado,
Loquesientoesamihermano.
DecíaGregorioCortez
Consualmamuyencendida:
-Nosientohaberlomatado,
Ladefensaespermitida”.
ThensaidGregorioCortez,
Withhispistolinhishand:
“Idon’tregretthatIkilledhim;
Iregretmybrother’sdeath”.
ThensaidGregorioCortez,
Andhissoulwasallaflame:
“Idon’tregretthatIkilledhim,
15
Amanmustdefendhimself”
Afterquicklysettingthescene(typicalofcorridostyle),thenarrativefocusesmostlyonthe
heroicsofCortezandthecowardiceoftheTexans,drawingastrongcontrastthatisdeveloped
throughout.Thispatternisrepeatedthroughoutthecorrido,inwhichCorteztauntstherinches,
performsadaringfeatofescape,andkillsanothersheriff,allwhileridingahead.
ThesealternationsthatbuildonthecontrastbetweenthebraveMexicanandcowardly,
ineptRangersfunctionprimarilyasaformofroleorstatusreversal,inwhichthecelebrated,
no-nonsenseTexasRangersdonotemergevictoriousasexpected.16Instead,itisthelone
Mexicanwhocomesoutvictorious.Thisvictory,however,culminatesasasymbolicone.
13
ManuelPeña,TheMexican-AmericanOrquesta:Music,Culture,andtheDialecticofConflict(Austin,TX:The
UniversityofTexasPress,1999),4.
14
Paredes,147.
15
Ibid.,155.
16
ManuelPeña,“FolksongandSocialChange:TwoCorridosasInterpretiveSources,”Aztlán:AJournalofChicano
Studies13(1–2,1982),26.
UltimatelyCorteztakesresponsibilityforhisactionsandgiveshimselfupwillinglyforthesake
ofhispeople.Thoughheisfinallycaptured,itisonlyafterfacingoverwhelmingoddsand
exactingheavycasualties.EvenindefeatCortez,andmoreimportantly,thecorridoheroin
general,achieveavictoryfortheirpeoplebydefyingnegativestereotypesandexemplifying
heroicvirtueslikebraveryandcunning,allwhilesingle-handedlyresistingordefeatingAnglos
ofsuperiornumbers.Whetherornotthecorridoheroisdefeated,itisalwaysincontrasttothe
negativerealityoftheborderpeople.Itisinthiscontrastthat,“asharpreversalofthehistorical
Anglo-Mexicanrelationship,inwhichtheAnglodominates,isachieved.Inthecorrido,instead
oftheMexicanbeingthedowntrodden,powerlessvictimofAngloAmericanexploitation,itis
hewhoassumestheroleofvictor.”17
Unfortunately,thesymbolicvictoriesofthecorridoherorarelyreflectedvictoriesinthe
real-lifestrugglesofMexicans.Nevertheless,thesesongsgaveculturalmeaningand
importancetoanoppressedgroup.Eventhoughtheactualmenofcorridosmayhavebeen
defeatedorimprisoned,thesymbolicheroofthesongsremainedanexemplarofcultural
valuesthattranscendedthedefeatoroppressionofactualeventsontheborder:“Inshort,
GreaterMexicanepic-heroicballadry,assongsoftriumphoveraracially/culturallydistinct
enemy,nowappearsatacultural/ideologicallevelasacompensatoryformofresistancefora
lackofvictoryinthematerialrealm.”18
AnotherexampleofculturalresistanceisthecorridoofthelegendarybanditJoaquín
Murrieta.LegendholdsthatsoonafterMurrietaarrivedinCaliforniaduringtheGoldRushhe
losthisland-claimtoAmericanminers.Laterheissaidtohavewitnessedthelynchingofhis
brotherandtherapeandmurderofhiswife,whichcausedhimtoformabandofmentorob
andpillagewhiteCaliforniansoutofrevenge.Whilehisactionsmayormaynotseemjustifiable
intheeyesofthelaw,theyinspiredaballadthatpraiseshimforhisindividualinitiativeand
vigilanceinresponsetothepersonaloffenseshesuffered.
Althoughatypicalincorridoformandstructure,incontentthesongrepresentsthesame
themesofanindividualdefendinghisrightsandhisactions:19
Alosricosavarientos
Yolesquitabaeldinero.
Conloshumildesypobres
Yomequitabaelsombrero.
Ay,quéleyestaninjustas
Conllamarmebandolero.
Amílaleynomeasusta
Nitengomiedomorir.
Vengoavengaramiesposa
Selosvuelvoarepetir.
Carmelitatanhermosa,
Cómotehicieronsufrir.
[Fromthegreedyrich,
Itookawaytheirmoney.
Withthehumbleandthepoor
Itookoffmyhat.
Oh,whatunjustlaws
Tolabelmeanoutlaw.
Thelawdoesnotfrightenme
NoramIafraidtodie.
Icometoavengemywife,
AndIsayagain,
MylovelyCarmelita,
Howtheymadeyousuffer]
17
Ibid.,31.
JoséE.Limón,AmericanEncounters:GreaterMexico,theUnitedStates,andtheEroticsofCulture(Boston:
BeaconPress,1998),106.
19
GrantEvansandJesseDeZamora,"JoaquinMurrieta,"JoaquinMurrieta(UniversityofTexasatAustin,2002).
18
CarlosVélez-Ibáñezexplainsthat“ratherthana‘socialbandit’heshouldbeconsidered,as
othersoftheperiod,a‘culturalheroandleader’becauseMurrietaorganizedresistancewithan
alternative‘auxiliary’politicalauthorityandgeneratedcommunityapprovalandlegitimacyfor
hisactions.”20Inhisballadheisnottreatedasanoutlaworcriminal,butasafigurethat
defendedhisfamilyandcommunityvaluesthroughorganizedandarmedresistancein
oppositiontoAngloauthority.
ThereareexamplesofsimilarfiguresinUnitedStatesfolksong,butinthecontextof
Appalachiancultureamorerealexampleofthisindependentspiritmaybeseeninthereal-life
moonshiner.Althoughtherearemanyfolksongsaboutmoonshine,therearefewthatpraiseit
outright.Mostlamentitsharmfuleffectsorcelebrateitseuphoriceffects,butsomedo
commentonthegovernment’sdisapproval(e.g.therevenueofficerscomingtoteardown
DarlingCora’sstill-house).Formanywhiskeymakinghadadouble-edgednature:
Whiskeywasbothaboonandacursetothemountainpeople:itprovidedfinancialsupport,
whichallowedmanytoenduretheworstofthepostwarhardships;butitdidsoatgreatcost.
Some……fellpreyto‘moonshine's’adversepleasures;othersservedtimeinprisonforbreaking
variousprohibitionlaws;afewdiedwhiledefendingwhattheyfelttobetheirbirthright:
21
whiskey-making. Similarly,thereallifecharacterofAppalachianbanditOttoWoodandthefolklore
surroundinghimparalleltheborderraidersandfolkheroesoftheMexicantradition.22Inrecent
decades,thepopularcorridohasspawneditsownsub-genreofnarcocorridos,whichdetailthe
storiesofdrugtraffickersandthelike.Here,however,isadistinctionbetweentheheroanda
mereoutlaw.Whereasthesmugglermaysimplybreakthelawforpersonalgain,boththe
moonshinerandthebordercorridoherodosonotoutofcontemptforthelawbutasselfpreservationtodefendhisrightsafterhisculture,livelihood,orpeoplehavebeenthreatened.
“WhichSideAreYouOn?”:ProtestSongsoftheKentuckyCoalfields
LiketheU.S.-Mexicoborder,Appalachiahasalonghistoryasaculturalborderlandthathas
beenhometomultipleethnicgroups.JoiningordisplacingtheCherokee,Creek,Choctawand
otherindigenousgroupswerevariousEuropeanslikeEnglish,Scots-Irish,German,Scottish,
Welsh,Irish,Swiss,French,andothers.Inthelate19thandearly20thcenturiesmanyAfricanAmericansandEasternandSouthernEuropeans(andafewMexicans)migratedtothecoalproducingcountiesofCentralAppalachia.
Consideringthemajoritywhite,English-speaking(thoughcertainlynotethnically
homogenous)populationofAppalachia,itsnarrativesongsofconflictarebetterviewed
throughthelensofintra-ethnicconflict,orconflictamongmembersofthesameculturebased
onsocialoreconomicclassdifferences.Nevertheless,theregionhasfostereditsowndialectic
20
CarlosC.Vélez-Ibáñez,BorderVisions:MexicanCulturesoftheSouthwestUnitedStates(Tucson:TheUniversity
ofArizonaPress,1997),100.
21
TedOlson,“AgriculturalThemesinAppalachianFolkSongs:‘TheFarmeristheManWhoFeedsThemAll’,”
JournaloftheAppalachianStudiesAssociation4(Issue1,1992):66.
22
TrevorMcKenzie,“‘RobinHoodoftheBlueRidge’:TheLife,Legend,andSongsofOttoWood,theBandit,”
Master’sThesis:AppalachianStateUniversity,2012.
ofconflict:“ThereisarichlodeofAmericanindustrialfolklorecomposedbywomeninthe
SouthernAppalachianMountains.Itcanbeattributedinparttoacombinationofcultural,
economic,historical,andpsychologicalfactors:arichmusicaltradition,aneconomicdisasterof
mammothproportions,ahistoryofradicalunionism,andtheindependent,pioneerspiritofthe
people.”23Inshort,thesefactorsuniquetotheregioncreatedtheirowntwo-sidedperspective,
withadifferentthematicrelationshipforadifferentconflict.
This“richlode”referstoNewWorldsongscomposedaboutcoalmining.CentralAppalachia
haslongbeenoneofthemostproductiveregionsforbituminouscoalextraction,andhasbeen
thegroundforconflictsbetweencoalcompaniesandlaborunions.Indeed,laboractivismhas
longdominatedwrittenaccountsofcoaltownlife.24Thefrequentandoftenbloodystrikesin
theseareashaveledtothecompositionofmanysongsthattakethishostileanddialecticview,
inmostcasesviewingtheunionworkersasoppressedsociallyandeconomicallybythecoal
companies.
Therearecountlesssongsthatdescribetheharsheconomicrealitiesofthecoal-mining
campsandtowns.Thesmallpaythatminersreceived(usuallycreditatthecompanystore)was
ofteninsufficienttofeedafamily,andcompanydwellingsofferedpoorshelterfromthe
elements.Thusextremepovertywastherealityformanyminingfamilies.Balladsingerslike
SarahOganGunning,whogrewupinaKentuckycoalcamp,singofthesufferingthatthey
witnessedfirsthand.TakeGunning’s“DreadfulMemories”asanexample:
Dreadfulmemories!Howtheylinger;
Howtheypainmyprecioussoul.
Littlechildren,sickandhungry,
Sickandhungry,weakandcold.
Dreadfulmemories!Howtheyhauntme
Asthelonelymomentsfly.
Oh,howthemlittlebabiessuffered!
25
Isawthemstarvetodeathanddie. Songssuchasthismakeastrongemotionalappealtothelistenerastheydepictinvividdetail
thehardlivesofminers’families.Othersongsdescribethehard,dangerouslivesoftheminers
themselves.Althoughtheycommentonthesufferingandpoorconditionsofmining
communitiesandmakeacompellingcasefortheplightoftheminer,theyoffernosolutionor
alternativetotheproblemsestablished.
Tofindasolutionsomeminersturnedtowardlaborunions,amovementwhichproduceda
wealthofpro-unionsongscharacterizedbythesamedialecticsfoundinbordercorridoof
conflict.Themostpowerfulexampleisthatof“WhichSideAreYouOn?”byFlorenceReece,
writtenaboutthe“BloodyHarlan”struggleforunionizationinHarlanCounty,Kentuckyinthe
23
HenriettaYurchenco,“TroubleintheMines:AHistoryinSongandStorybyWomenofAppalachia,”American
Music,9(Issue2,1991):209-224.
24
CrandallShifflett,CoalTowns:Life,Work,andCultureinCompanyTownsofSouthernAppalachia,1880-1960
(Knoxville:UniversityofTennesseePress,1991),116.
25
CheslaR.Sharp,“Coal-MiningSongsasFormsofEnvironmentalProtest,”JournaloftheAppalachianStudies
Association4(Issue1,1992):53.
1930s.InhersongshedescribestheHarlanCountystrikesasatwo-sidedbattleandcompels
workerstojointhe“right”side.Incontrasttoothercoal-miningballads(andmanyborder
corridos)thatmerelydescribesocialproblemsbutoffernosolution,thegoalof“WhichSide
AreYouOn?”istoconvertlistenerstoamovementandcommitthemtoaction.26Thisactive
intentionisclearlystatedinthesong’slyrics,whichspellout“itstwo-valuedorientation,its
classconsciousnessanditsfeelingthattimeisonitsside:”27
Comeallofyougoodworkers,
GoodnewstoyouI’lltell,
Ofhowthegoodoldunion
Hascomeinheretodwell.
Refrain:Whichsideareyouon?
28
Whichsideareyouon? Thesongsetsthedialectictonefromtheverybeginning,andremovesanymoralambiguity.
Immediatelythestruggleisdividedintotwosides,withtheuniononthe“goodside”whichthe
listenerisimploredtojoin:
We’vestartedourgoodbattle,
Weknowwe'resuretowin,
Becausewe'vegotthegunthugs
A-lookin'verythin.
Unlikeothersongsthatlamenttheconditionsofminersandtheirfamilies,thissongisoverly
optimisticandpredictsasurevictory.Thisfaithinthestrengthoftheunionactsasanother
formofstatusreversal.Hereitisthecompanygun-thugsandnottheminer’sfamilythatare
thinandwearyratherthantheminer’sstarvingchildren.
TheysayinHarlanCounty
Therearenoneutralsthere;
Youeitherareaunionman
OrathugforJ.H.Blair.
Ohworkers,canyoustandit?
Ohtellmehowyoucan.
Willyoubealousyscab
Orwillyoubeaman?
Againthestruggleissplitintwosideswithnopossibilityforneutrality:thereareonlyworkers
loyaltotheUnionandthe“thugs”loyaltothecompany.AlthoughHarlanSherriffJ.H.Blairis
mentionedbyname,hereasin“GregorioCortez”andothercorridos,theothersarereducedto
cowardsandtreatedasun-manly.Acleardistinctionisdrawnbetweenthe“real”menofthe
26
Ibid.
Ibid.,54.
28
Ibid.
27
Unionandthescabsandgun-thugsofthecompany.Ultimatelythelistenerisfacedwithtwo
choices:beamanandjointhewinningside,orbealousythug.
Anotherexampleofthisdialecticsentimentisseenin“Aunt”MollyJackson’s“IAmaUnion
Woman,”whichoffersthesameoptimisticcalltoarmscoupledwithitstwo-sidedclassconscience:
Iamaunionwoman
JustasbraveasIcanbe
Idonotlikethebosses
Andthebossesdon'tlikeme.
Refrain:JointheNMU,JointheNMU[NationalMinersUnion]
Wearemanythousandstrong,
AndIamgladtosay
Wearegettingstronger
Andstrongereveryday.
Thebossesridefinehorses
Whilewewalkinthemud,
Theirbanneristhedollarsign,
29
Oursisstripedwithblood. Heretheantipathybetweenthetwosidesismoreoutspoken,andthecalltojointheunionis
againimmediate.Thespeakerpraisesherselfasbraveandtheunionasastrong,ever-growing
organization.Moreimportantly,itprovidesanextremelyvividdepictionoftheclass-based
natureoftheconflict:thebossesenjoywealthandrichesattheexpenseoftheworkers.
SarahOganGunning’s“DownonthePicketLine”offersamuchstrongercontrastbetween
thebraveryofthestrikersandthecowardiceofthescabs,similartothepatternfoundin
“GregorioCortez”:
Wewentoutonemorningbeforedaylight
AndIwassurewe'dhaveafight,
Butthescabswascowardly,ranaway,
Butwewentbacktheverynextday.
Weallwentoutontherailroadtrack
Tomeetthemscabsandturnthemback
WewinthatstrikeI'mgladtosay
30
Comeon,andwe'llshowyoutheway. Thesesongspraisethestrikersforresistingtheintimidationtacticsofmineoperatorswho
harassedunionworkersandorganizers,andgiveamorallegitimacytotheirsideinthestruggle.
Coupledwiththestaunchdefianceandactiveorganizationoftheunionworkerswecanagain
seetheballadasaformoforganizedcommunalresistancebyanauxiliaryauthorityagainstan
29
30
Yurchenco,215.
Ibid.,216.
oppressivegroup,likeintheballadofJoaquínMurrieta.Again,thevictoriesachievedinthese
balladsaremerelysymbolicones.Unfortunately,mostofthestrikesbylaborunionslikethe
UMWandNMUwerenotultimatelysuccessful.31Nevertheless,songslike“WhichSideAreYou
On?”havebecomeanthemsforlabor,andevencivilrights,movementseverywhere.
CorridoandUnionSongatLudlow:HintsfortheFutureofAppalachia
Accordingtothesimilarfunctionsthattheyserveformarginalizedgroups,onecanexpecta
marriageofthecorridoandtheunionsong.ThelifeofminerandcorridistaEliasBacashowed
justthat.Hissong“Quevivalanación”(ThattheNationMayLive)describedtheLudlow
Massacreof1914,inwhichstatemilitiaandgunmenhiredbyColoradoFuel&IronCompany
fireduponagroupofminersandtheirfamilies.Likeanygoodfolksingerwhowillcomposea
songaccordingtoformulasandmotifsoftheirtradition,Bacacombinedbordercorridoform
andconventionswithpro-unionthemestocreateanewhybridform.Pertradition,hebegins
withaplaceanddate,butmovesbeyondconventionswiththeadditionofachorus:
DeWestVirginiallegan
telegramasmuyiguales.
Queel23deseptiembre
separanlosminerales.
Coro:
iQuevivalanacion!
iQuevivalanacion!
queaqui'stamospeleando
yenestafuerteunion!
[FromWestVirginiacame
verysimilartelegrams
thatthe23rdofSeptember
theminingwouldbestopped.
Chorus:
Thatthenationmaylive!
Thatthenationmaylive!
We'reherefighting
32
inthispowerfulunion]. Onceagain,acorridolinksMexican-AmericanworkerstoAppalachia.HerethementionofWest
Virginiareferstothe1913UMWAstrikeinPaintCreek,WV.ThereasinLudlow,gunmenhired
byBaldwin-FeltsDetectiveAgencyfireduponminers.Moreover,famouslabororganizer
MotherJoneswasactiveinboththePaintCreekandLudlowstrikes.Thus,Bacacallsforatransregionalunionforthebenefitofminersacrossthenation.Inthissongweseethesamepolitical
functionofthebordercorridoandtheprotestsongsofCentralAppalachia:anovertother,and
31
Sharp,54.
SarahM.Rudd,“HarmonizingCorridoandUnionSongattheLudlowMassacre,”WesternFolklore61(Issue1,
2002):31-32.
32
theemphasisonaneventtotransformittosocialaction.33Furthermore,thesongcallsupon
minerstoovercomeracialorclassdivisionsinamultiethnic,nationalunion.34
Bacagivesjustoneexampleofpossibleinteractionandhybridityoffolktraditionsamong
multiethniccommunities.GiventhepresenceofMexicanworkersinthecoalindustryof
Appalachia,itissurprisingtherehavebeennocorridoscomposedonthesubject.Hispanics
havecertainlybeeninvolvedinlaborstrugglesintheregion.Inthe1990s,agroupof
GuatemalanandMexicanworkersstagedadecadelongstrikeinMorganton,NorthCarolina.35
NeitheraretheystrangerstotheprotestsongandAppalachianmusictraditions.Latino
residentsintheregionattendlocalmusiceventslikefiddler’sconventions,andsomemariachi
fiddlersevenemulatebluegrassfiddlers.36Comparedtounaccompaniedballadssingingamong
AnglosthecorridohasfoundextrememainstreamsuccessamongLatinos,sothecorridoand
corridistascanbeexpectedtobefoundamongMexicanimmigrantstoAppalachia.AsMexican
immigrationcontinuesintheregionandcommunitiesbecomemoreintegratedwecanexpect
moreinteractionbetweenculturaltraditions.Forasthehistoryofthebanjoshows,musicin
Appalachiahasshownahighdegreeofculturalexchangeandhybridity.Tobesure,Mexican
migrantstoAppalachiaarebringingthesamemusicfoundintheSouthwestlikeconjunto,
norteño,corridos,mariachi,andreligiousmusiclikethecorito.Whatremainstobeseenishow
thesetraditionswillincorporateintoorbeinfluencedbytheexistingAppalachiantraditions.
CasestudiesbyscholarslikeDanielMargoliesshowthatculturalinterchangeisalready
occurringamongLatinomusicians,whousemusictoadapttolifeintheUnitedStateswhile
alsoaffirmingtheirownethnicidentities.Fewofthesestudies,however,pointtoAppalachia
andtodatetherehasbeennoacademicworkfocusedspecificallyonLatinomusicin
Appalachia.ExactlywhatkindsofmusicarebeingplayedbyMexicansandotherLatinosin
Appalachiaremainslargelyundocumented.Futureresearchinthistopicwillhelptodetermine
whatkindofmusicLatinosintheregionareplayingandtheextentofculturalexchange.
Still,theballadremainsanimportanttoolinthestrugglesoftheAppalachian-Americanand
theMexican-American.SinceWorldWarIIthecorridohasshiftedfromdepictingloneheroes
andculturalheroestothoseofvictimizationthatevokeoutrageinordertobringactivepolitical
resistance.37InAppalachiaprotestsingersonbothsidesoftheMountaintopRemovalmining
debateareevokingtheirmusicaltraditionsandhistoryofcoalminingtogiveplace-based
legitimacytotheirarguments.38Thesesongsmayspeaktonewconflicts,buttheformsarethe
same.Consideringthesharedhistoryofconflictandsymbolicfunctionsofthecorridoand
Appalachiancoal-fieldballadry,itseemsthattheAppalachiancorridoisinevitable.
33
Ibid.,36.
Ibid.,39.
35
LeonFinkandAlvisE.Dunn,TheMayaofMorganton:WorkandCommunityintheNuevoNewSouth(Chapel
Hill,N.C:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2003).
36
Margolies2012,122.
37
Peña1982,38.
38
TravisD.Stimeling,“Music,Place,andIdentityintheCentralAppalachianMountaintopRemovalMining
Debate,”AmericanMusic30(Issue1,2012):19.
34