Treatment Systems
Lessons Learned. EPA 840-F-97-001,Office Wetlands, Oceans,
Watersheds,Washington,D.C.
U.S. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency (1997c) Section 319 Success
Stories:VolumeII. EPA-841/R-97-001,OfficeWater,Washington,
D.C.
Physicochemical
processes
Brian E. Reed, Mark R. Matsumoto,
James N. Jensen, Roger Viadero, Jr., Wei Lin
GENERAL
Lawler (1997) reviewed the relevance of particle size distributions in understanding particle removal in flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration systems. Examples of how theoretical
and experimental studies together have provided greater insights
than either type of investigation alone are discussed. Recommendations for improving particle size distribution measurement and analysis are elucidated. Particle size analyses of primary and secondary wastewaters for mass, chemical oxygen
demand (COD), and phosphorus were conducted (Neis and
Tiehm, 1997). Size separation was performed using polycarbonate filters and sieves and was compared with results from an
automated laser particle size instrument.
A study to compare two methods, physical and chemical, of
measuring mixing times was reported (Manna, 1997). Theoretical and experimental comparisons are made. Lee, Paek, et at.
(1997) used jar tests to evaluate the influence of velocity gradient on coagulation. They found that rapid dispersion of alum
is more important in the coagulation process than coagulantparticle collision promotion. Bekker et ai. (1997) investigated
the possibility of separating solid-liquid suspensions using a
standing ultrasonic acoustic wave. They tested the process using
a water/talc suspension and a process cooling water.
Thompson et al. (1997) investigated the relationship between
hardness removal and natural organic matter (NOM) removal
in water treatment. They found a strong correlation between the
amount of magnesium precipitated and amount of dissolved
organic carbon (DOC) removed. Dissolved organic carbon removal was also found to depend on the hydrophobic tendency
of the NOM. Separation of iron and manganese into soluble,
colloidal, and particulate fractions was used to improve removal
at water treatment plants (Carlson et at., 1997). Fractionation
data can be used to identify whether improvement in oxidation
conditions or solids capture efficiency are needed. Two examples of how fractionation data were used in different ways to
correct deficiencies at two different plants are presented. Garrido et al. (1997) developed a fuzzy logic controller for a wastewater neutralization system. The controller was compared to
other types of controllers using a variety of wastewaters with
different buffering capacities and acid concentrations. The authors outline the advantages of the fuzzy logic controller over
other systems.
Supercritical extraction of heavy metals was demonstrated
LiteratureReview
1998
U.S. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(1997d)StormwaterBMP Design Supplementfor Cold Climates.OfficeWetlands,OceansWatersheds,Washington,D.C.
U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (1997e) Green Development:
LiteratureSummary
(Smart et al., 1997) using a variety of organophosphorus reagents. They observed high extraction efficiencies from a variety of matrices and from samples of high acidity. Extraction
efficiencies were found to increase with increasing pressure.
The use of hydrogen transfer agents and catalysts to improve
base-catalyzed decomposition of polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs) was investigated (Kawahara and Michalakos, 1997).
Greater than 99% disappearance of 20 000 mglkg of Aroclor
1242 was achieved within I to 4 hours at 34-350°C. The rate
of PCB disappearance increased with an increasing amount of
hydrogen transfer agents and catalysts. Wu et al. (1997) studied
the effect of several different additives on the removal of phenolic compounds by horseradish-peroxidase-catalyzed polymerization. The effects of the additives on optimum pH range,
horseradish-peroxidase dosage, reaction stoichiometry, and
minimum additive requirements were investigated. They identified polyethylene glycol as the most effective additive. Improvements in treatment of an industrial wastewater by multistage
neutralization were examined (Paraskevas and Lekkas, 1997).
They found that neutralization of an acidic dye wastewater to
the alkaline reach and then to pH 7 resulted in an 18% improvement in COD removal. Final treatment using ozone was suggested. Gould (1997) summarized treatment options for the paper and pulp industry. Options included physical (sedimentation, filtration) chemical (precipitation), and biological (aerobic
and anaerobic) processes. Swingle et at. (1996) described a
wastewater treatment program for an engine company. The
wastewater that contained primarily oily wastes was treated by
traditional physical/chemical methods while closed-loop strategies were developed. The prediction of polymer-conditioning
requirements in high-pressure dewatering devices was studied
(Murthy et at., 1997). Screw presses, a high-solids centrifuge,
gravity filtration, and filter presses were examined.
FILTRATION
Physical, chemical, and biological mechanisms occurring in
slow sand filters were examined (Weber-Shirk and Dick, 1997a
and 1997b). They found that influent particle concentration and
previously removed particles affected physical-chemical mechanisms that were significant over the particle size range of 0.7510 /hm. Sodium azide additions were noted to decrease particle
and Escherichia coli removal, indicating the relevance of biological removal mechanisms in slow sand filters. Bacterivory
was identified as the primary bacterial removal mechanism.
McMeen and Benjamin (1997) conducted a 16-month pilot
study comparing slow sand filtration using iron-oxide coated
olivine, uncoated olivine, and plain sand as the medium. Natural
organic removal was higher in the filter using the iron oxidecoated olivine. Bioregeneration of the iron oxide-coated olivine
was suspected because NOM adsorptive capacity exhaustion
was not observed.
Pennsylvania conducted a statewide filter plant performance
449
Treatment Systems
evaluation in 1996 and compared results with those of a similar
evaluation in 1988 (Consonery et al., 1997). They found marked
improvement in overall plant performance and reduction of positive Cryptosporidium samples. Ahsan and Alaerts (1997) reported on the use of horizontal-flow gravel beds as water treatment roughing filters. The filter is compartmentalized; the first
compartment combines flocculation and sedimentation. A mathematical model for the gravel bed filter was developed based
on an analogy with a parallel plate settler in which both sedimentation and flocculation are incorporated.
Landa et al. (1997) studied the filtration of primary effluent
using I-m deep sand filters with different effective sand sizes,
0.6,0.8, and 1.2 mm. Filtration efficiency was analyzed in terms
of suspended solids concentration, particle size distribution, and
helminth egg counts. A filter with a 1.2 mm sand provided the
best overall performance. To overcome rapid head loss development in dual-medium filters treated alum flocculated tertiary
wastewaters, Vigneswaran et al. (1997) investigated two alternatives: a mobile bed filter and a combined downflow floating
medium f1occulator/prefilter with a subsequent coarse sand filter. Significant improvement was found with the latter system
in terms of filter run time and removal efficiencies. The removal
of monodispersed suspensions of 0.46- and 0.816-j.lm particles
in the early stages of deep bed filtration was studied (Jegatheesan and Vigneswaran, 1997). For both equal particle concentrations and equal surface area concentrations, the removal of the
larger particles was found to be higher.
Aim et al. (1997) studied the effect of particle size and size
distribution on granular bed filtration and dynamic microfiltration performance. They found that particle removal efficiency
of small particles « I j.lm) was poor during the initial stages
of the filter run but increased during the transient stage. In
microfiltration, solids retention appears to be mainly related to
the largest pore size of the membrane. A similar study by Kaminski et al. (1997) looked at the removal of different particle
size fractions of activated-sludge effluent for different filtration
conditions. Filtration rate, grain size, f\occulant type and dosage,
and function parameters were examined. They found that filtration efficiency was more sensitive to filtration conditions when
coagulant aids were used. Hatukai et al. (1997) used particle
size counts and particle size distributions to optimize filter performance for Giaridia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts. Turbidity alone was not sensitive enough for this purpose. They
observed that preoxidant type and dosing of alum and cationic
polymer affected removal efficiency during direct filtration.
Deep bed filtration using a permeable synthetic medium was
investigated (Gimbel and Nahrstedt, 1997). A parametric study
to determine the effect of operating variables (for example,
medium porosity and fiber diameter) and particle characteristics
(for example, size and density) was conducted. They found that
particle collection efficiency was better compared to conventional deep bed filtration. Kobler and Boller (1997) studied that
fiItration characteristics of different types of tertiary filters at
seven wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Switzerland.
Performance was compared by noting changes in particle size
distributions for each filter type and different operating parameters such as f\occulant dose and filtration rate. The filters were
then classified according to their particle removal performance.
Cloth-media filtration in conjunction with chemical addition
to remove phosphorus from food-processing wastewater was
found to be highly effective (Kamaraju et aI., 1996). Wastewaters from both primary and secondary lagoons at a chicken450
processing facility were tested. Effluent phosphorus values from
full-scale runs were consistently below 0.5 mglL. Sorensen and
Sorensen (l997a) investigated the relationship among filtrate
flow rate, cake liquid contents, and cake structure compression
in cake filtration. They observed that, above a critical pressure,
the filtrate flow is nearly independent of pressure for highly
compressible cake structures. Methods were identified that
allow determination of the relationships among local structure
stress, specific resistance, and liquid content. Dynamics of cake
growth in cake filtration were mathematically described (Tien
et al., 1997). The moving boundary nature of the cake formation
process and the effect of fine particle retention were considered.
Fine particle retention was found to decrease cake permeability
and alter performance of cake filtration. Data from a range of
filtration experiments on dilute suspensions are used to determine the parameters that describe the physics of suspension flow
during compaction (Koenders and Wakeman, 1997). Relevant
physical data are extracted from experiments conducted at various solids volume fractions and zeta potentials, and are applied
to theoretical considerations. Dharmappa et al. (1997) presented
a method comprising a nonlinear, least-square algorithm for
determining the empirical parameters of filtration model. The
proposed algorithm was well suited for obtaining the best fit for
both effluent quality and head loss. Hemmings and Fitzpatrick
(1997) examined a technique of analyzing pressure signal fluctuations to determine the onset of collapse-pulsing that occurs
when air and water backwashing is used. The occurrence of
significant fluctuation patterns at the position where head loss
became constant implies that collapse-pulsing determined by
the technique is the onset of three-phase fluidization. Stevenson
(1997) investigated the effect of grain and particle size dispersion on flow and filtration through granular media. A mathematical model of granular filtration was constructed based on an
adaptation of the Carrnan-Kozeny equation for flow in porous
media to the cells of nonhomogeneous media and a consideration of the capture probability when a particle passes close to
a filter grain.
PRECIPIT A nON
Arsenic removal during hardness, iron, and manganese removal was studied (McNeill and Edwards, 1997a and 1997b).
They developed a simplified isotherm to predict arsenic removal
at water treatment plants using precipitative softening. In addition, they outlined operating conditions that decrease arsenic
removal efficiency. Mackey et al. (1997) investigated the use
of ferric chloride coprecipitation and activated alumina adsorption to remove arsenic from construction dewatering flows. The
system was able to meet a discharge limit of 5 j.lglL consistently
using the combined system. Control of pH was found to be
critical in maintaining consistent performance and effective use
of the activated alumina sorbent.
A fluid-bed adsorptionlcoprecipitation process to remove dissolved heavy metals was studied (Nielsen et al., 1997). Dissolved nickel, cadmium, and zinc concentrations were reduced
99,92, and 9%, respectively, at optimum operating conditions.
The final waste product was a dense granular solid with a water
content between 10 and 20%. A pretreatment plant at an automotive manufacturer was developed to remove chromium, lead,
and zinc from wastewater generated from paint system (Ismail,
1996). A space-efficient facility that included sodium hydroxide
metal precipitation was built and found to meet the required
Water Environment
Research, Volume 70, Number 4
Treatment Systems
discharge limits. Oiz and Novak (1997) evaluated an innovative
laboratory-scale precipitative system for removing iron, copper,
manganese, nickel, and zinc from acid mine drainage. Remova]
efficiencies were reported to be 98, 97, 96, 70, and 94% for
each of these constituents, respectively. The primary mechanism
for iron and manganese removal was found to be precipitation
and hydrous oxides; other metals were believed to have been
removed by sorption to the iron or manganese oxide surfaces.
Phosphate removal using basic yttrium carbonate was studied
(Haron et at., 1997). Yttrium carbonate was formed as the result
of precipitation of yttrium chloride and urea. Phosphate was
removed as the result of ion exchange with carbonate or hydroxide under alkaline conditions (pH between 7 and 12) and surface
complexation with yttrium under acidic conditions (pH between
2 and 6). The results of phosphate coprecipitation on calcite in
a calcium carbonate solution in the presence of algae were
presented (Hartley et at., 1997). Kinetic results and comparisons
and arsenic(V) removal when ferric chloride was used. Koether
et ai. (1997) synthesized the low-cost, preformed polymer polyaluminum-hydroxy-sulfate and tested its effectiveness using jar
tests and at a treatment plant. A lower dosage of poly-aluminum-hydroxy-sulfate resulted in residual turbidity and alum being lower or equal to levels achieved with alum alone. The
discharge of iron-coagulated sludge to sewers was demonstrated
to provide multiple benefits at a WWTP (Edwards et at., 1997).
Adding iron sludge to the collection system virtually eliminated
hydrogen sulfide within the anaerobic digester gas and prevented the formation of struvite throughout the solids-handling
facilities. Licsko (1997) examined the processes leading from
coagulant feed to the development of floes suited for solidliquid-phase separation. Short-lived and positively charged water-soluble aluminum and iron(IlI) hydroxide complexes and
metal hydroxide sols were formed, which are capable of destabilizing the dispersion. Rapid mixing of the coagulant will ensure
of coprecipitation
under abiotic conditions are made. They
rapid hydrolysis and retard dispersion destabilization. Dyma-
found similar results under biotic and abiotic conditions. Tiinay
et at. (1997) investigated the use of magnesium ammonium
phosphate precipitation to remove ammonia from leather tanning wastewater. Both theoretical and experimental analyses
were conducted. Effluent ammonia levels were found to be
acceptable for discharge to the publicly owned treatment plant
(POTW).
An extensive evaluation of different precipitants to remove
fluoride from an industrial wastewater was conducted (Postale
et at., ] 996). An initial round of bench-scale tests led to fullscale pilot tests of three alternatives. A]uminum chloride precipitation was identified as the most likely alternative to meet the
overall treatment objectives for fluoride removal and sludge
minimization. Wastewater from textile, paper, and cellulose industries were treated by hydroxide precipitation concurrently
with photochemical oxidation (Peralta-Zamora et at., 1997).
Significant organic (phenols, total organic carbon [TOC], and
color) reduction was achieved. However, results varied depending on the wastewater source. Frossard et at. (1997) identified one of the primary phosphate forms in FeS04 precipitates
as vivianite, a ferrous phosphate. They observed oxidized forms
in anaerobiclly digested sludges and nonoxidized forms in activated sludge. The effects of sludge treatment on the formation
and oxidation of vivianite are also reported. Baltpurvins et at.
(1997) studied the effect of electro]yte composition on zinc
hydroxide precipitation by lime. The solubility domain approach was used in the analysis and was experimentally va]idated.
czewski et al. (1997) investigated sludge properties (chemical
composition, specific surface of coagulation structures, sedimentation, thickening, and rheological properties) in three waterworks. Factors that destabilize coagulated sludges include
fine dispersion of the solid phase and a high affinity to water
molecules. The flocculation of a thickener feed using three cationic polyacrylamide copolymers of high molar mass and different charge densities was studied at three pHs in washery water
(Angle et at., 1997). The binding capacities were dependent on
pH but only slightly dependent on the polymeric charge density.
The reverse was true for the settling rates. For the polymers of
highest charge density, reducing the pH increased their effectiveness; for the polymer of lower charge density, changing the
pH had little effect on the residual turbidity. The effects of three
synthetic polymers, a natural polymer (chitosan), and chemical
coagulant (alum) on the removal of lignin from pulp and paper
industrial wastewater were investigated (Ganjidoust et at.,
1997). The use of chitosan resulted in the highest removal of
color and TOe compared to the polymers and alum. Kwak
(1997) studied the performance of aluminum-based coagulant
of differing hydroxide (OH)/aluminum mole ratios in terms
of turbidity removal, pH depression, residual aluminum, zeta
potential, mixing intensity, and temperature. Increasing both the
OR/aluminum ratio and mixing intensity minimized residual
aluminum and improved the incorporation of microflocs.
Flocculation of colloidal silica with aluminum fractal polymers was studied by aluminum magic angle spinning and silicon
cross-polarization magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance as a function of aluminum concentration and pH (Lartiges
et at., 1997). Aluminum partitioning within silica floes may be
ascribed to a competition between structural rearrangement of
individual aluminum polymers, which tend to adopt a flat conformation on the silica surface, and excluded area effects originating from neighboring ftocculant species. Langmuir-based
semiempirical models were used to predict DOC removal during
alum and ferric coagulation (Edwards, 1997). Using coagulant
dosage, pH, raw water UV254,and raw water DOC as inputs,
the effluent DOC could be predicted with a standard error of
]0% (0.4 mgIL). A lower error was possible when the model
was calibrated using site-specific data. Liu and Wu (1997) reported on a fuzzy logic controller that incorporated a streaming
current detector for the control of the coagulation reaction. Kaolinite was used to prepare the synthetic water, ferric chloride
was used as the coagulant, and a bench-scale water treatment
COAGULA TIONIFLOCCULATION
Amokrane et at.. (1997) investigated pretreating landfill leachates using coagulation-flocculation before treatment by reverse osmosis (RO). Ferric chloride and alum were effective in
reducing turbidity, but the leachate still had a high fouling index
primarily because of a high iron content. When H202 was added
and pH control practiced, the fouling index was decreased and
the ultrafiltration permeate was able to be treated using RO.
Hering et at. (1997) studied arsenic(V) and arsenic(III) removal
from drinking water during coagulation using ferric chloride
and alum. Arsenic(V) removal was relatively insensitive to variations in source water composition below pH 8. Arsenic(III)
removal during ferric chloride coagulation was a function of
water composition. The presence of NOM decreased arsenic(IlI)
Literature Review 1998
451
Treatment Systems
plant was used to simulate the reaction. Streaming current and
pH were selected as process outputs, whereas coagulant and
base concentrations were used as inputs. This combination functioned satisfactorily for coagulation control. A sensor for measuring floc size in a flush mixer and a control system using floc
size data were developed (Tambo et at., 1997). A series of
experiments was conducted to confirm the controllability of
settled water quality by controlling the flush mixer floc size.
The control method was deemed practical based on actual plant
testing. Torres et at. (1997) tested 23 coagulants/flocculants for
COD removal from a pharmaceutical wastewater. The effects
of impeller type, agitation speed, and the absence/presence of
baffles were also evaluated. The optimal coagulant/f1occulant
system reduced COD, color, and dissolved solids by approximately 41, 26, and 39%, respectively. Impeller selection was
crucial to water quality and sludge production. Pieterse and
Cloot (1997) reported on the special difficulties that arise for
algal cells in the coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation
processes. Restoration of the cell's negative surface charge after
charge neutralization, special gravity effects because of algal
cell size, and the forces created in the immediate vicinity of the
cells by metabolic processes were discussed. O'Melia et at.
(1997) investigated the effect of particle size on separation processes involving colloids. Emphasis was placed certain effects
of particle size on particle-particle interactions as well as the
development of a model that combined Brownian dynamics and
Monte Carlo techniques. Han et at. (1997) modeled the behavior
of Brownian particles in water. The collision efficiency factor
in Brownian coagulation (aBr) should be included and is a
function of particle size and ratio, the Hamaker constant, ionic
strength, and surface potential of the particle. Haarhoff and
Joubert (1997) dealt with the following obstacles that have pre-
vented the use of the Argaman- Kaufman flocculation model:
flocculation constants are critically dependent on coagulant dosage and initial particle concentration, the lack of standardized
test methods in terms of equipment, procedures and data analysis, and the flocculation performance parameter not being an
intuitive parameter in design practice. The fundamental factors
that influence the density of aggregated f10cs were reviewed
(Gregory, 1997). An emphasis was placed on the effects of
aggregate size distribution and the rate of floc formation and
collector capture. Ducoste et al. (1997) characterize the effects
of scale and impeller design on turbulence produced in the
flocculation process. The turbulence intensity and local turbulent energy-dissipation rate were greater for the Rushton turbine
than for the A 130 impeller, and the turbulence intensity increased with increasing tank size regardless of the impeller type.
Liem et at. (1997) investigated the use of vertically oscillated
grids to promote flocculation. Eleven types of grids were oscillated in 2-L jars, and velocity components were measured using
a two-dimensional laser doppler anemometer. The average root
mean square turbulence velocity values were constant at both
vertical and horizontal points of measurement, and the oscillating grids produced an optimum mixing environment for flocculation.
The effects of matrix, molecular mass, and ionic value of
polymers on their interaction with suspended solids and dissolved organic matter were studied (Lurie and Rebhun, 1997).
Significant differences were discovered in the interaction between low and high molecular mass polymers with particulates
in the presence of soluble organics. Narkis and Rebhun (1997)
examined flocculation processes in three types of waters con452
taining suspended and dispersed solids and organic substances
in the dissolved or colloidal form. The presence of anionic
organic macromolecules and soluble organics in water increased
the f10cculant demand appreciably and affected water quality.
The addition of fine but dense talc particles to the activatedsludge aeration tank improved floc formation and densified the
newly created floc (Bidault et at., 1997). In the long term, the
fine talc particles improved floc structuration and formed stable
and strong f1ocs. Bache et at. (1997) presented a conceptual
view of floc structure in the sweep floc domain. Precipitate
existed both as a positively charged adhesive coating and also
in a mobile state, possibly similar to a free precipitate without
a significant charge. Attraction between the primary charges
and shared coating in the form of an electrostatic bridge was
the dominant bonding mechanism when the primary charge
was significant. Desbos et at. (1997) coagulated/flocculated a
wastewater so that a physical/chemical sludge was formed.
Wastewater was then allowed to flow through the sludge bed
resulting in denitrification of the wastewater.
SEDIMENTATION AND FLOTATION
In a two-part article Chancelier et al. (1997a and 1997b)
described new insights to the dynamic modeling of a secondary
settler. In the first part, flux theory and steady-state analysis
were presented. In the second part, a dynamic analysis was
forwarded. As extensions of the model, two classes of particle
interaction were introduced to take into account the particle size
change as well as a model, giving the distribution of residence
times to take into account its effect on the velocity. The settling
velocity of a single floc made of a well-characterized kaolinite
coagulated with alum was measured as a function of floc diame-
ter to reconsider the Tambo's floc density function (Adachi and
Tanaka, 1997). The analysis was focused the exponent n in the
scaling relationship between the settling velocity and the floc
diameter. Improvements in final settling tank design were proposed (Ueber! and Hager, 1997) after an extensive study of
the flow and density fields in a rectangular prototype basin.
Modifications to the inlet structure, the density current, and
outlet structure are suggested. A preliminary design procedure
is outlined. Vitasovic et at. (1997) performed simulations of
secondary clarifier performance using data obtained through the
American Society of Civil Engineers Clarifier Research Technical Committee. These simulations were conducted using a
meChanistic dynamic model, which was verified against field
data. Clarifier behavior was analyzed on the basis of simulation
results. A mathematical model of the floc blanket clarification
process was developed (Head et aI., 1997) to simulate performance of full-scale water treatment systems. Model predictions
compared favorably with data from actual treatment works. The
model has been used to predict process performance as the
result of changing operational conditions. Albertson and Wilson
(1997) reported that the use oflarger, deeper clarifiers at municipal WWTPs would simplify overall treatment operation for a
comparable capital cost. They note multiple small and shallow
clarifiers lowers areal capacity and results in more complex
facilities that are more difficult and costly to expand. Because
of design and construction omissions, poor performance in a
secondary clarifier was experienced at a municipal WWTP.
Therefore, modifications to improve secondary clarifier performances were studied (Gjetvaj and Vukovic, 1997). Results from
pilot testing of various modifications are reported. High rate
Water Environment
Research, Volume 70, Number 4
Treatment Systems
tube sedimentation systems were evaluated (Jimenez and
Ramos, 1997). Various geometric configurations, module types,
and module positioning within the clarifiers were tested. Optimum sedimentation system design varied, depending on secondary treatment process.
Rasmussen and Larsen (1997) developed an on-line settling
column for measuring dynamic variations in settling velocity of
activated sludge. Changes in settling velocities as a result of
adding an impulse load of organics to the activated-sludge system
gas in a 100-mm-diameter fluidized-bed reactor (Sai et ai.,
1997). The effect of process parameters such as reaction time,
fluidizing velocity, particle size, static bed height, temperature
of activation, fluidizing medium, and solid raw material on
activation was studied. The product obtained in the f1uidizedbed reactor was superior in quality to the activated carbons
produced by conventional processes. Hand et ai. (1997) predicted the performance of fixed-bed granular activated carbon
(GAC) adsorbers using the pore and surface diffusion model
were observed. The observed variations were not detectable using
(PSDM) as a function of process variables. Thermodynamic
the diluted sludge volume index test. The sedimentation properties of activated-sludge floes were also studied (Hilligardt and
Hoffmann, 1997). Their observations were made on the basis of
particle size distribution and particle shape analysis. Variations
in differential settling were compared to effluent suspended solids
concentration. Standen et at. (1997) applied laser diffraction particle monitoring to optimize clarifier and filter performance for
water treatment. Various combinations and doses of coagulants
and f10cculantaids were tested. Particle monitoring enabled more
accurate determination of optimum conditions compared to jar
testing. Particle size distribution analysis was used to optimize
the coagulation/flocculation process before sedimentation and
dissolved air flotation (DAF) (Vlaski et ai., 1997). Influent particles targeted for removal were in the size range of 3-10 p.m.
A particle (floc) size-density relationship was forwarded for
inclusion in a process kinetic model.
Dissolved air flotation treatment of laundry wastewater was
investigated (Nurdogan et ai., 1996). Magnesium coagulation
at high pH and an overflow rate of 1.77 Llm2• s (2.6 gallft2 per
min) and 30% recycle ratio was found to be optimum. Treated
effluent, mixed with 50% freshwater, was reused in the laundering process, resulting in significant cost savings. A pilot
study was conducted (Braghetta, Jacangelo, et ai., 1997) to
investigate the use of DAF as a pretreatment to hollow-fiber
microfiltration. Dissolved air flotation pretreatment allowed for
significantly longer microfiltration runs. Membrane fouling by
the DAF-pretreated water was characterized by reduced pore
blockage and lower cake compressibility compared with raw
feed water. Jackson (1996) reported on the effects of energy
input on the dissolved gas flotation process for solids separation.
He found that, above a minimum energy input, higher pressures
do not improve liquid flow or bubble formation. Flotation rate
was also found to occur as the result of increased system temperature. The advantages of cothickening primary and secondary
sludges in DAF thickeners were summarized (Butler et al.,
1997). Significant reduction of organic recycling to the activated-sludge system was noted as the result of the cothickening
process. In addition, because of the high solids capture efficiency, the size requirements for the DAF system were not
substantially greater than that required for waste-activatedsludge thickening alone. Flotation systems for oil/water separations were reviewed (Aldridge, 1997). Principles of design and
operation are summarized, and information needed for selecting
an appropriate oil/water separator is outlined. Zhu et ai. (1997)
investigated the effectiveness of two commercial polymers in
a chemical addition-DAF system. Both polymers were effective
in breaking the emulsified oil waste, but the required dosages
varied considerably.
correlations for the estimation of equilibrium parameters and
empirical correlations for the estimation of mass transfer parameters were presented. The PSDM was successfully compared to
a six-component mixture for empty bed contact times (EBCTs)
of 2.4,4.8, and 9.6 minutes. Wang and Lee (1997) evaluated
the design of a GAC adsorber for DOC, ultraviolet (UV) absorbance at 245 nm, and pesticide removal based on pilot- and
small-scale data. A range of appropriate bed depths and reactivation frequencies based on treatment levels was suggested. The
effect of preloading on rapid small-scale column test (RSSCT)
predictions of atrazine removal was investigated (Knappe et ai.,
1997). The RSSCT successfully described atrazine removal for
a preloading period of 5 months but did not perform as well
when the preloading duration was increased to 20 months. The
authors suggested that the difference in model predictions between the two preloading periods may have been caused by the
enhanced removal of background organic matter in the presence
of oxygen. Xiu and Nitta (1997) used a quasi normal distribution
(Q-LND) approximation to predict breakthrough curves for a
linear adsorption system with axial dispersion, external film
resistance, and intraparticle diffusion resistance for slab-, cylindrical-, and spherical-particle geometries. The Q-LND approximation was simpler and as accurate as parabolic-profile approximations while using one hundredth the computational time.
A new adsorption procedure showed that adsorption competition can be successfully influenced in favor of organic macromolecules by generating variable velocity fields thus reducing
the adsorption of competing NOM (Weingartner et ai., 1997).
The optimization procedure was done with the aid of a mathematical model and an improved adsorption analysis method that
integrated NOM kinetic behavior and is expected to shed light
on NOM's carbon-fouling properties. In a two-part article, Newcombe, Drikas, Assem, et at. (1997) and Newcombe, Drikas,
and Hayes (1997) investigated the effect of NOM on"activatedcarbon adsorption. In the first article, the NOM was classified
by nominal molecular weight fractions using ultrafiltration. In
the second article, it was reported that adsorption of four ultrafiltration NOM fractions had a significant effect on the surface
area and pore volume distributions of coal-based activated carbons. The smallest NOM fraction (molecular weight < 500)
displayed the greatest competition with 2-methylisoborneol
(MIB). Four activated carbons manufactured from different raw
materials were evaluated for the removal of MIB to very low
levels (Chen, Dussert, et al., 1997). The bituminous carbon had
the highest adsorption capacity, followed by peat, lignite, and
wood carbon"s. Special attention was paid to determining the
precision of the MIB analysism which was reported to be 2 :±: I
ngIL. Gicquel et ai. (1997) examined the influence of dissolved
organic and mineral matter on atrazine removal by powdered
activated carbon (PAC). The response reactions were complex
and depended on the nature of the activated carbon, the nature
and concentration of the organic and mineral matter, and the
SORPTION OF ORGANICS
Activated Carbon. Activated carbon was produced from coconut shell char using steam or carbon dioxide as the reacting
Literature Review 1998
453
Treatment Systems
pesticide level. Thacker et al. (1997) used continuous stirred
tank and fixed-bed reactors to screen activated carbons for the
removal of organochlorine pesticides to low-microgram levels.
A tap-attachable water treatment unit for pesticide removal was
developed.
Cui et al. (1997) developed a method to determine activated
carbon adsorption isotherms for volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) [benzene, toluene, and trichloroethylene (TCE)]. The
method was based on mass conservation and Henry's law. Tessmer et al. (1997) determined the impact of oxygen-containing
functional groups on activated carbon surface on the irreversible
adsorption of phenolic compounds in the presence of dissolved
oxygen. The presence of acidic surface functional groups hindered the ability of activated carbon to adsorb phenolic compounds under oxic conditions by reducing its effectiveness in
promoting adsorption via oxidative coupling reactions. VanderLoop et al. (1997) studied the adsorption properties of a variety
of energetics compounds. A number of surface-catalyzed polymerization and degradation reactions were noted. The use of
octanol-water partition coefficients (Pow)for the evaluating the
adsorbability of pesticides by PAC was evaluated (Hu et al.,
1997). Estimated 10g(Pow)values were correlating with Freundlich isotherm parameters, and the value of log(k) increased
with increasing 10g(Pow)'A thermal detection technique based
on monitoring the effect of a partial desorption of adsorbed
material resulting from an applied heat pulse was used to follow
the adsorption of three phenoxyacid herbicides (Hubble et at.,
1997). This approach allowed for an effective prediction of
single-component breakthrough using a single-sensor configuration and an artificial neural network for signal interpretation.
Nakano et al. (1997) studied the use of pressure and thermal
swing adsorption for the removal of trihalomethanes (THMs)
from drinking water by activated carbon point-of-use units. By
vacuum heating at 70°C, chloroform was almost completely
desorbed. A typical regeneration mode would consist of dewatering, vacuum heating, and cooling.
Mehta and Flora (1997) passed an electric current through a
GAC column to investigate changes in the carbon's surface
characteristics and phenol adsorption capacity. The carbon was
less acidic after cathodic treatment and more acidic after anodic
treatment. Under oxic conditions, the adsorptive capacity decreased after anodic and cathodic treatment, whereas for anoxic
treatment the adsorptive capacity decreased for anodic treatment
and was unchanged for cathodic treatment. Adsorption and electrosorption of a benzene on GAC was studied (Plaisance et al.,
1996). Molecules without a permanent dipole are subject to
electrosorption, and the maximum effects of electrosorption obtained were + 34% adsorption and -46% desorption. In a threepart article, Hazourli, Bonnecaze, and Astruc (1996); Hazourli,
Bonnecaze, and Castetbon (1996); and Hazourli, Bonnecaze,
and Potin-Gautier (1996) reported on the adsorption and electrosorption of organic compounds by GAC. In the first article,
the influence of applied potential and number of cycles were
studied. A negative potential increased chloroform removal,
whereas a positive potential decreased adsorption. In the second
article, the influence of physicochemical parameters (temperature, pH, and adsorbate concentration) was investigated. Adsorption was lower at neural pH values, and the adsorption
capacity increased with increasing initial adsorbate concentration· and decreasing temperature. The focus of the third article
was the influence of the chemical nature of the activated carbon
454
and the adsorbates. A molecular model was proposed that explained most of the experimental observations.
Narbaitz and Cen (1997) investigated four methods for determining the extent of activated carbon regeneration. A methodology was proposed for exploratory regeneration research
involving many conditions to reduce the experimental effort
required to calculate the percent regeneration. P.c. Chiang et
al. (1997) compared chemical and thermal regeneration of nine
aromatic compounds exhausted on activated carbon. Attention
was paid to the effect of adsorbate molecular structure and
physicochemical properties on the adsorption capacity and desorption efficiency. Phenol and halogenated phenos adsorption
on GAC modified with metal oxide catalyst, followed by catalytic oxidative regeneration, was studied (Matatov-Meytal and
Sheintuch, 1997). Granular activated carbon (Filtrasorb-400)
adsorption capacity and surface area diminished somewhat with
oxide impregnation (Fe203, CuO, Cr203, Si02), but that did not
affect adsorption isotherm shapes. Oxidative catalytic regeneration of spent carbon, performed at 240-300°C with air, completely restored the adsorption capacity of phenol on GAC modified with catalyst, even after 10 regeneration cycles. An investigation was made on the effects of surface properties on the
uptake of phenol by carbonaceous adsorbents and on subsequent
regeneration by acetone leaching (Kilduff and King, 1997). Asreceived carbons derived from different source materials were
evaluated at pH values 2 and 9, and the surface properties
of selected adsorbents were varied by surface oxidation with
concentrated HN03 and/or heat treatment under nitrogen. Carbons derived from different source materials exhibited similar
total uptake and reversible (acetone extractable) uptake at pH
2 but exhibited a wide range of reversibility at pH 9, conditions
that promote oxidative-coupling reactions. Supercritical CO2
regeneration of activated carbons loaded with organic adsorbates (Chihara et al., 1997) was studied. A supercritical CO2
chromatograph packed with an activated carbon was used to
detect the pulse responses of the organics.
Lin et al. (1997) described a new process for treating photoprocessing waste by activated carbon and sulfur-oxidizing bacteria. A long-term study (160 days) was conducted, and continuous treatment led to GAC breakthrough, but renewing the GAC
and continuing the treatment for about 19 days demonstrated
good treatment effectiveness. Changes in adsorption capacity
and pore distribution in a biological activated carbon (BAC)
treatment system were studied (Kameya et at., 1997). Accumulations of minerals such as aluminum and calcium were small,
and decrease in pore volume was caused by the accumulation
of organic substances. Kim, Nishijima, et ai. (1997) reported
that DOC breakthrough curves shifted to the right when ozonation was used in conjunction with the BAC process. Ozonation
increased the biodegradability of the DOC and was responsible
for the high removal of DOC after saturation. The PACT™
process was evaluated for the treatment of Kraft pulp mill wastewater in a series of bench-scale experiments (Narbaitz et al.,
1997). The PACT™ process with concentrations of carbon between 0.5 and ].0 gIL performed only marginally better than
the conventional activated-sludge process. possibly because of
the low strength of the wastewater. Singh et al. (1996) also
studied the PACT™ process for the treatment of chlorinated
organics. On-site treatability evaluations, full-scale design, and
test data for methylene chloride and chloroform were discussed.
Noncarbon and Unconventional Adsorbents. Y. Chang et
al. (1997) examined the removal of NOM by an iron oxideWater Environment
Research,
Volume 70, Number 4
Treatment Systems
coated material (IOCM). The sorption capacity of the IOCM
was limited by the amount of iron coated on the surface, and
the NOM-laden IOCM was successfully regenerated using three
bed volumes of 0.5 M NaOH. Natural organic matter removal
by iron oxide-coated sand (lOCS) was also studied by Korshin
et at. (1997). The IOCS preferentially adsorbed the acidic fractions of NOM and NOM molecules that are enriched in aromatic
carboxylic carbon. Bernard et at. (1997) determined the adsorption capacities of several organic compounds on Mn02 pyrolusite. Negatively charged adsorbates were poorly adsorbed on
Adsorption of dyestuff was linear, and sorbate removal ranged
from 96-99.8%. Waste slurry generated in fertilizer plants and
slag (blast furnace waste) were converted into low-cost adsorbents and were used to remove malachite green (a basic dye)
from wastewater (Gupta et at., 1997). Parameters studied included pH, sorbent dosage, adsorbate concentration, temperature, and contact time. Kinetic studies were performed to shed
light on mechanistic aspects and to obtain the thermodynamic
parameters of the process. The uptake of the dye was greater
on carbonaceous material than on activated slag. Lambert et at.
Mn02, probably because of electrostatic interactions. Yama-
(1997) evaluated three inorganic sorbents (activated bauxite,
giwa et at. (] 997) investigated the feasibility of using temperature-swing adsorption for the removal of hydrophobic contaminants. Temperature-sensitive poly-vinylmethylether gel
(PVMEG) and a commercial sorbent removed a nonionic surfactant equally well. Desorption of the surfactant from the
PVMEG was carried out by shifting the temperature a few
degrees. Successive sorption/desorption cycles did not decrease
the adsorption capacity of the PVMEG. Eichenmuller et at.
(1997) studied the adsorption of acenaphthene on porous organic polymers using equilibrium, kinetics, and fixed-bed experiments. Freundlich isotherm parameters were obtained, and experimental breakthrough curves were in good agreement with
numerical simulations. Liu and Chang (1997) examined the
adsorption of 2,4-dichlorophenol and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol onto
hydrous montmorillonite in the absence and presence of a surfactant. The presence of the surfactant decreased sorbate removal, and the role of hydrophobicity of chlorophenols in solubilization and adsorption was discussed.
Keerthinarayana and Bandyopadhyay (1997) investigated the
sorption and desorption of lindane by wood charcoal (WC) and
WC treated with 1 N HN03• Wood charcoal treated with 1 N
HN03 was more effective in removing lindane than WC from
a fixed-bed reactor. Lindane removal was reduced considerably
in the presence of other pesticides. The sorption of organic
compounds by ground tire rubber was assessed as a function
of competing adsorbates, ionic strength, pH, ground tire particle
size, and temperature (J. Y. Kim et at., 1997). None of these
factors significantly affected removal. The ground tires showed
significant capacity as an adsorbate with the partition coefficients following the following sequence: xylene > ethylbenzene
> toluene> trichloroethylene> 1,1,1 trichloroethane> chloroform > methyl chloride. Srivastava, Tyangi, et at. (1997)
converted fertilizer waste into an inexpensive adsorbent and
used it to remove 2,4-dinitrophenol (ONP). 2,4-0initrophenol
removal was 100% at low weight ratios and 80% at higher
ratios. Desorption using 5% NaOH removed almost all the
sorbed ONP and following column-treatment with 1 N HN03,
the ONP sorption capacity of the column was recovered. Ramakrishna and Viraraghavan (1997) investigated five sorbents
(peat, steel plant slag, bentonite clay, fly ash, and activated
carbon) for dye removal. High removals by fly ash and slag were
exhibited for acid dyes, whereas peat and bentonite showed high
basic dye removals. For acid and basic dyes, removals were
comparable with that of activated carbon. Adsorption kinetics
of a-xylene by fly ash as a function of adsorbate concentration,
adsorbent particle size, and temperature were studied (Banerjee
et al., 1997). Data were described by first-order reversible kinetics, and a significant correlation was observed between the adsorption rate and the inverse square of the particle diameter.
Ozoh (1997) developed a semiactivated carbon from agricultural wastes (maize and cane sugar) for wastewater treatment.
fullers earth, and synthetic clay) relative to activated carbon for
the removal of textile dyes and pesticides. The synthetic clay
was the most effective sorbent for textile dyes, whereas there
was little removal of pesticides by the inorganic sorbents. The
adsorption of three basic dyes (basic yellow, basic red, and
basic blue) from an aqueous solution on palm-fruit bunch particles was studied (Nassar and Magdy, 1997). The maximum
adsorption capacities of the palm-fruit bunch particles were
found to be 327 mg yellow dye/g, 180 mg red dye/g, and 92 mg
blue dye/g. A comparative cost study, based on the adsorption
capacity alone, showed that the costs of the adsorbent were
1.9, 4.4, and 7.]%, respectively, compared with commercial
activated carbon granules. Sunflower stalks as adsorbents for
two basic dyes (methylene blue and basic red 9) and two direct
dyes (congo red and direct blue 7]) were studied using equilibrium isotherms and kinetic experiments (Sun and Xu, 1997).
The adsorption capacities of two basic dyes on sunflower stalks
were 205 and 317 mg/g for methylene blue and basic red 9,
respectively. The two direct dyes had a lower adsorption capacity. Yoshida and Takemori (1997) reported that the recovery of
direct dye by adsorption on a cross-linked fiber was technically
feasible. The concentration of the amino group fixed in the
adsorbent phase was 3.3 mol/kg dry fiber, and experimental
breakthrough curves agreed with numerical simulations. A lowcost, inorganic acid-activated clay was used as an adsorbent for
six dyes (two basic, once acidic, one disperse, one direct, and
one reactive) (Juang et at., 1997). The adsorptive capacity was
higher for the basic dyes and was lower for disperse, direct,
and reactive dyes. Based on adsorptive capacity only, the activated clay was more effective than other commonly used adsorbents. Sugar cane bagasse was cross-linked with epichlorohydrin in the presence of NH40H or imidazole and characterized
in terms of yield, anion-exchange capacity, packed volume, and
dye-binding properties (Simkovic and Laszlo, 1997). The strong
anion exchangers had dye-binding capacities comparable to
their anion-exchange capacities, indicating that they might be
useful for removing anionic dyes from wastewater. c.y. Kim
et at. (1997) prepared deacetylated chitins (10.7-67.2%) by
alkaline hydrolysis and determined the optimal degree of deacetylation (DO) that would effectively remove four dyes and chromium from a textile effluent. Sorption isotherms were carried
by varying the treatment time, pH, and initial concentration of
dyes or chromium ions. Results indicated that, except for the
chitin with 67.2% DO, the rate and capacity of the dye sorption
on the chitin increased with the increasing percent DO.
Literature Review 1998
SORPTION OF INORGANICS
Ion-Exchange Resins. Tiravanti et at. (1997) developed a
new process that used a macroporous carboxylate resin to remove and recover chromium(IJI) from tannery wastes. The pro455
Treatment Systems
cess, tested in a lO-m3/d pilot plant, was successful, and its
implementation
reduced sludge production by 80%. Isotherm
and breakthrough curves for mercury adsorption by chitosan
beads and a commercial resin were reported (Kawamura et aI.,
1997). The adsorption capacity and the intraparticle effective
diffusivity were both larger for chitosan beads. A 5% (wt) chitosan solution was cast into spherical gel beads and then reacted
with glutaraldehyde
to form imine cross-links between linear
chitosan chains (Hsien and Rorrer, 1997). The effect of crosslinking on cadmium ion-adsorption capacity was then analyzed.
The saturation adsorption capacity of glutaraldehyde decreased
from 250 to 100 mg of cadmiurn/g of chitosan as cross-linking
increased from 0 to 1.3 mole of glutaraldehyde consumed/mole
of amine. Baes et ai. (1997) investigated the removal of nitrate,
chromium(VI), arsenic(V), and selenium(VI) by an amine-modified coconut coir and a commercial resin. Maximum removals
by the commercial resin were about 3 times higher for nitrate,
9 times higher for selenium(VI), 10 times higher for arsenic(V),
and 9 times higher for chromium(VI) compared with the coconut-based resin. Ferreira and DeCarvalho (1997) studied the
influence of temperature, stirring speed, and chloride and sulfide
concentrations on mercury removal by anionic and cationic resins for a simulated chloroalkali wastewater. Increasing the temperature improved the kinetics but decreased the equilibrium
concentration.
Ion-exchange
kinetics within a conventional
strong base resin and a monodisperse resin with uniform particle
size were investigated using neutron activation analysis and
radiotracer techniques (Krongauz and Kocher, 1997). A higher
rate of ion diffusion and the bead-size uniformity may make
the monodisperse
resin attractive for analytical applications.
The difference in properties between conventional and monodisperse resins was not sufficient to affect the large volume applications of resins. EI-Naggar et aI. (1997) investigated metal sorption and separation of some divalent metals from solutions of
varying acidity by a new series of gamma-irradiated
ionic polymer resins. Three polymeric resins, phosphonic acid, phosphonate monoethyl ester, and phosphonate diethyllmonoethyl
ester,
were used, and metal sorption and separation results were compared with those of a well-known cation exchange resin. A
comparative study of kinetic models for ligand exchange as a
function of pH and concentration using a diaminoethyl-sporopollenin resin were investigated (Ersoz et aI., 1997). The rate
of ligand exchange increased with decreasing hydrated ionic
radius and pH. The curve fitting of the mathematical models
and the behavior of the kinetic curves were discussed for direct
ligand exchange under the conditions used. Y.H. Park et aI.
(1997) explored the use of modified poly(ethylene terephthalate)
(MPET), both powder and fiber types, as an adsorbent for the
elimination of heavy metal ions (for example, Cr3+, Pb2+, and
Cd2+). The most preferentially adsorbed was Cr3+, followed by
Pb2+ and Cd2+ ions, and the adsorption capability of MPETs
increased considerably with the presence of phenol. The ions
were preferentially adsorbed on finer particles at a lower temperature and pH 4 and were exothermically chemisorbed onto the
MPETs via an ionic interaction. Piggery manure digested in an
anaerobic fixed-bed reactor was treated by ion exchange for
ammonia removal using potassic zeolite (K-Zeo), magnesic zeolite (Mg-Zeo), sodic zeolite (Na-Zeo), and calcic zeolite (CaZeo) (Milan et aI., 1997). The best results were obtained with
the use of Na-Zeo. The exchange K-N14 was affected by the
low mobility of potassium in the zeolite structure, and the exchanges Ca-NH4 and Mg-NH4 were affected by the high concen-
456
tration of suspended solids and the viscosity of the influent. A
model was developed to simulate ion-exchange performance
within a fixed, annul\lf ion-exchange bed (Tsaur and Shallcross,
1997). The injected solution flows radially from the inlet located
at the annular bed's axis to the outlet located at the bed's periphery. The performance of the radial bed was studied for both the
exhaustion and regeneration cycles for the Na + minus H+ and
Ca2+-H+ cation binary systems. The predictions made by the
radial ion exchange performance model were found to be in
close agreement with the experimental observations. Ernest et
aI. (1997) developed a generalized parallel pore and surface
diffusion model for the multi component fixed-bed ion-exchange
processes. Both equilibrium and nonequilibrium
mass action
laws were used to describe stoichiometric ion exchange. The
parallel pore and surface diffusion model should be considered
for nonlinear large-particle systems, and the model predicted
that, the higher the valence or mass action equilibrium constant,
the more pronounced the tailing of diffuse waves, which results
in apparent adsorption hysteresis in the loading and washing
cycles.
By-Products.
Singh and Tiwari (1997) evaluated the chromium(VI) adsorption ability of a waste carbon slurry generated
from a naphtha-based ammonia fertilizer plant. Removal was
favored at low pH values, and the Langmuir isotherm was used
to model chromium(VI) removal. The use of an activated blastfurnace slag for lead and chromium removal was investigated
using batch and column experiments (Srivastava, Gupta, and
Mohar, 1997). Adsorption followed both Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm models, and the bed-depth-service
time model
was successfully applied to the lead column data. S.H. Lee et
aI. (1997) studied phosphorus removal by a blast furnace slag.
Phosphorus removal was pH dependent, and the column breakthrough was S shaped. Ozer et aI. (1997) reported on the use of
a depectinated sugar beet pulp for the removal of chromium(III).
Chromium(IIl) removal was 86% (10 mglL chromium(IIl); 20
gIL adsorbent), the optimum pH was 4.5, and adsorption followed a first-order rate expression. Lignin, a by-product of the
pulp and paper industry, was formed into powder and beads
and used in metal-removal experiments (Lalvani et at., 1997).
The authors hypothesized that oxygen functionalities such as
phenols present in the lignin may have served as sites for metal
exchange. Stefanova (1997) produced a fibrous sorbent from
wastes of a plant used for polyacrylonitril fibers. The sorbent
was then used in lead column breakthrough experiments. Samantaroy et al. (1997) studied the ability of a low-cost adsorbent
material, Kendu fruit gum dust (KGD), for the removal of chromium(VI) from synthetic and industrial (effluent) wastewaters.
The effects of contact time~ chromium(VI) and adsorbent concentrations, pH, and temperature on chromium(Vl)
removal
were reported. Removal efficiency increased at lower initial
chromium(VI) concentrations and lower pH. Recycling studies
suggested that, even after the sixth cycle, 20% loss of efficiency
of KGD occurred. A method to treat chromic tannery wastes
containing chromium(IIl)
and large amounts of organic substances was studied (Bulewicz et at., 1997). The addition of
certain types of coal ash from fluidized-bed combustion technologies, at suitable temperatures and pHs, resulted in the effective
removal of chromium(I1I) compounds. The method was simple,
inexpensive, and effective and can be used for chromic tannery
wastes treatment.
Activated Carbon. S.J. Allen et ai. (1997) investigated the
use of peat, lignite, and activated chars made from peat and
Water Environment
Research,
Volume 70, Number 4
Treatment Systems
lignite for the removal off heavy metals and dyes. Equilibrium
and kinetics experiments were conducted, and micropore volume, surface area, and adsorption capacity increased with the
extent of activation. Leyva-Ramos et al. (1997) studied the
sorption of cadmium onto an activated carbon. Maximum cadmium removal occurred at pH 8 and decreased significantly
with decreasing pH and increasing temperature. Holl and Horst
(1997) modeled the sorption of ions onto activated carbon using
the surface complexation theory. Two commercial activated carbons were investigated, and the surface complexation model
satisfactorily predicted carbon loadings. Rinkus et al. (1997)
investigated the regeneration of a lead- and phenol-aden activated carbon using NaOH. The regeneration procedure was
moderately effective.
Natural Material. Mellah and Chegrouche (1997) and Chegrouche et al. (1997) investigated the removal of zinc and lanthanum, respectively, by a natural bentonite. Zinc adsorption
data correlated well with the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms, and the maximum capacity was 53 mg zinc/g. For lanthanum, the effect of temperature was studied, and isotherm
constants were determined. Lead and dacmium removal by natural and pretreated (with 2 M NaCI at 22 and 70°C) zeolites was
examined in batch experiments (Curkovic et al., 1997). The
pretreated zeolite had a higher removal capacity. Komarowski
and Yu (1997) performed batch equilibrium and kinetic studies
on the use of a natural zeolite for ammonium removal. The
removal capacity was 2 mg/g for an ammonium concentration
of 25 mg/L and a zeolite concentration of 5 gIL, and 90% of
the removal occurred within 10- 15 minutes. The removal of
ammonia by clinoptilolite alone and in combination with sand
filters was investigated (Baykal and Guven, 1997). The combined scheme, clinoptilolite and aerated sand filters, was found
to be most effective. Salt et al. (1997) reported that Indian
mustard (Brassicajuncea [L.] Czem) seedlings grown in aerated
water were able to accumulate various metals from artificially
contaminated water over a range of environmentally relevant
metal concentrations. Seedlings concentrated lead(ll), strontium(ll), cadmium(I1), and nickel(I1 1) 500-2000 times and
cesium(l) and chromium(IV) 100-250 times from artificially
contaminated water containing the competing ions calcium,
magnesium, potassium, S04, and N03.
A seaweed biomass, protonated by an acidic or loaded with
Ca2+, was used to remove copper in a biosorption column (Kratochvil et at., 1997). The calcium cycle led to a high degree
of column utilization but poor copper recovery, whereas the
hydrogen cycle permitted 100% copper recovery but shortened
the column service time. Chu et at. (1997) investigated the
adsorption of cadmium by algal biomass and subsequent desorption by HCI and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). Although both desorbing agents were effective, the cadmium uptake capacity deteriorated with repeated use of HCI and EDTA.
A marine brown algae was demonstrated to be an efficient
biosorbent for copper (Matheickal et at., 1997). Copper uptake
capacity was 1.11 mmol/g at pH = 5, 90% of the copper was
removed within 15 minutes, and the presence of light metal ions
did not affect copper removal. Low et at. (1997) investigated the
use of moss (Calymperes detessertii Besch) to remove chromium(lII) from a synthetic waste and a tannery waste. Sorption
data followed the Langmuir isotherm, and maximum removal
capacities of 15.4 and 13.7 mglg for the synthetic solution and
tannery waste, respectively, were reported. The ability of Mycobacterium 'smegma tis to adsorb lanthanide cations was studied
LiteratureReview1998
(Texier et at., 1997). Adsorption data followed both the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms, and the adsorption capacity was
higher for the wet biomass than for the dry biomass. Brower et
al. (1997) compared the ability of a biosorbent (NCP) with ionexchange resins for the removal of heavy metals from a plating
wastewater. When the sorbents were tested for metal removal
at part per billion levels of cadmium-109, NCP demonstrated
the highest percent removal. These results suggested potential
treatment strategies for metal-contaminated wastewaters involving pH adjustment, primary treatment with a commercial resin,
and polishing with NCP.
Metal Oxides. In two articles, Merkle et al. (I997a and
1997b) reported on the method used for coating filter media
with manganese oxide and its subsequent use for Mn2+removal.
Treated anthracite developed coatings of manganese oxides up
to 30-f.Lm thick at loadings over 4 mg/g extractable Mn2+. In
the second paper, a model was developed that predicted column
effluent profiles under dynamic influent conditions of sorption
followed by desorption over ranges of pH, flow rate, ionic
strength, and Ca2+ concentrations. A process was investigated
for coating hydrated iron oxide on quartz sand and its use as a
heavy metal adsorbent (Lo et at., 1997). Three coating parameters were investigated: pH, iron concentration, and temperature.
The coated sand had a higher surface area and more pores than
the uncoated sand, and metal removal occurred over a wide pH
range and to lower levels than occurred during precipitation.
Lo and Chen (1997) studied selenium(VI) and selenium(VI)
removal by an iron oxide-coated sand (IOCS). Selenium(IV)
adsorption was specific, selenium(VI) adsorption was nonspecific, and removal capacities of 0.014-0.017 mmole selenium(IV)/g and 0.013-0.014 mmole selenium(VI)/g were reported. Tokunaga et at. (1997) used three lanthanum oxides
(lanthanum oxide, lanthanum carbonate, and basic lanthanum
carbonate) for arsenic(V) removal. All three oxides removed
arsenic(V) to below 0.001 mM; removal was pH dependent and
occurred by ion exchange at alkaline pHs and by precipitation
(as LaAs04) in the acid pH range. Weng et al. (1997) removed
chromium(VI) from solution using Ti02. Adsorption decreased
with increasing pH, temperature, and ionic strength and was
modeled using both the surface complexation model and the
Langmuir isotherm relationship. Phosphorus removal by activated alumina was investigated (Hano et at., 1997). The phosphorus removal efficiency was 90%, and the system remained
effective for about 500 days. Green-Pedersen et at. (1997) studied nickel adsorption by Mn02' Fe(OH)3, montmorillonite, humic acid, and calcite. Nickel surface affinity followed the sequence Mn02 > Fe(OH)3 > humic acid"" montmorillonite>
calcite, and the adsorption capacity of Mn02 and Fe(OHh was
large enough to maintain the nickel concentration < 50 I1>g/L.
Methylmercury adsorption by mineral oxides (a-FeOOH and
Mn304) and clays was examined (Desauziers et al., 1997).
CH3Hg+ removal was hypothesized to be by surface complexation and surface precipitation for the mineral oxides and by
interlayer adsorption for the clays. Ganguly et al. (1997) modeled metal sorption to heterogeneous sorbents using the lumped
parameter surface complexation model. The model was robust,
easy to use, and required minimal inputs and fitting parameters.
Hydrous oxides of iron (HFO) and aluminum (HAO) were studied for their ability to reduce copper (initially 4.3 mg!L) to !J.g!
L levels (Karthikeyan et at., 1997). Residual soluble copper
was compared following adsorption, where copper was contacted with preformed oxide f1ocs, and coprecipitation, where
457
Treatment Systems
copper was added prior to HFO or HAO precipitation. Removal
of copper was significantly influenced by oxide type and contact
methodology.
MEMBRANE
PROCESSES
Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration. Electroplating wastewater containing copper was treated using RO (Chai et a1.,
1997). The copper concentration was decreased from 340 to 4
mglL. Permeate copper levels decreased with increasing transmembrane pressure. Kastelan-Kunst.et a1. (1997) reported on
the removal of organic pollutants by commercial RO membranes. The pore distribution of the membrane was unimodal,
and organic removal was governed by mutual interactions
among the membrane material, solute, and water molecules.
Vuori et a1. (1997) investigated the use of RO and vacuum
distillation for nodularin, a hepatotoxin generated by cyanobacteria. Both RO and vacuum distillation removed nodularin effectively, and conductivity measurements were used to measure
the effectiveness of the RO purification process. Bench-scale
experiments were performed by Waypa et at. (1997) to assess
the effectiveness of RO and nanofiltration (NF) membranes in
removing arsenic from synthetic freshwater and source water
as a function of operating conditions (pressure and temperature)
and solution chemical composition (oxidation state, pH, and
cosolutes). Both arsenic(III) and arsenic(V) were effectively
removed over a wide range of operating conditions. Variations
in pressure, pH (4-8) and oxidation state had no affect on
removal, whereas increasing the temperature slightly decreased
removal. Braghetta, DiGiano, and Ball (1997) conducted studies
to examine the effect of pH and ionic strength on the permeability of negatively charged polymeric NF membranes. The permeate rate decreased with decreasing pH and increasing ionic
strength and was attributed to charge neutralization at the membrane surface and electric double layer compression. Visvanathan and Roy (1997) investigated phosphate removal from a
wastewater by.NF as a function of pressure, initial feed concentration, and a competing solute (su]fate). Phosphorus removal
was greater than 95% (effluent level < 0.1 mg/L as phosphorus),
increases in the pressure and feed concentration improved performance, whereas the presence of sulfate decreased phosphorus
rejection. A prototype NF plant was used to assess NF membrane performance prior to the design and construction of a
large-scale expansion to an existing plant (Ventresque et al.,
1997). Based on prototype results, a new membrane was developed that was capable of treating large volumes of water. Chellam et al. (1997) compared microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration
(UF), and conventional processes as pretreatment strategies for
NF of a surface water. Microfiltration and UF pretreatment
resulted in lower NF fouling rates and longer cleaning intervals
compared with conventional treatment. Lozier et al. (1997) investigated an integrated membrane treatment process consisting
of MF followed by NF for producing potable water in Barrow,
Alaska. The process was selected to treat surface water that is
cold, highly colored, and of low turbidity and moderate alkalinity. The dual-membrane system produced permeate that exceeded current regulatory requirements. Shen et a1. (1997) explored the feasibility of gas-filled membrane absorption for cyanide removal from wastewater. The influence of operational
parameters on mass transfer coefficients was the focus of the
study. Nanoti et al. (1997) investigated phenol removal using
emulsion liquid membranes in a microporous hollow-fiber ex458
tractor. The hollow-fiber extractor appears to offer significant
advantages over conventional liquid-liquid contactors because
emulsion leakage and swell are practically eliminated. Masstransfer coefficients were predicted by a resistance-in-series
model. Textile desizing wastewaters were treated using NF on
a pilot-scale unit operated in the pressure control regions (Chen,
Chai, et al., 1997). Permeate flux increased with transmembrane
pressure drop and decreased with feed concentration. Chemical
oxygen demand rejection was 95% for wastewaters with pH
10.2 and between 80 and 85% for wastewaters with pH 5.5.
Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration. Sierka et at. (J 997)
studied the use of UF and RO for the treatment of an acid stage
wastewater. Increasing the process temperature from 20 to 40°C
increased the permeate flux without degrading permeate quality.
Gere (1997) evaluated operating costs for a 19 X 103 m3/d MF
plant. Operating costs were $82/103 m3, and treatment plant
performance, reliability, and operating experience affected the
total cost of the process. The effect of dynamic membrane formation on the performance of crossflow MF in treated a domestic wastewater was studied at different pH values and KMn04
concentrations (Al-Malack and Anderson, ]997). The formation
of the dynamic membrane increased the flux and the rejection
of solids. Papachristou and Lafazanis (1997) examined the use
of membranes for the treatment of cheese dairies wastes. Pretreatment consisted of defatting in a grease trap, pH adjustment,
and equalization. Reed, Lin, and Viadero (J 997) and Reed,
Lin, Viadero, and Young (1997a and 1997b) investigated the
performance of a high-shear rotary UF system for the treatment
of actual oily wastewaters. The rotary system uses membrane
rotation to provide the turbulence required to minimize concentration polarization and permeate flux decline. The system was
effective in concentrated waste from about 5% oil to as high
as 65% oil. The effect of membrane type (ceramic versus polymeric), temperature, and rotational speed was also examined.
The flux (J)-rotational speed (w) relationship was described by
J = (W)O.90. Reed, Lin, Dunn, et at. (1997) reported results from
a pilot-sca]e conventional tubular UF study on an emulsified
oily wastewater. The tubular membranes were effective in removing oil/grease from the wastewater and were ultimately
chosen for the full-sca]e process. Viadero et al. (1997) studied
the effect of membrane rotation on the operational performance
of the high-shear rotary UF system. A virgin metalworking fluid
containing oil from 5 to 40% oil and rotational speeds of 750,
I 150, and 1 750 rpm was used. The permeate flux in the mass
transfer control region decreased as the membrane rotational
speed was lowered. Permeate back pressure, caused by membrane rotation, was demonstrated to be an important parameter.
Santos and Wiesner (1998) evaluated UF for water generated
during oil and gas production. Ultrafiltration reduced oil and
grease (O/G) levels in the permeate to below current and anticipated regulatory limits, and permeate flux depended on the type
of process water. The removal of copper(II) chelated of EDTA
and NTA by batch UF with the aid of polyethylenimine (PEl)
was investigated as a function of pressure, pH, and chelating
agent:PEI concentration ratio (luang and Chen, 1997). Copper
removal efficiency was greater than 97%. Uludag et al. (1997)
separated mercury from solution by continuous polymer-enhanced ultrafiltration (PEUF). Effect of mercury:polyethyleneimine ratio, pressure, and feed circulation rate on mercury retention and permeate flux were studied. Mercury retention was
close to 100% until the critical mercury:polyethyleneimine ratio
was exceeded. Sorensen and Sorensen (1997b) used cake filtraWater Environment Research, Volume70, Number 4
Treatment Systems
tion theory to analyze membrane filtration data from an activated-sludge study. The cake filtration model was shown to be
equivalent to the boundary layer mode] in principle but more
complete in its description.
OXIDATION
Ozone. In the study of ozone reactors, Reddy
et af. (1997)
currently using ozone and 5 additional mills planning to use
ozone for pulp bleaching were described. Low ozone doses
were found to be sufficient to obtain complete detoxification of
pulp and paper mill effluents (Hostachy et ai., 1997). Residua]
COD in final effluents was eliminated with a catalyzed ozonation process. Zhou and Smith (1997) observed that ozonation
was effective for color and adsorbable organic halide removal
from kraft pulp mill wastewaters previously treated in a aerated
conducted tracer tests at a 2 700 kg 03/d facility. The water
lagoon. Work with pilot-scale, fine-bubble contactors comple-
flow rate affected the Peclet number more than gas flow rate.
Hsu and Huang (1997) optimized the ozone mass transfer in a
novel gas-induced ozone reactor. Mass transfer coefficients of
0.8~ 1.2 per minute were obtained. The performance of an impinging zone reactor was compared to a conventional bubble
system for the ozonation of ]andfillieachate (Barrat et ai., 1997).
The impinging zone reactor showed lower detention time requirements, higher COD removal efficiencies, and lower power
consumption. In catalytic ozonation syst~ms, Logemann and
Annee (1997) studied the use of a fixed bed catalyst in conjunction with ozonation. The catalytic process consumed less ozone
and was less affected by hydroxyl radicals than conventional
systems. A kinetic model was developed for the solid Mn02catalyzed ozonation of oxalic acid by Andreozzi et af. (1997).
The adsorption of oxalic acid on the catalyst surface limited the
rate of ozonation.
In work with the ozonation of pure compounds, the reaction
between ozone and benzene was found to be one-half order
with respect to both concentrations of dissolved benzene and
ozone at pH 5.2-5.4 (Kuo, Zhang, et ai., 1997). The overall
rate constant was 2.67 per second. Trapido, Veressinina, et
ai. (1997) investigated the kinetics of the ozonation of five
chlorophenols. Second-order kinetics were observed, and the
by-products included hydrogen peroxide, quinones, and chloride. The ozonation of chlorophenols was found to occur more
rapidly at higher pH (Boncz et ai., 1997). Carbonate addition
slowed the rate of chlorophenol disappearance. Gilbert and Hodenberg (1997) observed that the ozonation of cysteine produced cysteic acid at pH 3 and cysteic acid, sulfoacetic acid,
sulfate, ammonia, and nitrate at pH 7. Ozonation of cystine at
pH 3 lead to the production of cystinedisulfoxide and cysteic
acid. By-products from the ozonation of fluorescent brightener
28 were identified by Lemeune et af. (1997). Ozonation studies
with melamine and s-triazine were used to confirm a proposed
reaction mechanism. Liakou et ai. (1997) identified oxalate,
formate, and benzenesulfonate from the ozonation of the azo
dye Orange II. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were found
to be degraded by ozone in oil/water emulsions (Kommi.iller et
ai., 1997). Acenaphthene and pyrene were degraded more rapidly than benzo[e]pyrene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, and phenanthrene. The ozonation rate of acrylonitrile and styrene were
observed to be accelerated at lower pH and higher alkalinity
(C.-N. Chang et ai., 1997). Nitrogen mass balances also were
conducted.
In work with the ozonation of wastewaters, Rice (1997) reviewed the full-scale application of ozone for pollution control
in recycling marine aquaria, electroplating wastes, electronic
chip manufacture, textiles, and petroleum refineries. More recent ozone applications for paper pulp bleaching and treating
rubber additive wastewaters, landfill leachates, and detergents
in municipal wastewaters were summarized. The use of ozone
in paper pulp bleaching was reviewed by Rounsaville and Rice
(1997). The ozonation systems of the 14 full-scale pulp mills
mented bench-scale studies. The POZONE process was used
by Wang et ai. (1997) to bleach wood pulp. Brightness increased
up to 44 points, and the Kappa number decreased as much as
22 points upon ozonation. Ball et af. (1997) used ozone to treat
an industrial effluent form a lead/zinc mine containing copper,
ammonia, and cyanide. An applied ozone:COD ratio of 3: I by
weight and a contact time of 30 minutes reduced whole effluent
toxicity at pH 11 but not at pH 7. The ozonation of eight
phenolic acids in olive oil mill wastewaters was studied (Benitez, Beltran-Heredia, Acero, et ai., 1997). The influence of
operating variables (temperature, pH, and ozone partial pressure
in the gas stream) and the stoichiometric ratios for the individual
direct reactions between ozone and each acid were determined.
Monochlorophenol, dichlorophenol, and trich]orophenol were
degraded by 03, 03 + UV, and 03 + UV + Fe3+ (Abe and
Tanaka, 1997). No difference in disappearance rates for the
chlorophenols between the three types of ozonation was observed; however, TOC removal was accelerated by the addition
on UV and Fe3+.
General Advanced Oxidation Processes. Pedit et ai. (1997)
developed a flexible, mechanistically based model of advanced
oxidation process (AOP) reactions and reactors. The model was
applied to the ozone-hydrogen peroxide oxidation of TCE and
perchloroethylene (PCE) and described data from a full-scale
demonstration plant accurately. Yue (1997) discussed the design
of conventional and novel oxidation reactors, with emphasis on
a laminar flow falling film photoreactor. A method for calibrating hydroxyl radical sources from various waters was developed
by Hoigne (1997). The decay reactions of peroxyl radicals generated from AOP reactions were reviewed by von Sonntag et
ai. (1997). Production of molecular and radical products was
discussed. Gonzalez and Martire (1997) found that the fate of
ozonide radicals from AOPs depended on their source.
Hydrogen Peroxide and Hydrogen PeroxidelUltraviolet.
Pal< and Chang (1997) found that the oxidation of cyanide by
hydrogen peroxide was enhanced greatly by the presence of a
Ru/MgO catalyst. The optimum pH for cyanide oxidation was
6-8. Ince and G6nenrr (1997) investigated the use of H202/uV
for the removal of the azo dye Reactive Black 5. Pseudo-firstorder removal rates were observed. De et ai. (1997) described
the oxidation of phenol by H202/UV as a two-phase process.
The H202 concentration controls the rate in the first phase,
whereas the phenol concentration controls the rate in the second
phase.
Fenton Systems. Tang and Huang (1997a) oxidized 2,4-dichlorophenol with Fenton's reagent. The observed optimal
H202:Fe+2 ratio of 11 also was predicted by a kinetic model.
The amount of hydrogen peroxide required for oxidation in a
Fenton system increased in the order TCE < PCE < dichloroethene < dichlorethane (Tang and Huang, 1997b). Optimal
H202:Fe+2 ratios ranged from 5 to 11. Chen and Wei (1997)
found complete chloride release from 2,4,6-trichlorophenol at
all H202:chlorophenol ratios. Rates increased with increasing
LiteratureReview1998
459
Treatment Systems
hydrogen peroxide doses. Grigoropoulos
and Philippopoulos
(1997) found that 2-chlorophenol was fairly resistant to oxidation by hydrogen peroxide in the presence of iron salts. In
general, the addition of ferric iron resulted in faster oxidation
than with ferrous iron. Quinones were found to catalyze the
oxidation of phenol in Fenton and photo-Fenton systems (Chen
and Pignatello, 1997). The degradation of the azo dye Orange
II with Fenton systems was studied (Bandara et al., 1997).
About 88% mineralization was observed after 40 minutes with
light irradiation. Oliveros et al. (1997) found the photo-Fenton
system was more effective than Fenton's reagent alone for xylidine oxidation from a high-strength wastewater. Addition of
UV light to the Fenton system resulted in a sixfold increase in
the COD removal rate (S.M. Kim et al., 1997). At a COD
loading of less than 0.6 kg/m3 per hour, more than 70% COD
removal was observed.
In work with alternative iron sources in Fenton systems,
Watts et al. (] 997) observed that chlorobenzenes could be oxidized by hydrogen peroxide in the presence of hematite as the
sole iron source. Desorption controlled the degradation rates at
H202 concentrations less than I %. Fenton reactions were observed with an iron-containing zeolite (Fajerwerg et al., ]997).
defects of Ti02, as well as the film thickness and the surface
area, have a great influence on photocatalytic
activity. Winterbottom et al. (1997) evaluated a concurrent downflow contactor reactor for the UV oxidation of phenol in the presence
of Ti02• Because of the high mass transfer characteristics of
the reactor, 100% conversion of phenol was observed. Comparison of laboratory- and pilot-scale data for the photocatalytic
oxidation of phenol revealed apparent differences in the observed rate constants (Gimenez et al., 1997). However, differences were accounted for when the radiation absorbed by the
catalyst was included in the analysis. Low-concentrating
and
medium-concentrating
solar collectors were compared in the
photocatalytic destruction of 2,3-dichlorophenol
by Malato et
al. (1997). Lindner et al. (1997) investigated the use of a new
anatase catalyst. It greatly improved the photonic efficiency for
dichloroacetic acid destruction but not for 4-chlorophenol.
In work with pure compounds, the disappearance of methylene blue was studied in a photochemical reactor with mesh Ti02
(Serrano and de Lasa, ]997). A dimensionless photochemical
thermodynamic efficiency factor was derived to quantify reactor
performance. Rideh et al. (] 997) studied the destruction of 2chlorophenol in an annular photocatalytic
reactor. The rate-
An optimum pH of 5 was noted. Tang and Tassos (1997) investigated the oxidation kinetics and mechanisms of four THMs
by Fenton reagent. The oxidation rate constants for the THMs
increased as the number of bromite atoms present in a THM
molecule increased.
Photolysis.
In work on photoreactor
design, Karpel van
Leitner et al. (1997) investigated a unique photoreactor with a
rotating quartz sleeve to maximize mixing near the UV lamp.
The extent of p-nitrophenol oxidation by photolysis, H20iUV,
and Ti02/UV was increased in the rotating sleeve reactor. Braun
and Oliveros (1997) reviewed the criteria for evaluating photochemical reactors, with emphasis on the UV absorbance characteristics of the water to be treated. Solar photoreactors were
compared for their ability to remove dichloroacetic
acid by
Golish et al. (1997). The advantages of light-concentrating
and
nonconcentrating reactors were discussed. Hashem et al. (1997)
investigated the use of vacuum UV for photolyzing pollutants
and simultaneously
generating ozone from oxygen. Applications to 4-chlorophenol destruction were presented. The performance of vacuum UV systems was shown to depend on the
determining step was found to be the reaction of hydroxyl radicals with adsorbed chlorophenol, leading to a kinetic model
describing the effects of 2-chlorophenol concentration, oxygen
partial pressure, and absorbed light intensity. Pramauro et al.
(1997) investigated the photocatalytic degradation of carbaryl.
Complete mineralization to carbon dioxide, nitrate, and ammonium was observed. The UV /Ti02 degradation of CCI4, CHCI"
and CH2Ch was studied by Calza et al. (1997) at pH 5 and pH
1] under anaerobic conditions. Dechlorination rates were in the
order CCI4 > CHCh > CH2Cl2, and stable intermediates were
identified and quantified. Choi and Hoffmann (1997) found that
chloroform, bromoform, and carbon tetrachloride were photocatalytically degraded through the trihalomethyl radical intermediate. A mechanism for the degradation of trichloroacetate
through a dichlorocarbene
intermediate was proposed. Pichat
(1997) studied the UV/Ti02 oxidation of pyridine, 1,2-dimethoxybenzene, morpholine, and lindane. The identification of intermediates lead to proposed mechanism involving 02' radical
anions. Azo dye destruction by heterogeneous photocatalysis
was found to be slower for dyes with larger numbers of azo
dissolved oxygen levels (Hiet and Braun, 1997). The radiation
was found to be totally absorbed within 0.1 mm of the irradiated
solution. Hempfling (1997) reviewed the use of a commercial
UV oxidation system for treating wastewater from nitroglycerin
and nitroguanidine production. By-products followed included
inorganic nitrates, nitrites, ammonia, and TOe.
In work on the photolysis of pure compounds, Cabrera et al.
(1997) demonstrated that the rate of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic
acid decomposition could be described by a simple kinetic rate
expression in a stirred photoreactor. The model was confirmed
in an annular flow photoreactor (Martin et al., 1997). Korte et
al. (1997) studied the photodegradation
of five unsaturated triazine herbicides. The photochemical destruction of two dicarboximide fungicides (procymidone and vinc1ozolin) was found
to be enhanced by the presence of humic acid, fulvic acid,
iron oxide, and titanium dioxide (Hustert and Moza, 1997).
Photolysis lead to dechlorination and isomerization.
Heterogeneous
Photocatalysis.
In reactor design and analysis, Tada and Tanaka (1997) found that the crystallinity and the
bonds (Tang et aI., 1997). Hydroxyl radical attack was thought
to dominate at above neutral pH values. Reutergardh and Iangphasuk (1997) compared Ti02 and cadmium sulfide as photocatalysts for azo dye destruction. The cadmium catalyst increased
toxicity through cadmium dissolution. Aliphatic compounds
formed from the oxidation of naturally occurring organic matter
were added during photocatalytic oxidation of phenol (Renzi et
al., 1997). The added compounds had only a minor effect on
the intermediates produced. Lu and Chen (] 997) found that
propoxur was more difficult to photocatalytically
degrade than
2,4-D. The products of both compounds were more toxic than
the parent material after partial oxidation. Kesselman et al.
(1997) investigated the Ti02-catalyzed
photodegradation
of 4chlorocatechol at illuminated Ti02 electrodes operated at a constant current density. The initial rates of degradation were linearly related to the concentration of the sorbed substrate.
In the heterogeneous photocatalysis of wastewaters, Preis,
Terentyeva, and Rozkov (1997) treated wastewaters from the
thermal treatment of oil shales. Better performance was ob-
460
Water Environment
Research,
Volume 70, Number 4
Treatment Systems
served when the wastewater was diluted. Results were compared
to the oxidation of model phenolic compounds. Similar findings
were found during the photocatalytic oxidation of aromatic
amino compounds (Preis, Krichevskaya, and Kharchenko,
1997). Solar photocatalytic reactors were shown to be inexpensive and effective for the oxidation of biologically or physically
pretreated wastewaters (Freudenhammer et ai., 1997). The use
of an excimer laser at 193 nm gave superior performance for
the decolorization of dye wastewaters than at 248 nm (Unkroth
et al., 1997). Eggins et al. (1997) photolysed humic acid in a
Degussa P25 0.1 % Ti02 solution using a mercury lamp. It took
12 minutes to reduce the humic acid concentration by one-half;
however, complete mineralization required 60 minutes. The
photocatalytic oxidation rates of nitrotoluene and dinitrotoluene
in a Degussa P25 Ti02 solution were reported to be a pH independent (Kumar and Davis, 1997). The oxidation rates of mononitrotoluenes were 60-80% greater than those of dinitrotolu-
H202 (Beltran, Encinar, and Gonzalez, 1997). The ozonefUV
process maximized TOC and COD removal in both waste
streams. Ozone and OiH202 were compared for the treatment of
wastewater from pesticide manufacturing (Ormad et ai., 1997).
Many oxidation products (primarily alcohols, aldehydes, and
acids) were identified. Mansilla et al. (1997) found that photocatalysis in the presence of oxygen was superior to ozone and
ozonefUV for the decolorization of a bleaching effluent. Pharmaceutical wastewater was treated with H202fUV, ozonelUV,
and Fenton's reagent (Hofl et al., 1997). Chemical oxygen demand removals were large with all methods, but Fenton's reagent showed the greatest degree of COD and adsorbable organic halide removal in the shortest time. Steensen (1997) used
hydrogen peroxidefUV, ozone, and ozone with a fixed bed catalyst to treated severallandfillieachates. All process performed
well, but hydrogen peroxidefUV required the greatest amount
of energy. Luck et al. (1997) compared ozone and catalytic
enes.
ozone for the removal of COD from printing circuit board rinse
Comparison of Advanced Oxidation Processes. In reviews
comparing AOPs, Gulyas (1997) stated that oxidation by-products must be considered when evaluating processes. Beltran
(1997) contrasted the reaction mechanisms in ozonelhydrogen
peroxide and ozonelUV processes. In work with pure compounds, Kuo, Yuan, and Hill (1997) compared the kinetics of
ozonation and ozonelhydrogen peroxide oxidation of ammonia
in alkaline solutions. Ozonation was controlled by the direct
reaction of ammonia and ozone, whereas oxidation in the presence of hydrogen peroxide was controlled by the formation of
HO- radicals. Ozonation, OiUV, and UVIH202 were compared
for the degradation of six chlorophenols (Trapido, Hivvonen,
et aI., 1997). Although all methods were deemed satisfactory,
ozonation at high pH was determined to be the most effective
method to treat chlorophenols. Masten et ai. (1997) studied the
oxidation of 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene by ozone, ozonefUV, ozone/
H202, and ozone/UV/H202. At pH 2, ozonefUV performed significantly better than the other processes, but, near neutral pH,
all processes yielded about 97% trichlorobenzene removal. Mokrini et at. (1997) investigated the oxidation of phenol and
benzoic acid with combinations of ozone, hydrogen peroxide,
and UV. They found that both compounds were destroyed faster
by ozone alone at high pH, whereas 03/UV or OiH202 were
faster at lower pH. Beschkov et al. (1997) found that 03/H202
outperformed ozone and ozonefUV in the degradation of triethylene glycol dimethyl ester. The first full-scale facility for oxidizing TCE and PCE with 03/H202 was reported by Karimi et
al. (1997). The optimal hydrogen peroxide to ozone ratio was
0.5-0.6. Fenton's reagent and UV/H202 were compared for the
oxidation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (Basu et at., 1997). Dechlorination was faster and more complete with the Fenton system.
Sorensen and Frimmel (1997) revealed that nitrate affected the
rate of degradation of EDT A and several organic sulfonates
differently with UV alone than with UV/H202. Nitrate slowed
the degradation rate with UV/H202 but increased the photolytic
rate.
In work with wastewaters, Gehringer et al. (1997) studied
color removal in a biologically pretreated wastewater stream
from a molasses processing by ozonation, 03/H202, and 03/
gamma irradiation. Color removal occurred with equal efficiency with the three processes, but the BOD increase was
larger with ozonation alone. Wastewaters from a distillery and
tomato-processing plant were oxidized by UV, UV/H202 (Beltran, Gonzalez, and Gonzalez, 1997), ozone, ozone/UV, and 03/
Literature Review 1998
water. Phenols in industrial wastewaters were removed by UV,
H202fUV, photocatalysis, and Fenton's reagent (J. Chen et at.,
1997). Chemical oxygen demand reductions of 60- 70% were
observed with heterogeneous photocatalysis in 1-4 hours.
Nearly equal TOC removals of about 50% were noted during the
electrochemical and photo-Fenton oxidation of effluents from a
flavor manufacturer (Ribordy et ai., 1997).
Wet Air Oxidation. In work on reactor design, Debellefontaine et al. (1997) developed a mathematical model to aid in
the design of wet air oxidation (WAO) reactors. In work with
individual compounds, the WAO treatment of p-coumaric acid
and polyethylene glycol was investigated at 373-5 \3°K and
0.2-3 MPa oxygen (Mantzavinos, Hellenbrand, et ai., 1997).
Oxidation to carboxylic acid occurred under even the most mild
conditions, but complete oxidation to carbon dioxide was difficult (Mantzavinos, Lauer, et al., 1997). Aqueous solutions of
phenol between 460 and 1650 mg/L were oxidized in a batch
reactor at temperatures between 150 and 300°C and pressures
from 100 to 200 bar by Miguelez et al. (1997). The oxidation
reaction was found to be pseudo first order with respect to
phenol, with an activation energy of 34.4 kJ/mole. Donlagic
and Levec (1997) oxidized a model azo dye (Orange II) at 180240°C and oxygen partial pressures of 10-30 bar. The dye
decomposed thermally and oxidatively to form aromatic: intermediates, then organic acids, then carbon dioxide. Oxidation of
the ferrous-nitrilotriacetic acid complex at temperatures between 293 and 333°K, pH values between 2 and 10, and oxygen
partial pressures between 20 and 90 kPa were studied (Demmink
and Beenackers, 1997). The oxygen requirement increased with
increasing excess ligand. The oxidation of dihydroxyacetone
and glyceraldehyde was studied at temperature ranges of 573673°K, pressures of 25-40 MPa, and residence times from 0.06
to 1.7 s (Kabyemela et aI., 1997). Isomerization was thought
to be important because glyceraldehyde oxidation produced dihydroxyacetone and pyruvaldehyde, whereas dihydroxyacetone
oxidation produced glyceraldehyde and pyruvaldehyde.
In work on wastewaters, Lei et ai. (1997) found that several
metal salts and metal oxides catalyzed the WAO treatment of
dyeing and printing wastewater. Metal catalysts supported on
porous alumina were easily separated from the waste stream by
filtration and recycled. More than 70% of the COD from desizing wastewater was removed by Lin and Ho (1997) using WAO.
Copper catalyzed the COD removal. A low-pressure, wet oxidation process was used to treat steam cracker-spent caustic (Mat461
Treatment Systems
thews, 1997). The full-scale unit removed sulfide efficiently and
produced a neutral pH effluent. Sonnen et at. (1997) used the
polyoxometalate anion Nas[PV2MoI004o] to dissolve lignins
form unbleached kraft wood pulps. The anion also was used to
catalyze WAO under mild conditions (150'dgC, 0.7 MPa O2),
resulting in COD reductions from 1 200 to 2 000 mg OiL
initially to 550 mg OiL at steady state.
Supercritical Water Oxidation. Krajnc and Levec (1997)
evaluated the oxidation of phenol over several metal catalysts
in supercritical water. The by-products included dimers, single
ring compounds, organic acids, and gaseous end products. Nitrate and ammonia oxidation were investigated in supercritical
water at temperatures from 450 to 530°C and pressures near
300 bar (Dell'Orco et al., 1997). By-products included nitrite,
nitrogen gas, and nitrous oxide. Martino and Savage (1997b)
studied the thermal decomposition of cresols, hydroxybenzaldehydes, nitrophenols, and benzenediols in the absence of oxygen
at 460°C, 250 atm, and residence times of approximately 10
seconds. Less than 10% conversion for the cresols was observed, but the hydroxybenzaldehydes and nitrophenols were
more reactive. Martino and Savage (1997a) oxidized substituted
phenols in supercritical water at 460°C and 250 atm. Rate laws
showed that ortho-substituted phenols were more reactive, followed by para and finally para-substituted phenols. Proesmans
et al. (1997) studied the oxidation of methanol, acetic acid, and
phenol at 500°C and 345 bar with ammonium nitrate as an
oxidizing agent. High organic, ammonia, and nitrate removals
were achieved at stoichiometric concentrations.
Ultrasonic Irradiation. Hua and Hoffmann (1997) noted
that ultrasonic irradiation could be optimized as a treatment
process by adjusting the ultrasonic frequency and saturating
gas. Differences among the saturating gases and frequencies
were attributed to changes in bubble dynamics and thermody-
ylpyridine and 5-ethyl-2-methylpyridine (Stem et al., 1997). In
work with preoxidation of pulp mill effluents, Tuhkanen et at.
(1997) showed that preozonation increased BOD removal in a
subsequent activated-sludge process from 22 to 60 to 91%.
Sludge bulking problems also were reduced. Ozonation of kraft
pulp wastewater at high pH lead to production of organic acids
(Nakamura et at., 1997), which were completely degraded by
an activated-sludge process. Oeller et al. (1997) found that ozonation increased with biodegradability of treated paper mill effluents. As evidence, the BOD/COD ratio increased significantly
after ozonation. In work with other wastewaters, Jochimsen and
Jekel (1997) and Jochimsen et at. (1997) observed that partial
oxidation of tannery wastewater by ozone resulted in an increase
in biodegradability. Further ozonation reduced the extent of
biodegradation. A Ti02/UV system was used to reduce color in
a dyeing wastewater and make organics more biodegradable
(Li and Zhao, 1997). Preoxidation also appeared to reduce the
frequency of shock loads to the biological treatment units. Ozonation pretreatment of olive mill wastewaters was found to
achieve a large reduction in the concentrations of phenolic compounds (Benitez, Beltran-Heredia, Tornegrosa, and Acero,
1997). This lead to a significant increase in the methane yield
coefficient in anaerobic digestion following ozonation.
Miscellaneous Oxidation Systems. Lopez et at. (1997)
found that hypochlorite and chlorine dioxide reacted with ametryn to form oxidized sulfur compounds, whereas the oxidants
reacted with isoproturon to form chlorinated and hydroxylated
compounds. The rates of oxidation of hydrogen sulfide with
iron(VI) were investigated by Sharma et al. (1997) at pH 712. The reaction was found to be first order for each reactant,
and the reaction rates decreased with an increase in pH. Klausen
et al. (1997) quantified the effects of pH, manganese(I1), and
humic acid concentrations on the oxidation rates of monosubsti-
namics, since the bubble radius decreases from 177 f./-mat 20
tuted aniJines by Mn02. The reaction rates increased with de-
kHz to 7 f./-mat 500 kHz. Petrier and Francony (1997) observed
that the degradation rate of carbon tetrachloride (which decomposed inside the cavitation bubble) increased with increasing
ultrasonic frequency. However, the optimal frequency for phenol degradation was 200 kHz, presumably because of hydroxyl
radical availability outside the cavitation bubble. Increases is
the rate of sonolysis of three- to sevenfold were observed for
chlorobenzene, p-ethylphenol, and phenol with the addition of
salt. Reaction rate enhancements were proportional to the di-
creasing pH. Buchanan and Nicell (1997) used a peroxidase to
remove aromatic compounds by forming dimers that precipitated. Ioffe and Rubinskaya (1997) reviewed the experimental,
theoretical, and practical considerations of a new type of chemical oxidation of organic substances by liquid water with the aid
of noble metal catalyst.
In electrochemical oxidation methods, the removal of 2chlorophenol and 2,6-dichlorophenol using porous carbon felt
anodes was investigated by Po1caro and Palmas (1997). Oxida-
partitioning coefficients of the pollutants
tion of the adsorbed phenols resulted from reaction with electro-
(Seymour and Gupta, 1997). Sonochemical destruction of TCE
and methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) was found to occur (Suri et
at., 1997a and 1997b). Trichloroethylene degradation was not
affected by pH or suspended solids, whereas MEK degradation
was maximized at 58°C. The decomposition of 2-chlorophenol
by ultrasonic waves was studied as a function of pH, dissolved
oxygen concentration, and temperature (Ku et al., 1997). The
decomposition rate of 2-chlorophenol decreased slightly at
higher temperatures, and a two-phase reaction was proposed to
explain the effect process variables.
Sequential Chemical/Biological Oxidation. Marco et at.
(1997) reviewed the concept of sequential chemical/biological
oxidation. In work with individual compounds, Adams et al.
(1997) found that the ozonation of chlorophenols and nitrophenols enhanced their biodegradability. However, ozonation decreased the biodegradability of the degradable aminophenols.
Ozonation, followed by fluidized bed biofilm treatment, was
capable of complete or near complete mineralization of 3-meth-
chemically produced hydroxyl radicals. Lin and Chen (1997b)
found that hydrogen peroxide addition improved the extent of
electrochemical oxidation of textile wastewater. L.-c. Chiang
et at. (1997) destroyed lignin, tannic acid, and EDTA with
electrochemical oxidation. High molecular weight organics
were oxidized efficiently. Do et al. (1997) studied the anodic
oxidation of chloride ion, with subsequent chlorine oxidation
of formaldehyde. The anodic oxidation of chloride ion was first
order, whereas the oxidation of formaldehyde with hypochlorite
ion was second order in formaldehyde and first order in hypochlorite ion. Fermentation waste from beet molasses could be
oxidized electrochemically in the presence of chloride (Vlyssides et al., 1997). Under optimal conditions, the COD was
reduced from 72 000 to 8 000 mgIL.
ethyl ether-water
462
REDUCTION
In the reduction of pollutants using chemical reagents, Sedlak
and Chan (1997) found the reduction of hexavalent chromium
Water Environment
Research,
Volume 70, Number 4
Treatment Systems
to ferrous iron was first order in the chromium(VI) and iron(II)
concentrations. The reaction rate depended on the pH in a complex fashion. Chlorite reduction by ferrous iron was found to
be efficient (>95% chlorite removal) over pH 7-10 with iron
doses of 3.5-4.0 mg iron(II) per mg chlorite (Hurst and Knocke,
1997). No chlorate production was observed. Ottley et al. (1997)
observed that copper catalyzed the reduction of nitrate to ammonium by iron(ll). The degradation rate of TCE with zero-valent
iron was found to be first order with respect to TCE (Gotpagar
et a/., 1997). A twofold increase in the pseudo-first-order rate
constant was obtained when the metal particle size was decreased by factor of 2.5. Superreduced cobalamin reductively
dechlorinated cis- and trans-dichloroethene,
l,l-dichloroethene,
and vinyl chloride to ethene and ethane (Glod et al., 1997).
Cobalamin could mediate electron transfer mediator for the
complete dehalogenation of PCE and TCE without significant
accumulation of vinyl chloride. In the electrochemical reduction
of pollutants, Cheng et al. (1997) observed that the dechlorination of 4-chlorophenol to phenol occurred rapidly on palladized
carbon cloth or palladized graphite electrodes when hydrogen
gas was intercalated in a palladium lattice. J.S. Allen et al.
(1997) discussed the treatment of a metal-EDTA waste using
electrochemical reduction to break the metal-EDTA bonds and
precipitate out EDTA. The residual EDTA was oxidized by
hydrogen peroxide, with metals removal by precipitation at high
pH. Von Gunten and Oliveras (1997) investigated the rate of
reduction of hypobromous acid (HOBr) by H202• Based on
kinetics studies, the half-life for HOBr was less than a few
seconds for H202 concentrations of 0.1 mg/L at a pH of 8.
Ozdemir and Tufekci (1997) used metallic iron to reduce chlorine species. Optimum pH, particle size, and contact time were
determined; OCI- and HOCI were 100% removed between pH
4 and 7 within 25 minutes.
AIR STRIPPING
Operation of an airlift tube reactor was optimized by Bekassymolnar et al. (1997). They measured kLa using a dynamic
gassing method with the 1.3-L reactor. Removal efficiencies as
high as 96% for pyrene and 94% for pentachlorophenol were
reported for an annular shear gas sparger in a three-phase continuous, countercurrent solvent sublation reactor (Smith and Valsaraj, 1997). The solvent phase was mineral oil. The removal
efficiency for bubble fractionation was 68% or less for the
same compounds. Wijmans et al. (1997) used a combined air
stripping and membrane separation system to remove 95-99%
ofVOCs. The system was economically competitive for streams
having more than 500 mglL VOCs and flow rates less than
38-113 Umin. Kolev et al. (1997) used air stripping (640-cm
column packed with Holpack) to achieve a 150000-fold decrease in the chloroform concentration from an industrial wastewater. In the stripping of water containing both total petroleum
hydrocarbons (TPHs) and VOCs, the mass transfer of TCE and
PCE was found to be controlled by volatility, whereas the TPH
mass transfer rate was controlled by the concentration gradient
(LaBranche and Collins, 1997). Economical air stripping was
achieved at 16-28°C with 20-75 Umin flow rates. Nelson et
al. (1997) inspected air strippers after 9 years of operation and
found that the random packing was fouled and had settled.
When a high-efficiency packing was introduced, the singlestage removal efficiency for TCE increased from 98.5% to
greater than 99.6%. Air-water partitioning data for a wide range
Literature Review 1998
of organic chemicals were used to validate a three-variable,
quantitative structure-activity relationship model for Henry's
Law constants (Nirmalakhandan et al., 1997).
MIXED PROCESSES
Phillips and Boardman (1997) performed a treatability study
for a textile dye wastewater. The wastewater was segregated
into eight waste streams for characterization, then a series of
physical, chemical, and biological processes were tried on individual waste streams and a combination of the waste streams.
Treatment of a wastewater effluent from a dyeing and finishing
mill secondary treatment plant was investigated for possible
reuse (Lin and Chen, 1997a). Treatment consisted of the Fenton
process, chemical coagulation, and ion exchange. Effluent from
the system was of high-enough quality be reused by the textile
industry. Lin and Chen (1997c) reported on the use of a treatment system consisting of a electrochemical method, chemical
coagulation, and ion exchange. This effluent was also of highenough quality that it could be reused. Opdycke and Boardman
(1997) studied the pretreatment of textile dye and finishing plant
wastewaters by oxidation and coagulation. Results from the
pretreatment of the bleach and finishing waste stream were
not promising because of the difficult nature of the organic
component of the waste. A closed-loop hydrocarbon recovery
system was investigated (Closed-loop, 1997). The process combines nitrogen stripping, humidity modification, and activated
carbon to remove 98% of the benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene,
and xylenes. Carriere et at. (1997) and Reed, Carriere, et at.
(1997) summarized the results from a 3-year, pilot-scale treatability study for an aluminum manufacturer's oily wastewater.
Ultrafiltration, chemical addition-DAF, biological filtration,
constructed wetlands, and land application were investigated.
A system consisting of ponds for free oil separation, ultrafiltration for oil/grease removal, followed by modified wetlands was
chosen for full-scale design. Hasegawa et al. (1997) investigated
liquid-liquid extraction for surfactant reuse and compared it to
air stripping. Sozanski et al. (1997) studied the integrated control of chemical and biological processes of wastewater treatment for the food industry. The results of the treatment and
control quality met the demands of the World Health Organization. Sallach et al. (1997) reported on the treatment and reuse
of pharmaceutical process water. Filtration, activated carbon
adsorption, neutralization, biological treatment, reverse osmosis, disinfection, and aerobic sludge digestion and dewatering
were used. Past and future plant modifications were also discussed. Metals, toxic organics, and color were removed from a
manufacturing facility in the art supply business (Watkins,
1997). pH adjustment for metal precipitation foHowed by ultrafiltration to remove metal precipitates and biological and color
components and then chemical oxidation for residual color and
organic compounds was practiced. Kabdash et at. (1997) performed a treatability study for a pulping process focusing on
chemical precipitation, biological treatment, and combinations
of the two. Chemical treatment of the biological effluent with up
to 250 mglL FeCh provided 40-50% additional COD removal.
Mercz and Cord-Ruwisch (1997) investigated laboratory- and
pilot-scale anaerobic and chemical flocculation treatment processes for the removal of wool grease from wool scouring effluent. The anaerobic bioflocculation-chemical flocculation
process removed greater than 90% of the grease at hydraulic
detention times of 1-2 days.
463
Treatment Systems
Takeuchi et al. (1997) investigated the removal of organic
substances using ozonation followed by BAC. Changes in the
equilibrium adsorption and in the biodegradability of organics
before and after ozone oxidation were clarified. Purification of
a polluted river water by ultrafiltration, ozonation, and BAC
filtration was examined (Y.K. Park et al., 1997). Removal efficiencies of TOC and UV 254 absorbance in the ultrafiltration
process were about 15% higher that those in a coagulation/rapid
sand filtration process and increased between 5 and 10% when
the empty bed contact time was increased from 10 to 25 min.
Crittenden et al. (1997) field tested an adsorption-solar
assisted
photocatalytic process for the removal of BTEXs. Spent adsorbents were regenerated 6 hours per day in the presence of sunlight while passing hot water (90°C) countercurrent to the flow
direction during adsorption. The photomineralization
of chi orophenols by photocatalytic membranes was modeled (Tatti et al.,
1997). Membranes contained Ti02 and stoichiometric amounts
of H202 were used. Amirsardari et at. (1997) reported on the
effects of ozonation and coagulation on turbidity and TOC removal by simulated direct filtration. Preozonation followed by
alum coagulation under acidic conditions resulted in a 30%
reduction in turbidity compared with the case of no ozonation
and coagulation without pH adjustment and a 64% reduction in
coagulant usage. The effect of preozonation on preloading of
background organic matter (BOM) in GAC filters was studied
(Orlandini et at., 1997). More pronounced BOM preloading was
found in the GAC filter receiving nonozonated influent than in
the ozonated influent. Y. Kim et al. (l997) performed pilotplant studies on ozonation-BAC (OrBAC), chlorination-BAC
(Ch-BAC), and BAC process alone for drinking water.
Kim, Nishijima, et al. (1997b) investigated GAC with and
without postozonation for the removal of drinking water contaminants. Granular activated carbon alone was not as effective
as GAC followed by ozonation. Sobrinho et al. (l 997) combined
a jet flocculator with PAC for benzene and suspended solids
removal. The combined system removed 80 and 95% of the
influent suspended solids and benzene, respectively. Norton et
al. (1997) tested two polymers in conjunction with ultrafiltration
for the removal of europium. Both polymers improved europium
removal. Zhou et al. (1997) reported on a combined electrowinning ion-exchange process for copper removal. The combined
system has reported widespread potential in plating shops.
Brian E. Reed is an associate professor with the Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering at West Virginia University in Morgantown. Mark R. Matsumoto is a professor with
the Chemical and Environmental Engineering Department at
the University of California, Riverside. James N. Jensen is an
associate professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at
the State University of New York, Buffalo. Roger Viadero, Jr.,
is an assistant professor in the School of Natural and Applied
Science, University of Wisconsin, Green Bay. Wei Lin is an
assistant professor in the Department of Civil Engineering and
Construction, North Dakota State University. Correspondence
should be addressed to Brian E. Reed, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, West Virginia University, P.O. Box
6101, Morgantown, WV 26506-6101 ..
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