The Vulnerability of Small Island States
to Sea Level Rise: The Need for Holistic
Strategies
JA M E S LEW IS
There is uncertainty about climate change and its socioenvironmental implications, but
the vulnerability o f small island states to hazardous events is likely to become
increasingly significant. It will not be a normally bettign sea tha t rises but the
incidence of storms and cyclones can be assumed to increase w ith tropical sea-surface
temperatures. The proportional socioeconomic impact o f tropical cyclone disasters makes
these o f crucial significance to small islands and small island states. Sea-defences are of
little use (and m ay not be feasible at all) against the damage caused by tropical
cyclones and some sea-surges. Social and economic adjustm ents are also required to
parallel erosion control; and disaster preparedness " longstops" m u s t be fu r th e r
developed as a m atter o f urgency. A pp aren tly small measures m u st not be displaced by
images o f ultim ate, massive catastrophe; adjustm ents m ay serve other fu n ctio n s in
society as well. International and bilateral measures are required to take account of
migration and "ecological refugees" and national administrations m ay require
modification to take appropriate account o f this m ost crucial o f environm ental
phenomena.
INTRODUCTION
There is uncertainty about global-warming,
clim ate-change a n d th eir im plications.
T em peratures have increased w ithin living
m em ory a n d cooled again (G olden, 1989).
The sam e scientists w h o first predicted the
“ g r e e n h o u s e e f fe c t" 1 a re n o w m o re
conservative ab o u t th e consequences of its
increase (Miller, 1989). "Best estim ates"
now are of a 1.1 to 1.9 °C global m ean
tem perature rise an d a 17 to 26 cm sea level
rise before th e year 2050 (C om m onw ealth
S ecretariat, 1989). T h e s e v a lu e s are
projected to rise steeply b ey o n d th at date
to suggest sea levels m u ch h ig h er in the
longer term .
In assum ing th at global tem p eratu res
and sea-Ievels are rising, I sym pathise with
th e view of th e M aldives G o v e rn m en t th at
to wait for precise forecasts m ay h in d er
interim m easures w hich could b e crucial.
F u rth e r, fo r e c a s ts o f a n u ltim a te ly
catastrophic rise in sea-levels sh o u ld no t be
allowed to dom inate th in k in g to th e extent
of disabling seem ingly sm all counteractive
m easures.
Some small island states are essentially
single islands (e.g. Barbados a n d Sri Lanka);
James Lewis
others are g ro u p s a n d archipelagoes of
several islands (e.g. Tuvalu), h u n d red s (e.g.
Tonga); or th o u san d s, as in th e M aldives.
Som e islands a n d g ro u p s of islands are
m o u n tain o u s (e.g. Dominica) an d som e
m ay contain active volcanoes (e.g. Savo
Solom ons, N iua F o 'o u a n d Kao/Tonga).
M any island g ro u p s com prise a variety of
island ty p es (e.g. The Cooks and Tonga).
O thers, for w hich sea-level rise is especially
threatening, consist entirely of atolls an d
reef islands (e.g. Kiribati, The M aldives,
Tokelau a n d Tuvalu).2
NATURAL HAZA RDS A N D THE
VULNERABILITY OF ISLAND STATES
It is n o t sim ply th at a b enign sea will rise
ra th e r m o re quickly th an it has d o n e in the
past. The first effects will be of sporadic and
in term itten t currents, tides a n d storm s
riding u p o n a n d w ithin a raised sea. A
rising sea level is a p h e n o m e n o n of global
w arm in g w hich will also raise sea an d air
tem p eratu res, th e interaction of w h ich can
g en erate tropical cyclones. T h u s global
w arm in g is likely to lead to an increased
incidence of storm s an d tropical cyclones in
som e regions (C om m onw ealth Secretariat,
1989; W arwick, 1989). Small islands can
easily be m issed by tropical cyclones w hich
proceed to inundate continental shorelines.
T he incidence m ay be no h ig h er for island
states (alth o ug h som e frequencies are
im pressive), b u t o n e tropical cyclone can
entirely ov erw h elm o n e island state after
an o th er. T he "n atu ral d isasters" of small
s ta te s a n d sm all p o p u la tio n s ca n n o t
com p ete in size w ith those of continental
countries b u t it is th e often overw helm ing
p roportional im pact of disasters in small
states th at gives reason for special concern.
Tropical cyclones have b een th e cause
of m ost disasters leading to high p ro p o r­
tional losses in th e island-states. H urricane
"B ebe" (1972) seriously affected Tuvalu,
Tonga a n d Niue, an d 95 per cent of housing
DISASTERS VOLUME 14 NUMBER 3
on Funafuti (Tuvalu) was destroyed (Gilbert
an d Ellice Island Colony, 1972). H urricane | j
"D avid" (1979) d estro y ed 80 p e r cent of ΐ|ί;
D o m in ica's h o u s in g stock. H u rric a n e £
"A llen" (1980) caused very severe dam age %
to Barbados, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, Jamaica, k
and the Caym an Islands (Lewis, 1980). Over S
one fifth of housing in Tonga w as destroyed
by H u rrican e "Isaac" in M arch 1982, ?lf
together w ith 90 p er cent of coconuts,
breadfruit a n d bananas, a n d half th e y a m ;%
a n d cassava crops (Lewis, 1982). O n e fifth i ||
of Jam aica's h o u sin g w as d estro y ed by.'im
H urricane "G ilbert" (1988) a n d 500,000 ^
people w ere m ad e hom eless — alm ost one 1§ί
quarter of th e national population. "H u g o " j j
(1989) has d o n e the sam e for M o n tserrat.,|J|
M ost of these sm all states can expect tb im
be in th e p ath of a tropical cyclone p erh ap s -S
tw o or three times a decade an d often m o r e
freq u en tly . E xperience e n c o u rag e s an
acceptance of sea h az ard s w hile lack o fljf
experience m ight actually raise p e r c e p t i o n s !
of vulnerability. It m igh t be that, h a d the ‘
M aldives b een regularly affected by tropical
cyclones, th e flooding of 1987 w o u ld n o t
have resulted in the historic 1989 conference
o n Sea Level Rise h eld at M ale', Maldive
Islands, in N ovem ber 1989!3
Tropical cyclones a n d accom panying
sea-surges are, in ad d itio n to flooding,
recu rren t n atu ral h azard s w h ich are liable^·
to be exacerbated by a rise in sea levels,.
There is som e value, how ev er, in nof
separating these from other natural hazards:.
— especially in sm all islands. Volcani
eruptions, earthquakes, a n d periods q
d ro u g h t will continue, regardless of glob;*
w arm in g a n d sea-level rise. T he in c id e n t
of these events m u st therefore co n tin u e t-i
b e taken into account w h e n p la n n in g fdj,
vulnerability reduction an d survival. Th>
inter-relationships betw een o n e d isa ste f
a n d vulnerability to an o th er often bring??
crucial consequences (Lewis, 1984a). M an ?
island states are p ro n e to a variety
h a z a r d s (s e e T o m b lin ,
1981, f o |
earthquakes, volcanoes, an d h u rrican es it§
th e C a rib b e a n ). T o n g a a lo n e h a s
earthquakes, floods, a n d droughts, as well
as frequ en t severe hurricanes — and five
active volcanoes, tw o of which are inhabited
islands.
Sea-level rise will n o t only be reflected
in th e consequences of sea-related hazards,
but will also increase social an d economic
vulnerability to o ther hazards. M easures to
reduce social an d econom ic vulnerability
will be required. A health y an d self-reliant
population, for exam ple, is m ore likely to
survive th e effects of flooding or storm, and
to proceed effectively with its rehabilitation
th an an u n h ea lth y one.
COASTLINES A N D THE EFFECTS OF
RISING SEA-LEVELS
Vulnerability to th e sea is a function of
coastline len g th , b u t coastline length is not
solely a function of island size. Long,
narrow islands have m ore coastline to land
area th a n ro u n d islands. Coastlines also
change according to the level an d behaviour
of the sea. Extensive erosion is likely to be
a more pervasive a n d p erm a n en t p h en o ­
m enon as storm activity increases an d sea
levels ris e (M cLean, 1980b), T h o u g h
coastlines are susceptible to hazard, they are
also a source of food, tran sp o rtatio n and
often of s o u g h t afte r level lan d for
agricultural a n d physical developm ent.
Increased dev elop m en t in coastal areas and
increasing storm iness a n d sea level will both
exacerbate vulnerability until appropriate
counterm easures are instituted.
Overall, th e effects a n d consequences
of rising sea levels are likely to be (Lewis,
1988a):
— r e d u c e d is la n d s iz e (d u e to sea
e n c ro a c h m e n t a n d coastal erosion)
leading to
— red u ced sh o re len g th a n d changed
shoreline;
— decreased g ro u n d w ater (lens) capacity
(concom itant w ith reduced landform
area);
— increased exposure of freshw ater an d
vegetation to salination (due to w indbo rn e salt a n d sea w ater in p orous
ground);
— red u ced food pro d u ctio n (less land area
an d increased salination);
— increased incidence a n d pen etratio n of
tropical cyclones a n d sea-surges;
— m ore extensive a n d longer lasting food
shortages;
— increased risk of m alnutrition, environ­
m ental health hazards, epidem ics (e.g.
cholera, ty p hoid a n d schistosomiasis);
— m o v em en t of h u m a n settlem ents from
coastlines (w here possible);
— in-country m igration from low to high
islands (with consequent increases in the
p o p u latio n d ensity of high islands);
— in-country migration to urban centres (for
th e achievem ent of a p p a ren t security);
— em igration b etw e en countries from low
islands to h igher land;
— increased d e m a n d for em igration to
continental countries a n d co n seq u en t
"ecological refugees" (Tickell, 1989).
SEA DEFENCES
Case 1
W here u rb a n lan d is intensively occupied
for industrial or com m ercial p u rp o se s an d
lan d lease values reflect this use, foreshore
construction of sea defences w ith som e
associated lan d reclam ation m ay be cost
effective. In N u k u 'alo fa, T onga (Lewis,
1988b) estim ated costs of sea defence
co n struction a m o u n te d to T$7 million
(US$5.9 million); m in im u m lease values
gained cam e to T$16.5 million (US$9.1
million); a n d estim ated losses w ith o u t seadefences, d u e to in u n d a tio n in three
representative areas of th e capital (only)
totalled T$23.5 million (US$19.9 million).4
O c c u p y in g a lo w -ly in g p r o m o n t o r y
betw een th e ocean a n d an in lan d lagoon,
N u k u 'alo fa could b e su rro u n d e d on three
sides by sea-defences m eeting th e higher
g ro u n d o n th e fourth side on the w estern
edge of th e capital. T here seem s as yet to
be no visible evidence of "flooding from
w ithin" by high tides percolating through
p o ro u s rock. M ost of th e is la n d of
T ongatapu is raised h a rd lim estone.
Some recent sea-defence construction
an d land reclam ation has been com pleted
on th e ocean side, w ith G erm an and
Japanese aid, and in direct resp o n se to the
flooding caused by H urricane "Isaac" in
1982 (i.e. n o t to sea level rise projections).
Nuku'alofa accommodates a fifth of Tonga's
population, as well as being the seat of
G o v ern m en t a n d of th e T ongan Royal
Family. Com pleted sea defence construction
m ay im p ed e fu tu re sea surges w h ere they
occur again at th e sam e place, b u t will not
entirely p rev en t inland flooding. National
hurricane dam age d u e to flooding w ould
t h u s b e o n ly slig h tly re d u c e d , a n d
destruction, dam age an d injury w rought by
high w in ds will be unaffected.
Case 2
Hurricane incidence for Tuvalu is m uch less
th an for Tonga; b u t in O ctober 1972 (six
years before in d ep en d e n ce) H urricane
"Bebe" a n d its associated sea-surge, riding
on an exceptional sp rin g tide, sen t a series
of w aves u p to 15 m high onto Funafuti and
o th er islands. Virtually all h o u ses were
destro y ed an d g o v ern m en t b u ildings w ere
dam ag ed bey on d repair. Five p eople w ere
killed an d copra production fell by 80 p er
cent (Ball, 1973). A n en o rm o u s ridge of
coral-reef rubble appeared overnight, 19 km
long an d u p to 4 m high, along th e oceanfacing coastline of Funafuti an d enclosed a
n ew inland lagoon. As a consequence, the
land area of Funafuti increased by 20 per
cent (Baines a n d McLean, 1976). Similar
banks ap p e are d on o th er islands, notably
N ukufetau.
The m ost significant sea-defences in
Tuvalu are th u s those created by the sea
itself (additional sm aller rubble banks resist
ero sio n o f p re cio u s la n d fo rm s). T h e\:|
"hurricane bank" on Funafuti now protects J|
Vaiaku a n d 2,750 people, one third of thejfl
national po p u lation (in 1972 it was 850), the.
seat of national governm ent, communica<\W
tions facilities, a n d th e only usable airstrip £
in th e co u n try (Lewis, 1988b).
:|i£
The coastline of Funafuti is 54 km , but^fv
its land area is only 2.5 k m 2 (McLean, ^ :
1980a). Similar ratios apply to all of seven ‘{ί
o th er islands. So narrow is th e land that
th ere are few places w here sea defences o n ; c
one side w ould have anything to protect b u t :
th e back of sea defences o n th e o th er side
— especially after th e ravages of th e civil
e n g i n e e r i n g p r o c e s s . S ea d e f e n c e l p 1:
construction w ould o n ly be feasible if thei;M
land itself w ere to be re-form ed to create ^
m ore cost-effective form ations (i.e., n ea rer"M^·
to the circular). M oreover, flooding by ifporosity w o u ld m ake necessary th e r a is in g ^ ·
of the land th at the sea defences contained. *
Even if they w ere structurally practicable, >φ·
technically possible, a n d econom icaU ytr
feasible, th ey w ould m ake p re sen t d a y V;
social a n d cultural life im possible an d ;
transform Tuvalu into "citadels-in-the sea1
(Lewis, 1988b an d 1989). Sea defem i ■w ould effectively destroy w h at they set out to protect.
ADJUSTMENTS
The construction of sea defences is one kind £
of ad justm ent; an o th er em p h asises the
rearran g em en t o r alteration of h u m an
behaviour (Burton, Kates a n d White, 1968) Z S
Sea defences rep resen t th e engineering
ap p ro ach to h azard s, b u t social a n d socio- j
econom ic a d ju stm en ts m u st be incur- i
porated as a p a rt of all social a n d eco n o m ic'
activities.
For m ost small states, rising sea levels ^
will n o t create new conditions b u t e x a c e r - ^
bate those w hich are already p art of
environm ental experience. Hooding, coastal 4!
erosion, a n d tropical cyclones are n o t new ψ
phenom ena, th o u g h their incidence is likely
to increase and larger num bers of people are
likely to be affected. Their m anagem ent will
therefore require a review of existing
a d j u s t m e n t s a n d p r e p a r a ti o n fo r a
fo rm id ab le a n d p erv a siv e ra n g e a n d
in cid en ce of e n v iro n m e n ta l h a z a rd s .
H azard m an ag em en t m u st be m ad e an
integral p art of adm inistration in all sectors
of governm ent, not the exclusive dom ain of
a separate departm ent (UNDRO, 1987), and
thereby absolving th e others of their crucial
responsibilities.
A d justm ents to th e foreseeable effects
of rising sea levels req u ire th a t th e
prediction of possible fu tu re catastrophe
sh o uld n o t p reclu d e seem ingly m inor
m easures taken in th e face of interim real
conditions. In o th er w ords, th e view that,
because it is all going to "sin k below the
sea", it is not w orth doing anything, should
be resisted. If it will n o t be until th e e n d of
the tw enty-first century before a rise of
20—140 cm has been reached (UNEP, 1988),
then there is at least a cen tu ry in w hich to
im plem ent a w ide variety of adjustm ents to
seas at th at level (Lewis, 1989).
S om e ad ju stm en ts will already have
been m ade for reasons n o t y et related to
sea-level rise. In Tuvalu, for example, w here
salination of p ulaka pits (m ulch beds) has
been increasing th e deterioration of taro
crops, sweet potatoes have been introduced
which can b e grow n hydroponically in coral
sand at ground level, th u s m aking them less
vulnerable to salt w ater. Similarly, because
of frequent flooding, regulations will shortly
be in tro d u ced requiring th e floors of new
houses to be raised above g ro u n d level —
a retu rn to th e traditional form an d
em inently app ro p riate w h ere flood risk is
on th e increase.
A lthough th e population of th e Tongan
capital of N u k u 'alo fa h as increased, the
population of m an y of th e T o ngan islands
has decreased overall by 17 p er cent in th e
last ten years. In th ese islands th e estim ate
of land th at will be lost to a 1.5 m sea level
rise is only 5 p er cen t (Lewis, 1988b), albeit
of the m ost occupied coastal areas. As
migration is likely to continue, sea level rise
will n o t contribute to an increase in
p o p u latio n d en sities in m o st T ongan
islands. Social ad ju stm en t in th e islands
has, in a sense, already begun, b u t urban
social adjustm ents in the capital have yet to
be instituted. O th er small island states may
be experiencing the sam e p h en o m en o n .
In addition to ad ju stm en ts involving
agriculture and housing, those proposed for
Tuvalu (Lewis, 1988b) include im proved
rainw ater conservation an d m anagem ent,
h e a lth
and
e n v i r o n m e n ta l
h e a lth
program m es, th e filling in of W orld W ar II
borrow pits (to rem ove a health h azard and
to release m ore land), stabilisation of th e
natural hurricane b an k a n d increased and
im proved m easures for th e prevention of
coastal erosion, including th e conservation
of naturally protective features such as
m angroves an d reefs (Table 1). These
adjustm ents w ould not only give protection
against th e initial im pact of hazardous
events b u t also reduce social a n d economic
v u ln e r a b ility to t h e i r e ffe c ts . T h e
m aintenance of housing an d other buildings
is as im p ortant as (an d contributes to)
environm ental health m anagem ent. A well
m aintained building is less likely to sustain
storm d am ag e an d to pro d u ce debris that
can become a d an g er to people. Locally
m aintained w ater a n d food supplies are
crucial for self reliant survival (Lewis, 1981).
Issues of global w arm ing give long aw aited
em phasis to th e arg u m en t th at hazard s are
a n atural co m p o n en t of th e en vironm ent
an d are b etter included as a p art of, not
sep arated from, en vironm ental m anage­
m ent. The extent a n d severity of "n atu ral
disasters" of w hatever kind will be reduced
an d contained by th e w ide ran g in g adjust­
m ents th at will ensue.
DISASTER PREPAREDNESS
The likelihood of a n increase in the
incidence a n d severity of tropical cyclones
Μ
'ΐ ά
James Lewis}
The
TABLE 1
Exam ples of a d ju stm en ts to sea-level rise a n d o th er h azard s
Sector
Measures
H ousing
building form (e.g., raised floors)
construction quality a n d m aintenance
diversity a n d innovation
im proved w ater conservation a n d m an ag em en t
environm ental h ealth program m es: (e.g., verm in an d
insect eradication; birth control)
coastal erosion protection; d ev elo p m en t p lan n in g and
control
conservation of naturally protective features (e.g., reefs
an d m angroves)
environm ental im pact assessm ents
h az ard a n d d isaster w arnings
schools pro g ram m es at all levels
public a n d g o v ern m ent sector training a n d inform ation
program m es
forecasting; w arning; organisation; p lan s an d m anuals;
stockpiles; em ergency fu n d s
long term im plem entation of planning; funding;
counselling; health; housing; em p lo y m en t
Agriculture
W ater
H ealth
W orks
E nvironm ent
C om m unications
Education
Training
Disaster
p rep ared n ess
Evacuation
m an ag em en t
·.<%
■:W
m
a n d increases in sea flooding d em an d , as a
m atter of urgency, overall up grad in g of the
effectiveness a n d scope of d isaster p re ­
p ared n ess program m es, as a co m p on en t of
" ad ju stm e n ts" (Table 1). P rep ared n ess is
concerned w ith forecasting a n d w arning
a n d w ith th e organisation for a n d m an ag e­
m ent of disasters. This includes th e prepara­
tion of operational p lan s a n d m anuals, the
training of relief team s, th e stockpiling of
supplies, a n d th e earm arking of necessary
funds. D isaster p re p are d n ess m easures are
th u s last in line, o r lo n g sto p s, in a
necessarily holistic spectrum of m easures to
b e im p lem en ted o n account of rising seas
a n d o th er hazards.
C u rre n tly , h o w e v e r, p re p a rd e n e s s
m e a s u re s are b ein g im p le m e n te d by
individual d ep a rtm e n ts of g o v ern m en t (or
DISASTERS VOLUM E 14 NUMBER 3
by "non-governm ent") in an uncoordinated!*
way. This could result in o ther departm ents^
s e e m in g to b e a b s o lv e d o f th e iM
responsibilities w ith regard to h a z a r d ®
w hereas, in reality, preparedness m e a s u r S #
dep lo y ed by on e agency are often d i r e c t e d
at disasters w hich are in p art th e result Q§§
vulnerability brou g h t about by th e a c tiv itie s
of oth er agencies of th e sam e go vernm en£ll|
T he B rundtland R eport (WCED, 198!
called for th e environm ental implications
d ev elo p m en t projects to be placed wit
th e rem it of sectors responsible for th o $ |
projects. The sam e should be d o n e for
an d economic ad ju stm en ts to environ?
m ental hazards. Sea-level rise a n d i
atten d a n t p h en o m e n a can no longer
re g ard ed as an unlikely set of discreti
events th at m ight u p se t norm al d a y to d a if ;
M IG i
EVAC
Inter·
and
state?
time
betwi
accoi
coast
tiona
state
Tuva"
and
Vaitu
emigi
social
need*
and
impli<
E:
plann
take ,
health
On tlto be;
an in
msigr
evide
prefei
hazar
unkn>
Rogei
affairs. Sea-level rise brings w ith it a set of
conditions so all-embracing th at they m u st
be co n sid ered n o rm al (H ew itt, 1983).
"N orm al" how ever, h as to be assessed not
for an erroneously v iew ed hom ogeneous
group of "sm all states" b u t by each small
state according to its o w n characteristics, its
o w n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of h a z a r d o u s
u n ce rtain ty , a n d its o w n co n te x t of
geographic, to p o g rap h ic, a n d cultural
variety, P reparedness m easures also require
international an d bilateral action to take
account of m igration a n d evacuation.
MIGRATION, EMIGRATION, A ND
EVACUATION
Inter-island m igration w ithin island states,
and betw een islands of different island
states, w as traditional a n d norm al u p to the
time of colonial adm inistrations. M igration
betw een th e islands of Tuvalu continues on
account of land a n d crop losses d u e to
coastal erosion. Em igration is also tradi­
tional. T here are m an y S o u th Pacific island
state com m unities in N ew Z ealand and
Tuvaluan com m unities in Fiji (e.g. in Suva
and o n th e island of Kioa, o w n ed by
Vaitupu Island, Tuvalu). These pioneer
emigrant com m unities have set cultural and
social precedents for con tin u ed em igration,
needed n o w to reduce po p u latio n densities
and to resp o n d to th e possible future
implications of a rise in sea levels.
Emigration requires political acceptance,
planning, fu n d in g , a n d adm inistration to
take account of services for counselling,
health, housing, an d em ploym ent (Table 1).
On th e o th e r h a n d , evacuation is unlikely
to be a realistic alternative. It is, in any case,
an insensitive im position o n seem ingly
insignificant p o pulations. T h ere is am ple
evidence th a t m any in th e p ast have
preferred to stay in (or h ave re tu rn e d to)
hazardous isolation, ra th e r th an face the
u n k n o w n s *of relocation (Bazin, 1970;
Rogers, 1986).
DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE
Tuvalu receives d ev elo p m en t assistance
from C an ad a, th e EC, G erm an y (FRG),
N ew Zealand, U nited K ingdom , a n d USA.
The environm ental a n d social dim ensions
of d ev elo p m en t take on an enhanced
significance w ith regard to sea level rise and
associated n atu ral h azard s, being required
to su p p o rt a n d to take com prehensive
account of all ad ju stm en ts (Table 1). The
th reat of rising sea levels requires a
m u ltis e c to ra l a n d m u ltid is c ip lin a r y
approach. No single m easu re in an y single
secto r or d e p a rtm e n t can a d e q u ately
respond. T he hazard s th at rising sea levels
im ply h av e to b e tak en into account in all
activities a n d deliberations. They cannot
c o n v e n ie n tly b e allo c a te d to sp ecial
d ep a rtm e n ts s e p a ra te d physically an d
adm inistratively from everything else —
because everything else is im plicated.
H azards p erv ad e all boundaries. Inter­
relationships count for m ore th an the
convenient separation of issues, sectors, or
re g io n s . H o lis tic a n d s y s te m ic , n o t
r e d u c t i o n is t , p r o b le m s o lv in g a n d
m an ag em en t are req u ired for this m ost
crucial of environm ental issues n o less th an
for others (Lewis, 1987).
Notes
This article is a revised version of a p ap e r
p resen ted at th e Small States C onference o n Sea
Level Rise at M a li, M ald iv e Islan d s, in
N ovem ber 1989. It is partly b ased o n m y reports
to the C om m onw ealth Expert G ro u p o n Climate
C hange a n d S ea Level Rise (C om m onw ealth
Secretariat, 1989; Lewis, 1989a an d 1989b).
1. A greenho use is essentially a te m p o rate zone
glass construction to achieve lon ger grow ing
season s an d /o r h ig h e r te m p eratu re s for
s e le c te d o r d e lic a te p la n ts . A lth o u g h
atm ospheric w arm ing is a global p h e n o ­
m enon , th e term 'g re e n h o u se effect' appears
n o t alw ays to b e u n d e rsto o d in equatorial
7 ^
Jam es L ew is
248
clim ates. It is therefore n o t a term used
hereafter in this article.
2. In addition to island states (and protectorates
and d ependencies) there are islands and
island gro u p s w hich are parts of continental
states, such as th e Lacadive, N icobar an d
A n d o m an Islands (India) and Islands off
Kenya, Malaysia, Sierra Leone and Tanzania.
3. See m y rep o rt of this conference in Disasters
14:2, 1990.
4. The last calculation is based on N u n n (1988).
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Jam es Lewis
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