Page 1 of 33
Skillbuilder Handbook
CONTENTS
Reading and Critical Thinking Skills
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
Finding Main Ideas
Summarizing
Comparing and Contrasting
Making Inferences
Categorizing
Making Decisions
Making Generalizations
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
Chronological and Spatial Thinking Skills
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
Reading a Map
Creating a Map
Interpreting Charts
Interpreting Graphs
Constructing Time Lines
Explaining Chronological Order and Sequence
Explaining Geographic Patterns
Creating a Model
R9
R11
R12
R13
R14
R15
R16
R17
Research, Evidence, and Point of View Skills
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
Framing Historical Questions
Distinguishing Opinions from Facts
Detecting Historical Points of View
Determining Historical Context
Forming and Supporting Opinions
Evaluating Information
Assessing Credibility of Sources
Drawing Conclusions from Sources
R18
R19
R20
R21
R22
R23
R24
R25
Historical Interpretation Skills
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
Understanding Cause and Effect
Explaining Historical Patterns
Identifying Issues and Problems
Understanding Continuity and Change
Analyzing Economic and Political Issues
Recognizing Changing Interpretations of History
Conducting Cost-Benefit Analyses
R26
R27
R28
R29
R30
R31
R32
SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK • R1
Page 2 of 33
1.1 Finding Main Ideas
Learn the Skill
The main idea is a statement that summarizes the subject of a speech, an article, a section of
a book, or a paragraph. Main ideas can be stated or unstated. The main idea of a paragraph is
often stated in the first or last sentence. If it is in the first sentence, it is followed by sentences
that support that main idea. If it is in the last sentence, the details build up to the main idea. To
find an unstated idea, you must use the details of the paragraph as clues.
Practice the Skill
The following paragraph deals with Indian mathematics, science, and technology during the reign
of the Guptas. Use the strategies listed below to help you identify the main idea.
How to Find the Main Idea
Strategy 1 Identify what you think
may be the stated main idea. Check
the first and last sentences of the
paragraph to see if either could be
the stated main idea.
Strategy 2 Identify details that
support the main idea. Some details
explain that idea. Others give
examples of what is stated in the
main idea.
ADVANCES UNDER THE GUPTAS
1 During the reign of the Guptas, Indians made significant
advances in mathematics, science, and technology. 2 Indian
scholars developed the decimal system and the symbol for zero.
2 They also invented the numeral system we use today. 2
Meanwhile, Indian doctors made key contributions to Ayurvedic
medicine. It is one of the oldest systems of medicine. It promotes
health by using diet, exercise, and other methods to maintain
energy in the body. 2 Indian artisans developed advanced
methods of working with metal. In Delhi, an iron pillar erected
about A.D. 400 towers almost 23 feet over the city.
Make a Chart
Making a chart can help you identify the main idea and details in a passage or paragraph.
The chart below identifies the main idea and details in the paragraph you just read.
MAIN IDEA: During the reign of the Guptas, Indians made significant advances in
mathematics, science, and technology.
DETAIL: Indian
scholars
developed the
decimal system
and the symbol
for zero.
DETAIL: Indian
scholars
invented the
numeral system
we use today.
DETAIL: Indian
doctors
advanced
Ayurvedic
medicine.
DETAIL: Indian
artisans developed
advanced methods
of working with
metal.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 2, Lesson 3, “The First Communities.” Read “Villages Grow More Complex” and
create a chart that identifies the main idea and the supporting details.
R2 • SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK
Page 3 of 33
1.2 Summarizing
Learn the Skill
When you summarize, you restate a paragraph, a passage, or a chapter in fewer words. You
include only the main ideas and most important details. It is important to use your own words
when summarizing.
Practice the Skill
The passage below describes early inventions that aided a group in ancient Mesopotamia known
as the Sumerians. Use the strategies listed below to help you summarize the passage.
How to Summarize
Strategy 1 Look for topic sentences
that state the main idea or ideas.
These are often at the beginning of a
section or paragraph. Briefly restate
each main idea in your own words.
EARLY INVENTIONS
1 The plow and the wheel helped the Sumerians a great deal
in their daily life. 2 Plows helped to improve agriculture. They
broke up hard soil, which made planting easier. In addition,
rainfall often flowed deeper into plowed soil. As a result, the
Strategy 2 Include key facts and
any names, dates, numbers, amounts,
or percentages from the text.
roots of plants received more water.
Strategy 3 Write your summary and
review it to see that you have included
only the most important details.
to market more easily and quickly. 2 They also built potter’s
Meanwhile, Sumerians used the wheel in many ways. 2 They
built wheeled wagons, which helped farmers take their crops
wheels, which enabled them to make pottery more quickly and
efficiently.
Write a Summary
You should be able to write your summary in a short paragraph. The paragraph below summarizes
the passage you just read.
3 The plow and the wheel helped Sumerians in their daily life. Sumerians used
plows to improve farming. They used wheels to construct transport wagons
and to build potter’s wheels, which helped them make pottery more quickly.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 1, Lesson 4, “How Historians Study the Past.” Read “The Historian’s Tools” and
write a paragraph summarizing the passage.
SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK • R3
Page 4 of 33
1.3 Comparing and Contrasting
Learn the Skill
Comparing means looking at the similarities and differences among two or more things.
Contrasting means examining only the differences among them. Historians compare and contrast
events, personalities, behaviors, beliefs, and situations in order to understand them better.
Practice the Skill
The following passage describes the ancient Assyrian and Persian empires. Use the strategies
below to help you compare and contrast these two empires.
How to Compare and
Contrast
Strategy 1 Look for two subjects
that can be compared and contrasted.
This passage compares the Assyrian and
Persian empires.
Strategy 2 To find similarities, look
for clue words indicating that two
things are alike. Clue words include
both, together, also, and similarly.
Strategy 3 To find contrasts, look for
clue words that show how two things
differ. Clue words include by contrast,
but, on the other hand, and yet.
ASSYRIAN EMPIRE AND PERSIAN EMPIRE
1 During ancient times, Assyria and Persia 2 both developed
into mighty empires. The Assyrians had a fierce army that
conquered many lands. 2 The Persians also had a powerful
army. The Assyrians governed their empire by choosing the
person to rule each region. 2 Similarly, the Persians set up
governors to carry out orders in the various regions of their
empire. There were differences between the two empires,
including the way in which they treated conquered peoples. The
Assyrians were cruel to the groups they defeated. 3 By contrast,
the Persians largely respected the people they captured.
Make a Venn Diagram
Making a Venn diagram will help you identify
similarities and differences between two things.
In the overlapping area, list characteristics shared
by both subjects. Then, in the separate ovals, list
the characteristics that the two subjects do
not share. This Venn diagram compares and
contrasts the Assyrian and Persian empires.
ASSYRIAN
EMPIRE
-cruel toward
conquered
peoples
BOTH
-mighty empires
-strong armies
-officials govern
regions
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 1, Lesson 2, “How Maps Help Us Study History.” Read “Different Maps for
Different Purposes.” Then make a Venn diagram showing similarities and differences between
political and physical maps.
R4 • SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK
PERSIAN
EMPIRE
-respected
conquered
peoples
Page 5 of 33
1.4 Making Inferences
Learn the Skill
Inferences are ideas that the author has not directly stated. Making inferences involves reading
between the lines to interpret the information you read. You can make inferences by studying
what is stated and using your common sense and previous knowledge.
Practice the Skill
The passage below examines the Kushite civilization in northern Africa. Use the strategies below
to help you make inferences from the passage.
How to Make Inferences
Strategy 1 Read to find statements
of facts and ideas. Knowing the facts
will give you a good basis for making
inferences.
Strategy 2 Use your knowledge,
logic, and common sense to make
inferences that are based on facts. Ask
yourself, “What does the author want
me to understand?” For example, from
the facts about Kushite civilization, you
can make the inference that trade was
important to the Kushites.
KUSHITE CIVILIZATION
The Kushite kings chose a new capital, Meroë, in about 500 B.C.
Meroë was located on the Nile River south of the Egyptian
Empire. The city boasted abundant supplies of iron ore. 1 As
a result, the Kushite people manufactured iron weapons and
tools. 1 Merchants in Meroë traded iron goods for jewelry, fine
cotton cloth, and glass bottles. 1 In Kush, royal women held a
significant degree of power. In the absence of the king, a queen
ruled the country.
Make a Chart
Making a chart will help you organize information and make logical inferences. The chart below
organizes information from the passage you just read.
1 STATED FACTS AND IDEAS
2 INFERENCES
The people of Kush manufactured
iron weapons and tools.
The Kushite people possessed strong
technological skills.
Merchants from Meroë exchanged iron
goods for products from faraway lands.
Trade was an important part of the
Kushite empire.
In Kush, royal women sometimes
ruled.
In Kush, some women were influential
and well respected.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 6, Lesson 2, “The Kingdom of Aksum.” Read “Aksum’s Achievements” and use
a chart like the one above to make inferences about Aksum’s civilization.
SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK • R5
Page 6 of 33
1.5 Categorizing
Learn the Skill
To categorize is to sort people, objects, ideas, or other information into groups, called categories.
Historians categorize information to help them identify and understand patterns in historical events.
Practice the Skill
The following passage discusses the development of villages during ancient times. Use the strategies
listed below to help you categorize information in a passage.
How to Categorize
Strategy 1 First, decide what the
passage is about.
Strategy 2 Then find out what the
categories will be. Look for different
ways that villages became more
complex. These will be your category
headings.
Strategy 3 Once you have chosen
the categories, sort information into
them. For example, how did the
economy grow more complex? How
did society grow more complex?
VILLAGES GROW MORE COMPLEX
Advances in agriculture and technology resulted in extra food
and supplies. This meant that larger groups of people could live
together in one place. 1 As a result, villages soon grew larger
and more complex. With fewer farmers needed, people learned
new skills and crafts. 2 They became carpenters, tool makers,
and potters. As a result, a new and more diverse economic system
emerged. Social systems also grew more diverse. 2 As villages
grew, social classes with varying wealth, power, and influence
emerged. 2 The growing populations of early villages also led
to the creation of more organized political systems. Villagers
established a government, or a system of ruling, to provide
greater order and leadership.
Make a Chart
Making a chart can help you categorize information. The chart below shows how the information
from the passage you just read can be categorized.
VILLAGES GROW MORE COMPLEX
ECONOMIC
SOCIAL
specialized workers; new professions defined classes
POLITICAL
creation of government
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 7, Lesson 1, “Geography and Indian Life.” Read “Physical Geography of India”
and make a chart in which you categorize the physical geography of India.
R6 • SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK
Page 7 of 33
1.6 Making Decisions
Learn the Skill
Making decisions involves choosing between two or more options, or courses of action. In most
cases, decisions have consequences, or results. By understanding how historical figures made
decisions, you can learn how to improve your own decision-making skills.
Practice the Skill
The passage below explains a decision Emperor Shi Huangdi faced about governing China. Use
the strategies below to analyze his decision.
How to Make Decisions
HOW TO GOVERN
Strategy 1 Identify a decision that
needs to be made. Think about what
factors make the decision difficult.
When Shi Huangdi became emperor in 221 B.C., China suffered
from many internal battles between warring states. 1 Shi
Strategy 2 Identify possible
consequences of the decision.
Remember that there can be more than
one consequence to a decision.
Huangdi had to decide how to govern. 2 If he imposed a strong
and harsh rule, he could end the internal battles and restore order.
However, the Chinese people might react angrily to such a strong
government. 2 If Shi Huangdi ruled with tolerance, the internal
battles might continue. 3 Shi Huangdi decided to rule harshly.
Strategy 3 Identify the decision.
4 Shi Huangdi’s strong rule did bring order. 4 However, his
Strategy 4 Identify actual
consequences that resulted from
the decision.
harsh rule caused great resentment among the people. After Shi
Huangdi’s death, the Chinese people rebelled.
Make a Flow Chart
A flow chart can help you identify the steps involved in making a decision. The flow chart below
shows the decision-making process in the passage you just read.
1 DECISION TO BE MADE:
How should Shi Huangdi govern?
Should he rule harshly or direct a
more tolerant government?
3 DECISION MADE:
Rule harshly.
2 POSSIBLE
CONSEQUENCE: Harsh rule
might lessen internal battles
but anger the people.
2 POSSIBLE
CONSEQUENCE: Tolerant
rule might do little to halt
the internal battles.
4 ACTUAL CONSEQUENCE:
Shi Huangdi restored order. His rule caused resentment among the
people, which eventually led to rebellion.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 4, Lesson 3, “Persia Controls Southwest Asia.” Read “Cyrus Founds an Empire”
and make a flow chart to identify Cyrus’ decision about how to rule his empire.
SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK • R7
Page 8 of 33
1.7 Making Generalizations
Learn the Skill
To make generalizations means to make broad judgments based on information. When you
make generalizations, you should gather information from several sources.
Practice the Skill
The following three passages contain descriptions of Sparta. Use the strategies listed below to
make a generalization about Sparta based on these descriptions.
How to Make
Generalizations
Strategy 1 Look for information
that the sources have in common. For
example, all three sources describe the
military might of Sparta.
Strategy 2 Form a generalization
about these descriptions in a way that
agrees with all three sources. State
your generalization in a sentence.
LIFE IN SPARTA
1 From the 5th century, the ruling class of Sparta devoted
itself to war and diplomacy, deliberately neglecting the arts,
philosophy, and literature. . . .
–Encyclopaedia Britannica
1 From the age of seven a Spartan boy was educated and trained
by the state to become a soldier.
–Encyclopedia Americana
1 The Spartan people paid a high price for their military
supremacy. All forms of individual expression were discouraged.
1 As a result, Spartans did not value . . . artistic or intellectual
pursuits.
–World History: Patterns of Interaction
Make a Diagram
Using a diagram can help you make generalizations. The diagram below shows how the information
you just read can be used to generalize about Sparta.
1 Spartan boys were trained from early
on to be soldiers.
1 Sparta discouraged artistic, intellectual,
and other nonmilitary pursuits.
2 GENERALIZATION
Sparta became a powerful military state
by stressing military service and training
over all other pursuits in society.
1 The Spartans devoted themselves to
war and military training.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 8, Lesson 2, “China’s Ancient Philosophies.” Read “Confucianism,” and the
primary source on page 261. Also read the History Maker feature about “Confucius” on page 262.
Use a chart like the one above to make a generalization about Confucius.
R8 • SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK
Page 9 of 33
2.1 Reading a Map
Learn the Skill
Maps are representations of features on Earth’s surface. Some maps show political features, such
as national borders. Other maps show physical features, such as mountains and bodies of water.
By learning to use map elements, you can better understand how to read maps.
Practice the Skill
The following map shows the Sumerian city-states. Use the strategies listed below to help you identify
the elements common to most maps.
How to Read a Map
Strategy 1 Read the title. This
identifies the main idea of the map.
Ti
gr
Sumerian City-State
is
ASIA
Ri
ve
tes
75
150 miles
150 kilometers
35°N
E
O
P
ZA
O
Eshnunna
M
IA
S
Hit
A
E
T
W
75
0
S
River
M
N
4
0
r
ra
Strategy 4 Use the scale and
the pointer, or compass rose, to
determine distance and direction.
3
4
ph
Strategy 3 Read the map key. It
is usually in a box. The key will help
you interpret the symbols or colors
on the map.
Modern coastline
1
Ebla
Eu
Strategy 2 Look for the grid of
lines that forms a pattern of squares
over the map. These numbered lines
are the lines of latitude (horizontal)
and longitude (vertical). They
indicate the location of the area on
Earth.
Sumerian City-States, 2300 B.C.
G
RO
Babylon
Kish
Nippur
SUMER
Umma
Uruk
40°E
M
O
U
NT
AI
NS
Lagash
Larsa
Eridu
2
S
45°E
Ur
Pe rs i an
Gu lf
50°E
30°N
MapQuest.Com, Inc.
Make a Chart
A chart can help you organize information given on maps. The chart
below summarizes information about the map you just studied.
wh06pe-020302-004-m-a.ai
Sumerian City States, 2300 B.C.
Vital Information Area: 35p8 wide X 23p2 deep
Final proof date: 6/18/04
TITLE
Sumerian City-States, 2300 B.C.
LOCATION
“between longitudes 50°E and 40°E and latitudes 30°N
and 35°N, except for Ebla which is located between
longitude 35°E and 40°E, just north of 35°N”
KEY INFORMATION
square = Sumerian city-state
SUMMARY
Sumerian city-states developed mostly along the
southern regions of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK • R9
Page 10 of 33
2.1 Reading a Map
(continued)
Practice the Skill
The following map shows the Aryan invasions
into India. Use the strategies listed below to
help you identify the elements common to
most maps.
u
H
Thar
Desert
G
an
30°N
I M
A L A Y A S
ges
Tropic of Cancer
DECCAN
PLATEAU
h
N
er
n
G
a
Bay of
Bengal
ts
4
E
W
15°N
st
Ar abian
Sea
2
River
Narmada
River
Gh
S
at
IND IAN
O CEAN
s
Strategy 4 Use the pointer, or compass
rose, to determine direction.
Ind
n
ter
Wes
Strategy 3 Read the map key. It is
usually in a box. The key will help you
interpret the symbols or colors on the map.
U
ND
HI USH
K
Ea
Strategy 2 Look for the grid of lines
that forms a pattern of squares over the
map. These numbered lines are the lines
of latitude (horizontal) and longitude
(vertical). They indicate the location of the
area on Earth.
1
1500–250 B.C.
River
Strategy 1 Read the title. This
identifies the main idea of the map.
Aryan Migrations into India,
s
How to Read a Map
45°N
Aryan migrations
75°E
3
90°E
Make a Chart
A chart can help you organize information given on maps. The chart below summarizes
information about the map you just studied.
TITLE
Aryan Migrations into India, 1500–250 B.C.
LOCATION
“between longitudes 75°E and 90°E and
latitudes 30°N and the equator.”
KEY INFORMATION
SUMMARY
Equator 0°
MapQuest.Com, Inc.
wh06pe-040702-003-m-a.ai
Aryan Invasions of India, 1500–250 B.C.
arrows = paths of Aryan migrationsVital Information Area: 24p6 wide X 37p7 deep
Over a roughly 1200-year period, the
Aryans migrated south and settled
throughout much of India.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 4, Lesson 2, “Assyria Rules the Fertile Crescent.” Read the map entitled
“Assyrian Empire, 650 B.C.” and make a chart to identify information on the map.
R10 • SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK
3rd proof date: 7/02/04
Page 11 of 33
2.2 Creating a Map
Learn the Skill
Creating a map involves representing geographical information. When you draw a map, it is easiest
to use an existing map as a guide. On the map you draw, you can show geographical information.
You can also show political information such as the area covered by empires, civilizations, and
countries. In addition, maps can show data on climates, population, and resources.
Practice the Skill
Below is a map that a student created that shows the furthest extent of the Gupta Empire.
Read the strategies listed below to see how the map was created.
How to Create a Map
Strategy 1 Select a title that
identifies the geographical area and
the map’s purpose. Include a date in
your title.
1 Gupta Empire,
Strategy 2 Draw lines of latitude
and longitude using short dashes.
Strategy 3 Create a key that shows
the colors and symbols.
3 0 °N
4
Strategy 4 Draw the colors
and symbols on the map to show
information.
400
KUS
DU
Indu
s R
ive
HIN
A.D.
3
H
KEY:
Gupta Empire
r
Thar
Desert
Capital city
H
Mathura
A
Ga
ng
es
L
R
Go
AY
i ve
A S
Ayodhya
r
Brahmaputra
River
Pataliputra
River
ma d a
Deccan
P l ate au
2 0 °N
A ra b i a n
Sea
IM
Prayaga
Na r
Strategy 5 Draw a compass rose
and scale.
ASIA
d av
ari River
B ay of
Bengal
70 °E
N
2
10 °N
5
E
W
Sri Lanka
(Ceylon)
S
0
0
250
250
500 miles
500 kilometers
80°E
INDIAN OCEAN
Apply the Skill
MapQuest.Com, Inc.
wh06pe-040703-004-m-a.ai
Turn to Chapter 8, Lesson 1, “Geography Shapes Life in Ancient China.” Read “Isolated
by
Maurya Empire, 260 B.C.
Barriers” under “Geographic Features of China.” Use the information
in Information
this passage
and24p9
the wide X 34p8 deep
Vital
Area:
strategies mentioned above to create a map of China that shows the approximate areas covered
3rd proof date: 7/2/04
by the Gobi Desert and the Taklimakan Desert. Use the map on pages A6–A7 as a model for
your map.
SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK • R11
Page 12 of 33
2.3 Interpreting Charts
Learn the Skill
Charts present information in a visual form. Charts are created by simplifying, summarizing, and
organizing information. This information is then presented in a format that is easy to understand.
Tables and diagrams are examples of commonly used charts.
Practice the Skill
The chart below focuses on the early development of writing. Use the strategies listed below to
help interpret the information in the chart.
How to Interpret a Chart
Strategy 1 Read the title. It will tell you
what the chart is about. Ask yourself what
kinds of information the chart shows.
Strategy 2 Read the headings to see
how the chart is organized. In this chart,
information is organized by examples of
pictograph and cuneiform.
Strategy 3 Study the data in the chart
to understand the facts that the chart was
designed to show.
Strategy 4 Summarize the information
shown in each part of the chart. Use the title
to help you focus on what information the
chart is presenting.
1
Early Development of Writing
2
word
3
bird
pictograph
cuneiform
cow
fish
mountain
water
Write a Summary
Writing a summary can help you understand the information given in a chart. The paragraph
below summarizes the information in the chart “Early Development of Writing.”
4 The chart depicts the early development of writing by showing examples
of pictograph and cuneiform. By examining how each form of writing expressed
the same word, one can see that pictograph and cuneiform had similarities and
differences.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 12, Lesson 1, “The Golden Age of Greece.” Study the political information presented
in the chart entitled “Athenian and U.S. Democracy.” Then write a paragraph in which you
summarize what you learned from the chart.
R12 • SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK
Page 13 of 33
2.4 Interpreting Graphs
Learn the Skill
Graphs use pictures and symbols, instead of words, to show information. There are many
different kinds of graphs. Bar graphs, line graphs, and pie graphs are the most common. Line
graphs show trends or changes over time.
Practice the Skill
The line graph below shows the relationship between the growth of farming (Agricultural
Revolution) and the increase in the world population during the past 25,000 years. Use the
strategies listed below to help you interpret the graph.
How to Interpret a Graph
1
Strategy 2 Read the vertical axis
(the one that goes up and down) on
the left side of the graph. In this graph,
the vertical axis indicates the world
population.
Strategy 3 Read the horizontal axis
(the one that runs across the bottom of
the graph). In this graph, the horizontal
axis shows the progression of time.
4
150
Post–
Agricultural
Revolution
125
100
Agricultural
Revolution
75
50
25
0
Huntinggathering
stage
25 20 15 10 5
1
3 Years Ago (in thousands)
Strategy 4 Look at any legends that
accompany the graph in order to understand
what colors and certain marks
stand for.
Strategy 5 Summarize the
information shown in each part
of the graph.
Population
2
World Population (in millions)
Strategy 1 Read the title to identify the
main idea of the graph.
World Population
Source: A Geography of Population: World Patterns
Write a Summary
Writing a summary will help you understand the information in the graph. The
paragraph below summarizes the information from the line graphs.
5 As a result of the agricultural revolution, world population grew
steadily over a period of 10,000 years.
Apply the Skill
Examine a current news magazine and look for any graphs that might be used to convey information.
Write a summary of the information in the graph using the strategies you learned on this page.
Share your graph and information with the class.
SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK • R13
Page 14 of 33
2.5 Constructing Time Lines
Learn the Skill
A time line is a visual list of events and dates shown in the order in which they occurred.
Time lines show sequence, or the order in which events follow one another. The ability to
sequence historical events by constructing a time line enables you to get an accurate sense of the
relationship among those events.
Practice the Skill
The following passage shows the sequence of events in Rome’s transition from a republic to an
empire. Use the strategies listed below to help you construct a time line of the events.
How to Construct a
Time Line
FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE
Strategy 1 Look for specific dates
provided in the text. The dates may not
always read from earliest to latest, so be
sure to match an event with the date
Strategy 2 Look for clues about time
that allow you to order events according
to sequence. Words and phrases such
as day, week, year, or century may help
to sequence the events.
Beginning in 60 B.C., a group of three leaders ruled Rome. Among
them was a military leader named Julius Caesar. 1 In 46 B.C.,
Caesar claimed all power for himself. Caesar governed Rome as
an absolute ruler. His power made many officials jealous. 1 In
44 B.C., a group of senators ambushed Caesar and stabbed him
to death. 2 The next year, Caesar’s adopted son Octavian and
two other leaders gained control of Rome. Octavian eventually
pushed the other two aside. He took the title of Augustus, or
“exalted one” and began his rule as emperor 1 in 27 B.C.
Make a Time Line
The time line below shows the sequence of events in the passage you just read.
46 B .C.: Caesar
becomes sole
ruler of Rome.
The next year:
Octavian rules Rome
with two other leaders.
50 B.C.
25 B.C.
44 B .C.: Group of
senators assassinate
Caesar.
27 B .C.: Octavian takes
the name “Augustus” and
begins rule as emperor.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 4, Lesson 2, “Assyria Rules the Fertile Crescent.” Read “Assyria Builds a Huge
Empire” and “A New Babylonian Empire.” Then make a time line showing the sequence of events
in those two passages.
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2.6 Explaining Chronological Order
and Sequence
Learn the Skill
Explaining chronological order and sequence means identifying the order in which major
historical events occur. Major events that follow each other in time are often linked by a series
of occurrences.
Practice the Skill
The following passage deals with the captivity of ancient Israel. Use the strategies listed below to
help you identify the major events and the series of occurrences that connect them.
How to Explain Chronological
Order and Sequence
THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY
Strategy 1 Look for specific dates
provided in the text. The dates may not
always read from earliest to latest, so be
sure to match an event with the date.
Solomon became the third king of Israel 1 in 962 B.C. Soon after
Strategy 2 Look for clues about time
that allow you to order events according
to sequence. Words and phrases such as
day, week, year, or century may help to
sequence the events.
Babylon as slaves. These Jews spent roughly the 2 next 50 years
Solomon’s death in 2 in 922 B.C. Israel split into two separate
kingdoms—Israel and Judah. Around 586 B.C.., the Babylonians
conquered both Israel and Judah. They took thousands of Jews to
in Babylon. This time is known as the Babylonian Captivity.
1 In 539 B.C., Persia conquered Babylonia. 2 The next year, the
Persian king Cyrus freed the Jewish slaves and allowed them to
return to their homeland.
Make a Time Line
Making a time line can help you visualize chronological order. The time line below shows the
order of events in the passage you just read.
586 B .C.—Babylonians
conquer kingdoms
of Israel; Babylonian
Captivity begins.
962 B .C.—Solomon
becomes king of
Israel.
1000 B.C.
900
922 B .C.—King
Solomon dies.
800
700
600
539 B .C.—
Persia
conquers
Babylon.
500 B.C.
538 B .C.—Persian king
Cyrus ends captivity
by freeing Jews.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 10, Lesson 2, “The Fall of the Roman Empire.” Read “Invading People” and
“The Fall of Rome.” Then make a chart that shows the major events and connecting events and
summarizes how the major events relate to each other.
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2.7 Explaining Geographic Patterns
Learn the Skill
Explaining geographic patterns involves understanding the movement of such things as
people, cultures, or ideas across the earth. Geographic patterns include the migration of people,
the expansion or decline of empires, the growth of economic systems, and the spread of religion.
Some maps show geographic patterns. By studying these maps, you can better understand the
development of cultures, ideas, and political systems.
Practice the Skill
The following map deals with the spread of Buddhism. Use the strategies listed below to help you
study this map and others that show geographic patterns.
How to Explain Geographic Patterns
Strategy 1 Locate the title of the map. The
title usually identifies the geographic pattern
shown on the map.
3
KOREA
Spread of Buddhism by A.D. 600
°N
JAPAN
N
W
M
I
Strategy 3 Identify any graphics on the map,
such as arrows. Arrows are often used to show
the movement of ideas, goods, or people. Use
the compass rose to determine the directions
that the arrows point.
40
Core area of Buddhism
H
Strategy 2 Locate any shaded areas on
the map. The shaded areas show important
regions of the geographic pattern. On this map,
the shaded area shows the region where the
Buddhism originated.
Spread of Buddhism by A.D. 600
1
2
E
CHINA
S
AL
AYA
S
20°
N
PACIFIC
OCEAN
INDIA
Philippines
Sri Lanka
(Ceylon)
Strategy 4 Using the above strategies, write
a summary about the geographic pattern shown
on the map.
SOUTHEAST
ASIA
0°
INDIAN OCEAN
80°E
100°E
120°E
4 Buddhism began in India and spread southward and eastward. Its influenceMapQuest.Com, Inc.
eventually reached China, Southeast Asia, Korea, Japan, and Sri Lanka.wh06pe-0407cr-001-m-a.ai
Spread of Buddhism to A.D. 600
Vital Information Area: 20p6wide X 23p11 deep
Apply the Skill
Final proof date: 7/2/04
Turn to Chapter 7, Lesson 2, “Western, Central, and Southern Africa.” Study the map “Aryan
Migrations into India, 1500–250 B.C.” on page 228. Using the strategies mentioned above, write a
summary of the geographic pattern shown on this map.
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2.8 Creating a Model
Learn the Skill
When you create a model, you use information and ideas to show an event or a situation in a visual
way. A model might be a poster or a diagram that explains how something happened. Or, it might
be a three-dimensional model, such as a diorama, that depicts an important scene or situation.
Practice the Skill
The following sketch shows the early stages of a model of the Great Pyramid of Khufu’s interior. Use
the strategies listed below to help you create your own model.
How to Create a Model
Strategy 1 Gather the information you
need to understand the situation or event.
In this case, you need to be able to show
parts of the inside of the Great Pyramid of
Khufu.
Strategy 2 Visualize and sketch an idea
for your model. Once you have created a
picture in your mind, make an actual sketch
to plan how the model might look.
Strategy 3 Think of symbols you may
want to use. Since the model should give
information in a visual way, think about
ways you can use color, pictures, or other
visuals to tell the story.
King's chamber
Air shaft
Grand gallery
Passage to
grand gallery
Queen's chamber
Escape passage
Unfinished chamber
Strategy 4 Gather the supplies you will
need. For example, for this model, you
will need pictures of the Great Pyramid of
Khufu and diagrams of the inside of this
pyramid. You will also need art supplies.
Then create the model.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 12, Lesson 1, “The Golden Age of Greece” and read “Beautifying Athens.” Also
read descriptions and study images of the inside of the Parthenon. Then draw a diagram of the
inside of the Parthenon. Include labels that identify parts of the Parthenon’s interior.
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3.1 Framing Historical Questions
Learn the Skill
Framing historical questions is important as you study primary sources—firsthand accounts,
documents, letters, and other records of the past. As you analyze a source, ask questions about what
it means and why it is significant. This will help you to better understand the information you read.
Practice the Skill
The following passage is an excerpt from a biography of Julius Caesar written by Roman scholar
Caius Suetonius Tranquillus. This excerpt describes the assassination of Caesar. It mentions Spurinna,
a prophet who had warned that harm would come to Caesar on the ides (15th) of March. Use the
strategies listed below to help you frame historical questions.
How to Frame Historical
Questions
1 CAIUS TRANQUILLUS, 1ST CENTURY B.C.
Strategy 1 Ask about the historical
record itself. Who produced it? When?
2 He [Julius Caesar] entered the House [Senate] in defiance of
portents [prophecies], laughing at 2 Spurinna and calling him
Strategy 2 Ask about the facts
presented. Who were the main
people? What did they do?
a false prophet, because the ides of March were come without
Strategy 3 Ask about the person
who created the record. What judgments
or opinions does the author express?
[Caesar] saw that he was beset on every side by drawn daggers. . . .
Strategy 4 Ask about the importance
of the record. Does the record convey
important historical information?
bringing him harm. . . . As he took his seat, the 2 conspirators
gathered about him [Caesar] as if to pay their respects. . . . He
He was stabbed with three and twenty wounds, 3 uttering not
a word, but merely a groan at the first stroke, though some have
written that when Marcus Brutus rushed at him, he said in Greek,
“You too, my child?” . . . 4
Make a Chart
Making a chart can help you list and answer questions about a historical source. The chart below
lists historical questions and answers based on the passage you just read.
QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
HISTORICAL RECORD
Who produced it? When?
Caius Suetonius Tranquillus; first century B .C.
FACTS PRESENTED
Who were the main people?
What did they do?
Julius Caesar, Spurinna, Marcus Brutus, Conspirators
The conspirators killed Caesar.
CREATOR
What were his opinions?
Caesar died without uttering a word.
IMPORTANCE
What is its importance?
Provides insight into the death of a famous
historical figure
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 6, Lesson 2, “The Kingdom of Aksum.” Read the “Primary Source: King Ezana of Aksum.”
Use a chart like the one shown here to ask and answer historical questions about this primary source.
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3.2 Distinguishing Facts from Opinions
Learn the Skill
Facts are events, dates, statistics, or statements that can be proved to be true. Opinions are
judgments, beliefs, and feelings. By understanding the difference between facts and opinions,
you will be able to think critically when a person is trying to influence your own opinion.
Practice the Skill
The following passage describes the Greek philosopher Aristotle and some of his views on
government. Use the strategies listed below to distinguish facts from opinions
How to Distinguish Facts
from Opinions
ARISTOTLE’S VIEWS
1 Artistotle was born in 384 B.C. in Stagira, a small town
Strategy 1 Look for specific
information that can be proved or
checked for accuracy.
in northern Greece. At the age of 17, Aristotle entered a
school directed by the noted philosopher Plato. 1 Aristotle
Strategy 2 Look for assertions,
claims, and judgments that express
opinions. In this case, one speaker’s
opinion is addressed in quotation marks.
quickly became a standout student. Plato referred to him as
Strategy 3 Think about whether
statements can be checked for
accuracy. Then identify the facts and
opinions in a chart.
government. 2 Aristotle believed the middle class was the most
the “intelligence of the school.” Aristotle is considered one of
the greatest thinkers in Western culture. He expressed views
on a number of significant subjects, including politics and
suited to rule, calling this group “the steadiest element” of society.
Make a Chart
The chart below analyzes the facts and opinions from the passage above.
CAN IT BE PROVED
FACT OR OPINION
Yes, check historical documents.
Fact
Aristotle became a standout
philosophy student.
Yes, check Plato's comments;
other historical records.
Fact
The middle class is the group most
suited to rule.
No, this cannot be proved. It is
what one speaker believes.
Opinion
3 STATEMENT
Aristotle was born in 384
town of Stagira.
B .C.
in the
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 9, Lesson 2, “Ancient Andean Civilizations,” and read the section entitled “The
Nazca Civilization.” Make a chart in which you analyze key statements to determine whether they
are facts or opinions.
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3.3 Detecting Historical Points of View
Learn the Skill
A historical point of view is an attitude that a person has about an event in the past. Detecting
and analyzing different points of view can help you to better understand a historical figure’s thoughts
and actions.
Practice the Skill
The following passage describes the political rise of the Roman leader Julius Caesar. Use the strategies
below to help you detect and analyze what historical points of view are expressed.
How to Detect Points of View
Strategy 1 Look for clue words that
indicate a person’s view on an issue.
These include words such as believe,
insist, support, and oppose.
Strategy 2 Look for reasons why
someone has taken a particular point
of view.
THE RISE OF CAESAR
Julius Caesar was a brilliant military leader who eventually became
dictator of Rome. Although Rome had been a republic in which
no single person held all the power, 1 many people supported
Caesar’s rise to dictator. 2 In addition to his military skills,
Caesar was a good politician with a reputation as a reformer. All of
this made him popular with the common people of Rome.
But some people opposed Caesar. One of his opponents was
Cicero, a Roman politician. 1 Cicero believed it was wrong for
Caesar to have complete control over Rome. 2 Cicero was a
strong supporter of a republic. He opposed the idea of giving all
political power to one person.
Make a Chart
Using a chart can help you detect and analyze historical points of view. The chart below analyzes
the views in the passage you just read.
PERSON(S)
VIEW
REASONS
Common People
supported Caesar as dictator
military hero; reputation as
a reformer
Cicero
opposed Caesar as dictator
favored a republic; distrusted
rule by one person
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 8, Lesson 3, “The Qin and the Han.” Read “The Qin Unified China” and ”The Han
Dynasty.” Then make a chart like the one above to analyze the different points of view taken by
the two dynasties.
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3.4 Determining Historical Context
Learn the Skill
Determining historical context means finding out how events and people were influenced
by the context of their time. It means judging the past not by current values, but by taking into
account the beliefs of the time.
Practice the Skill
The following passage is from the writings of the fourth-century Roman historian Ammianus
Marcellinus. In this passage, Marcellinus describes the Huns, one of the groups that eventually
invaded Rome and helped bring down the empire.
How to Determine Historical
Context
Strategy 1 Identify the historical
figure, the occasion, and the date.
Strategy 2 Look for clues to the
attitudes, customs, and values of
people living at the time. In this case,
Marcellinus is expressing a view, most
likely held by many Romans, that the
outside invaders threatening their
empire were uncivilized “barbarians.”
Strategy 3 Explain how people’s
actions and words reflected the attitudes,
values, and passions of the era. Here,
Marcellinus is issuing a warning of sorts
to his fellow Romans that the Huns are
wild and fierce fighters that need to be
taken seriously.
Strategy 4 Using the strategies
mentioned above, write a conclusion
about the historical context of the
passage.
1 from The Chronicle of Events (fourth century)
Ammianus Marcellinus
The nation of the Huns . . . 2 surpasses all other barbarians
in wildness of life. . . . And though [the Huns] do just bear the
likeness of men (of a very ugly pattern), 2 they are so little
advanced in civilization that they . . . feed upon the . . . half-raw
flesh of any sort of animal. . . . 3 When attacked . . . they fill the
air with varied and discordant cries. . . . They fight in no regular
order of battle, but by being extremely swift and sudden in their
movements, they disperse . . . spread havoc over vast plains, and
. . . pillage the camp of their enemy almost before he has become
aware of their approach.
4 CONCLUSION
Like perhaps many Romans, Marcellinus considered the
Huns far less civilized than the Romans themselves. As
barbaric as the Romans thought they were, however,
many probably agreed with Marcellinus that their fierce
and chaotic fighting style made them a serious threat
to the empire.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 12, Lesson 2, “Peloponnesian War.” Read the Primary Source feature “Pericles’
Funeral Oration.” Using the above strategies, write a conclusion about the historical context of
this passage.
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3.5 Forming and Supporting Opinions
Learn the Skill
When you form opinions, you interpret and judge the importance of events and people in
history. You should always support your opinions with facts, examples, and quotations.
Practice the Skill
The following passage describes characteristics of the Egyptian kings, known as pharaohs. Use
the strategies listed below to form and support an opinion about these rulers.
How to Form and
Support Opinions
Strategy 1 Look for important
information about the subject.
Information can include facts,
quotations, and examples.
Strategy 2 Form an opinion
about the subject by asking yourself
questions about the information. For
example, how important was the
subject? How does it relate to similar
subjects in your own experience?
EGYPTIAN PHARAOHS
1 The pharaoh stood at the center of Egypt’s religion as well as
its government and army. Egyptians believed that the pharaoh
bore full responsibility for the kingdom’s well being. 1 Many
Egyptians believed it was the pharaoh who caused the sun to rise,
the Nile to flood, and the crops to grow. It was the pharaoh’s duty
to promote truth and justice. Egyptians believed that the pharaoh
ruled even in death. 1 As a result, they built giant pyramids to
serve as elaborate resting places for pharaohs who passed away.
These pyramids were remarkable engineering achievements that
took the work of thousands of people.
Strategy 3 Support your opinions
with facts, quotations, and examples.
Make a Chart
Making a chart can help you organize your opinions and supporting facts. The following chart
summarizes one possible opinion about Egyptian pharaohs.
2 OPINION
Egyptians viewed pharaohs as god-like and worshiped these rulers intensely.
3 FACTS
Pharaohs served as the center of political and cultural life in Egypt.
Many Egyptians looked to pharaohs to control nature.
Thousands of Egyptian citizens worked to build elaborate pyramids to serve as
tombs for deceased pharaohs.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 4, Lesson 2, “Assyria Rules the Fertile Crescent.” Read “Assyria Builds a Huge
Empire,” and form your own opinion about the Assyrian Empire. Make a chart like the one above
to summarize your opinion and the supporting facts and examples.
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3.6 Evaluating Information
Learn the Skill
To evaluate is to make a judgment about something. Historians evaluate information about
peoples, cultures, and events by determining what material is essential to the main point and
whether or not the information is verifiable.
Practice the Skill
The following passage examines the rule of the Greek leader Solon. Use the strategies listed
below to evaluate his rule.
How to Evaluate
Strategy 1 Determine the major
point of a passage. In this case, think
about what Solon set out to achieve.
Strategy 2 Look for statements
that convey information relevant and
essential to the main point. Think
about how Solon achieved his goal.
Strategy 3 Consider what text does
not support the main point.
Strategy 4 Ask whether most or
all of the essential information can
be verified in historical texts or other
documents.
SOLON RULES ATHENS
Solon was the son of a noble family. 1 After being elected
leader of Athens, he made reforms that helped prevent a revolt
by the poor. 2 First, he freed people who had become slaves
because they owed too much money. 2 He also made a law that
no citizen could be enslaved. 2 In addition, Solon allowed all
citizens to serve in the assembly and help elect leaders. Some
powerful officials opposed the reform and criticized Solon.
3 Tired of defending his actions, Solon left on a trip for ten
years. He traveled to Egypt and Cyprus among other places. 4
Make a Diagram
The diagram below shows how to evaluate information and organize the essential material from
the passage you just read.
2 He freed people
enslaved for owing money.
2 He passed a law that
no citizen could be enslaved.
1
MAIN POINT:
Solon made reforms
to help the poor.
2 He allowed all
citizens to serve in
the assembly and
help elect leaders.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 7, Lesson 3, “Buddhism and India’s Golden Age.” Read “Asoka, the Buddhist
King” under “The Maurya Empire,” and make a chart in which you decide what information is
the most essential about the rule of Asoka.
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3.7 Assessing Credibility of Sources
Learn the Skill
Assessing the credibility of sources means determining if the source material accurately
portrays events, facts, and people. Primary sources are materials written or made by people who
lived during a historical event. They include letters, diaries, articles, and photographs. Secondary
sources are written after a historical event by people who were not present at the event. Books
that appear long after an event are examples of secondary sources.
Practice the Skill
The following passage describes the Roman ruler Augustus. It includes both primary source and secondary
source observations. Use the strategies listed below to help you assess the credibility of the sources.
How to Assess Credibility
of Sources
THE EMPEROR AUGUSTUS
Strategy 1 Determine the thesis, or
main point, of the source.
1 Despite his enormous power, Augustus liked to present
himself as an average citizen with simple tastes. 2 He lived in a
Strategy 2 Check for details that
support the thesis.
small house and wore plain clothes. His favorite foods were those
Strategy 3 Determine the credibility of
primary sources. Is the speaker objective
or not. Here, Augustus is speaking for
himself.
of common people—bread, cheese, and olives. 2 In addition,
he tried to present himself as a servant of the Roman people. In
taking power, 3 Augustus is reported to have said, “What more
have I to ask of the immortal gods than that I may retain this
same unanimous approval of yours to the very end of my life?”
Make a Chart
Making a chart can help you assess the credibility of sources. The chart below organizes questions
to ask about the credibility of sources.
Questions
Answers
What is the main idea?
Augustus portrayed himself as a humble ruler.
What are the supporting details?
He lived in a small house.
He dressed and ate simply.
He called himself a servant of the people.
Are the sources credible?
Secondary sources—can be verified in historical texts.
Primary sources—views may vary; people may or may
not trust what historical figures say about themselves.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 8, Lesson 2, “China’s Ancient Philosophies.” Read the “History Maker” feature on
Confucius and use a chart like the one above to assess the credibility of the sources you encounter.
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3.8 Drawing Conclusions from Sources
Learn the Skill
Drawing conclusions from sources means analyzing what you have read and forming an
opinion about its meaning. To draw conclusions, look at the facts and then use your own common
sense and experience to decide what the facts mean.
Practice the Skill
The following passage presents information about the Persian Empire. Use the strategies listed
below to help you draw conclusions about the Persians.
How to Draw Conclusions
from Sources
Strategy 1 Read carefully to
understand all the facts or statements.
Strategy 2 List the facts and review
them. Use your own experiences and
common sense to understand how the
facts relate to each other.
Strategy 3 After reviewing the facts,
write down the conclusions you have
drawn about them.
THE PERSIAN EMPIRE
The Persian Empire stretched some 2,800 miles from east to
west. 1 The Persian king Darius divided the empire into 20
provinces. Each province, had a local government. Darius set up
governors called satraps to rule the provinces. 1 Darius also
built the Royal Road, a road for government purposes. The Royal
Road was 1,775 miles long. The road greatly improved travel and
communication across the empire. In addition, 1 Darius created
standard coins throughout the empire. This made it easier for
residents of the far-flung and diverse kingdom to conduct trade
and other commercial activities.
Make a Diagram
Making a diagram can help you draw conclusions from sources. The diagram below shows how
to organize facts to draw a conclusion about the passages you just read.
2 FACTS
Darius divided the empire into 20 provinces and
installed governors to rule over each province.
Darius created the Royal Road, which stretched
for 1,775 miles and improved travel and
communication throughout the empire.
3 CONCLUSION
The Persians
were a highly organized
people who succeeded in
bringing order and stability to
their far-reaching empire.
Darius created standard coins for use throughout
the empire, which helped people conduct trade
and commerce more easily.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 6, Lesson 3, “West, Central, and Southern Africa.” Read the section titled “Nok
Culture” and use the strategies on this page to draw conclusion about the Nok people.
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4.1 Understanding Cause and Effect
Learn the Skill
A cause is an action in history that makes something happen. An effect is the historical event
that is the result of the cause. A single event may have several causes. It is also possible for one
cause to result in several effects. Historians identify cause-and-effect relationships to help them
understand why historical events took place.
Practice the Skill
The following paragraph describes the growth of Christianity in the Roman Empire. Use the
strategies below to help you identify the cause-and-effect relationships.
How to Analyze Causes and
Recognize Effects
1 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY
Strategy 1 Ask why an action took
place. Ask yourself a question about
the title or topic sentence, such as,
“How did Christianity spread?”
In the decades after it developed, Christianity came under
Strategy 2 Look for the results (the
effect). Ask yourself, What happened?
the Roman Empire. 3 A major cause of its spread was the
Strategy 3 Look for the reasons why
something happened (the cause). Search
for clue words that signal causes, such
as cause and led to.
attack in the Roman Empire. Roman officials jailed and killed
Christians mainly because they refused to worship Roman
gods. 2 Nonetheless, Christianity grew and spread throughout
contribution of St. Paul the Apostle. St. Paul was a Jewish
leader who converted to Christianity. He traveled throughout
the Roman world preaching Christian beliefs and attracting
followers. 3 Another factor that led to the spread of Christianity
was the decision by the Roman emperor Constantine to legalize
Christianity and allow Christians to worship freely.
Make a Diagram
Using a diagram can help you understand causes and effects. The diagram below shows causes
and an effect for the passage you just read.
CAUSE: Paul promoted Christianity across
the empire.
EFFECT: Christianity grew
and spread throughout the
empire.
CAUSE: The emperor Constantine
legalized Christianity.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 6, Lesson 3, “West, Central, and Southern Africa.” Read “The Bantu Migrations.”
Then make a diagram about the causes and effects of the Bantu migrations.
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4.2 Explaining Historical Patterns
Learn the Skill
When humans develop new ways of thinking and acting that are repeated by other people over
time or in other places, these ways become historical patterns. Explaining historical patterns
will help you better understand how and why certain ideas influence events and movements at
different times in history.
Practice the Skill
The following passage discusses the recurring development of farming throughout the ancient
world. Use the strategies listed below to help you explain the historical pattern.
How to Explain Historical
Patterns
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FARMING
Strategy 1 Identify the historical
movement or idea being examined.
About 10,000 years ago, humans began experimenting
Strategy 2 Identify previous or
subsequent periods in history during
which a similar movement or idea
occurred.
development of farming. The foothills of the Zagros Mountains
with planting seeds and growing plants. 1 This led to the
in northeastern Iraq appear to be a birthplace of agriculture.
There, residents established a farming settlement as early as 9,000
years ago. Within a few thousand years, many other regions
worldwide turned to farming. 2 About 7,000 years ago, residents
along the Huang River in China cultivated a grain called millet.
About 1,000 years later, people began growing rice in the Chang
Jiang River delta. 2 Meanwhile, farmers in Mexico and Central
America started growing corn, beans, and squash.
Make a Flow Chart
Making a flow chart can help you visualize historical patterns. The flow chart below helps to
explain the historical pattern in the passage you just read.
The residents along the
Zagros Mountains in Iraq
developed farming 9,000
years ago.
Residents along China’s rivers
cultivated millet and rice in
the centuries that followed.
Farmers in Mexico and
Central America began
to grow corn, beans and
squash.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 12, Lesson 1, “The Golden Age of Greece.” Read “Pericles Leads Athens.” Use
the information in the text as well as your own knowledge to create a flow chart about the
development of democracy.
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4.3 Identifying Issues and Problems
Learn the Skill
Identifying issues and problems means finding and understanding the difficulties faced by a
particular group of people and the historical factors that contributed to these difficulties. By identifying
historical issues and problems, you can learn to identify and understand problems in today’s world.
Practice the Skill
The following paragraph describes the problems of floods and droughts in early Mesopotamia.
Use the strategies listed below to find and understand these problems.
How to Identify Issues and
Problems
FLOOD AND DROUGHT IN MESOPOTAMIA
Strategy 1 Look for the difficulties or
problems faced by a group of people.
1 In ancient Mesopotamia, farmers had to deal with both
floods and droughts. 2 If too much rain fell, the rivers might
Strategy 2 Look for situations that
existed at that time and place, which
contributed to these problems.
overflow and wash everything away. Too little rain also created
difficulties. 2 During a drought, the river levels dropped,
making it hard to water crops.
Strategy 3 Look for the solutions that
people or groups employed to deal with
the problems.
3 To combat the lack of rain, farmers in Mesopotamia
eventually built canals to carry water from the river to the fields.
Such a system is called irrigation. 3 Farmers also built dams to
hold back excess water during floods.
Make a Chart
Making a chart will help you identify and organize information about problems. The chart below
shows the problem, the factors that contributed to the problem, and solutions to the problem in
the passage you just read.
1 PROBLEM
Floods and droughts
made farming
difficult in ancient
Mesopotamia.
2 CONTRIBUTING FACTORS
3 SOLUTIONS
Too much rain caused floods that
washed everything away.
built canals to carry water
from the river to the fields
Drought caused the river level to
drop, making it hard to water crops.
built dams to hold back
excess water during floods
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 13, Lesson 4, “The Daily Life of Romans.” Read “Life in Roman Cities.” Using the
above chart as a model, identify the urban problems faced by ancient Romans.
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4.4 Understanding Continuity
and Change
Learn the Skill
Understanding continuity and change means understanding why certain political and social
systems continue without major change for many years and why sometimes they undergo significant
change. Continuity and change is a process that happens repeatedly throughout history.
Practice the Skill
The following passage describes the Han Dynasty of China. Use the strategies listed below to help
you understand the continuity and change of this empire.
How to Understand
Continuity and Change
Strategy 1 Identify the system that
is undergoing continuity and change.
In this case, it is the Han Dynasty.
Strategy 2 Identify the elements
that contributed to the continuity of
this system.
Strategy 3 Identify the elements
that contributed to the change of this
system.
THE HAN DYNASTY
1 The Han Dynasty began in China in 202 B.C. 2 The
Han rulers put family members and trusted people in local
government positions. They set up a system of tests to find the
most educated and ethical people for the imperial bureaucratic
state. 2 Under the Han, China witnessed improvements in
education and numerous advances in technology and culture.
2 Throughout its long reign, the Han Dynasty withstood
rebellions, peasant revolts, floods, famine, and economic
disasters. 3 Eventually, however, these episodes of economic
and political unrest made the empire weak. By 220, the Han
Dynasty had disintegrated into three rival kingdoms.
Make a Chart
A chart can help you understand the main contributors to continuity and change. The chart below
shows the possible reasons for the Han’s long reign and eventual fall.
HAN DYNASTY FLOURISHES FOR 400 YEARS.
HAN DYNASTY COLLAPSES.
REASONS:
REASONS:
• placed educated, ethical people in charge
• could not remain strong amid continuous
social and economic unrest
• promoted cultural and technological advances
• withstood numerous challenges and disasters
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 2, Lesson 2, “Assyria Rules the Fertile Crescent.” Read “Assyria Rules a Huge
Empire.” Using the above strategies, create a chart highlighting why the Assyrian Empire
continued for many years and the changes that led to its decline.
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4.5 Analyzing Economic and
Political Issues
Learn the Skill
An issue is a matter of public concern. Issues in history are often economic or political. Analyzing
economic and political issues means studying the various components of the issue in order to
reach a better understanding of the issue and its impact on a particular event.
Practice the Skill
The following passage describes the growing difficulties that the Roman Empire faced in the
centuries before it eventually fell. Use the strategies listed below to help you analyze the
economic and political issues involved in Rome’s decline.
How to Analyze Economic
and Political Issues
Strategy 1 Identify the discussion
of economic and political issues. Look
for clue words and phrases such as pay,
and sources of wealth. Then look for clue
words and phrases such as government,
politician, ruler, and public affairs.
Strategy 2 Determine what are the
different components of each issue.
INTERNAL WEAKNESSES OF ROME
During the second century, the empire stopped expanding. The
end of new conquests meant an end to new 1 sources of wealth.
2 As a result, it grew harder for the government to pay for
needed services, especially the army.
Meanwhile, the empire had to deal with other difficulties.
1 Over time, Roman politics grew increasingly corrupt. As a
result, 2 citizens lost their sense of pride in 1 government and
their interest in 1 public affairs.
Strategy 3 Write an analysis that
summarizes the issues.
Make a Diagram
Use this diagram to help you pull out the components of various economic and political issues in
order to better analyze them.
3 ECONOMIC ISSUE
Components
• The empire stops expanding, which ends new
sources of wealth.
• Government has fewer funds for needed services.
3 POLITICAL ISSUE
Components
• Politics grows corrupt.
• Residents lose civic pride and duty to empire.
Analysis
Analysis
With no new income, the Roman government
became unable to pay for key services.
As the government became more corrupt,
Romans lost their sense of civic duty.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 9, Lesson 4, “The Mayan Civilization.” Read “Mayan Life” and “Mayan Culture.”
Using the above graphic as a model, analyze the economic and political issues in these passages.
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4.6 Recognizing Changing
Interpretations of History
Learn the Skill
Recognizing changing interpretations of history means identifying historical viewpoints
that have changed over time. Historical interpretations often change when new evidence is found
that causes historians to rethink an interpretation. When studying history, you should be able to
identify both old and new interpretations of history—and any reasons for the change.
Practice the Skill
The following passage discusses hunter-gatherer societies. Use the strategies listed below to help
you identify changing interpretations of history.
How to Recognize Changing
Interpretations of History
HUNTER–GATHERER SOCIETIES
1 For many years, scholars thought that life for hunter-gatherers
was very hard. 2 Now, many scholars believe that life for these
ancient people was quite good. 3 They have based their new
beliefs on studies of hunter-gatherers in the modern world. 4
Strategy 1 Identify old
interpretations of history.
Strategy 2 Identify new
interpretations of history.
Strategy 3 Determine what factors
led to the new interpretation.
Strategy 4 Recognize any details
that attempt to support the new
interpretation.
Scholars now think that the surrounding environment gave
hunter-gatherers all the kinds of food they needed. They had
a varied diet of meat, fish, fruit, and wild plants. In addition,
hunting and gathering did not require too much time and energy.
People had time to relax, visit with friends, and play games.
Make a Chart
The chart below addresses changing historical interpretations about hunter-gatherer societies.
OLD INTERPRETATION
NEW INTERPRETATION
REASON
DETAILS
life difficult for huntergatherers
life good for huntergatherers
closer study of
modern huntergatherers
healthy and well-balanced
diet; didn't have to work
too hard for food; had
plenty of relaxation time
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 1, Lesson 4, “How Historians Study the Past.” Read “How Knowledge of
the Past Changes.” Using the above chart as a model, identify an old and new historical
interpretation about the “mummy’s curse.”
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4.7 Conducting Cost-Benefit Analyses
Learn the Skill
A cost-benefit analysis involves determining the economic costs and benefits of an action. Imagine,
for example, that you own a lawn-mowing business. Your business would be economically beneficial
if, at the end of the summer, the total amount of money you earned was greater than the costs
of buying the mower, paying for gas, cleaning and repairing the tools, and so on. The ability to
recognize the costs and benefits of an action in history will help you to better understand why people
made the decisions they did.
Practice the Skill
The following passage examines the decision to travel the ancient Silk Roads that connected China
and Europe. Use the strategies below to analyze the costs and benefits related to this issue.
How to Conduct a
Cost-Benefit Analysis
1 THE SILK ROADS
Strategy 1 Identify the historical
topic or event that is under
consideration.
The Silk Roads were a series of trade routes that connected
Strategy 2 Locate the potential
costs of the action.
travel. They stretched about 4,000 miles across harsh terrain of
Strategy 3 Identify the potential
benefits associated with the action.
traders back then had to rely on horses or other animals to take
Strategy 4 Determine what decision
was made based on the cost-benefit
analysis.
Europe and China. The Silk Roads flourished primarily from the
second century B.C. to the 1400s. 2 The routes were not easy to
mountains and deserts. 2 The journey was long and slow, as
them to their destination. 2 The trip also could be dangerous.
Travelers along the roads had to watch for bandits, who might rob
or even kill them.
3 However, the roads offered a way for people from different
cultures to spread their ideas. 3 The roads also presented traders
with a way to introduce their goods to a new population of
buyers. Merchants from China wanted to sell silk, paper, pottery,
and other items to Westerners. Meanwhile, Westerners wanted
to sell such items as sesame, metals, and precious stones to the
people of the East. 4 As a result, many people from both Europe
and Asia made the long and difficult journey along the route.
(continued)
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Make a Diagram
Making a diagram can help you organize the components of a cost-benefit analysis. The
diagram below shows you how to create a cost-benefit analysis from the passage you just read.
1 SILK ROAD TRAVEL
2 POTENTIAL COSTS
harsh terrain; long and slow journey on
horseback or other animal; potential
danger from bandits
3 POTENTIAL BENEFITS
ability to spread ideas and share new
ways; opportunity to introduce trade
items to a brand new population
4 DECISION
People viewed the benefits of traveling the Silk
Roads as greater than the costs, and the routes
flourished with activity for centuries.
Apply the Skill
Turn to Chapter 3, Lesson 3, “The Pyramid Builders.” Read “Khufu’s Great Pyramid.” Then use the
strategies you have learned to conduct a cost-benefit analysis of pyramid building in ancient Egypt.
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