CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURES, CONCEPT
AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
1.1
Review of Literatures
Dewi‟s thesis entitled “Figurative Language In Blunt‟s Songs” was
written in 2012 is mostly focused on the types of figurative language are used in
James Blunt‟s songs and the meaning of those figurative language. The theory
proposed by Knickerbocker and Reninger (1963:367) was used to analyse the first
problem and the theory proposed by Leech (1974) was used to analyse the second
problem. She also applied theories by Larson (1984) and Morner and Rausch
(1991). The findings show that connotative meaning was found in this study and
the kinds of figurative language presented in this study are personification and
hyperbole frequently appear in the three of the song lyrics of James Blunt. By the
explanation above there are relation between this thesis and my study that we both
discussed about figurative language and analyzed the kinds of figurative language
in songs. Merely, Dewi‟s thesis doesn‟t come up with the theme of each James
Blunt‟s songs.
The second study is a study entitled “Metaphorical Expressions In The
Songs By My Chemical Romance: A Semantic Analysis” written by Wijaya in
2009. The study focuses on the types of metaphorical expressions based on the
conceptual metaphors illustrated in the songs and the meanings of metaphorical
expressions buried within the songs.
Wijaya applies three theories in his study there are taken from the
seminal framework of conceptual metaphor initiated by Lakoff and Johnson
(1980), followed with Kövecses (2002;2005) and supported by Lakoff
(1987;1993). The findings show that all types of the conceptual metaphors that are
the Structural, Orientational, and Ontological metaphors as well as their related
figure, i.e. Personification and Metonymy were discovered from the twelve chosen
songs. This study only focused on metaphorical word which derived from kinds of
figurative language, while I will discuss about kinds of figurative language itself
and to find out the theme of each Radiohead‟s songs. Therefore, it made this study
differ from the other study.
The latest study in relation to figurative language of which songs
becomes the data source is the undergraduate thesis accomplished by Bayu (2012)
entitled “Imagery And Figurative Language In The Song Lyrics Of Two Different
Genres”. The study composed the problems of what types of imagery and
figurative language employed in the song lyrics of two different genres and what
meanings of figurative language are there in the song lyrics of two different
genres. Bayu focused on the main theory from Rene Wellek and Austin Warren
(1962) to analyzing Imagery, K.L Knickerbocker and H.W Reninger (1963) to
analyzing Figurative Language and Geoffrey Leech (1974) to analyzing Meaning.
The findings show that both Johnny Cash and Avril Lavigne have similarities.
There were two meanings that founds; namely connotative and conceptual
meaning. Despite by using the same theory as he applied, the data source were
different. The data in his research were taken from the song lyric of two different
genres from Johnny Cash (1932-2003) and Avril Lavigne (1984-present). In my
research the data source were taken from the song lyrics by Radiohead.
The other review was journal review. One article entitled “Figurative
Language in a Modern Theory of Meaning Construction: A Lexical Concepts and
Cognitive Models Approach” written by Vyvyan Evans and Jörg Zinken in Art,
Body and Embodiment (September 2006) in Journal of Cambridge Scholars
Press. The purpose of this volume is to explore the relationship between art, body
and embodiment. One of the central propositions associated with the
interdisciplinary approach to language and mind known as „cognitive linguistics‟
is that the nature of human embodiment affects both what we can experience and
how we experience it. This view, known as the thesis of embodied cognition,
holds that the range of concepts that populate the human conceptual system bears
the imprint of human embodiment (see Evans 2004; Evans and Green 2006;
Johnson 1987; Lakoff 1987; Lakoff and Johnson 1999). As forms of expression,
such as art, make use of the human symbolic ability, which relies upon the
conceptual system, it follows that artistic expression must reflect the nature of
human embodiment, and thus bodily experience. One way in which art manifests
itself is through language, particularly literary language. Here we will be
concerned with one form that literary language takes, namely figurative language.
According to the explanation about the journal above, it came out that the data
source and the content were different from my study.
1.2
Concepts
This part explain about concepts that are going to be explained in this
section in order to support the overall understanding that build this study. The
main idea of the analysis from this title probably still blurs or unclear, that is why
the concepts below are actually needed.
2.2.1 Figurative Language
Figurative language is a language that contains figures of speech, such
as metaphor, simile, personification and hyperbole, namely expressions that make
comparisons or associations which are meant to be interpreted imaginatively
rather than literally (Morner and Rausch – 1991:83).
According to Tajalli (2003:100), he stated, “The language that uses
figures of speech is called „figurative language‟ and „its purpose is to serve three
elements of clarity, forth, and beauty in the language”. Nevertheless, as any figure
of speech has a figurative meaning, it may cause ambiguity which influences the
clarity.
2.2.2 Theme
What exactly is this elusive thing called theme? The theme of a fable is
its moral. The theme of a parable is its teaching. The theme of a piece of fiction is
its view about life and how people behave. In fiction, the theme is not intended to
teach or preach. In fact, it is not presented directly at all. In other words, you must
figure out the theme yourself.
Theme is sometimes used interchangeably with "motif," but the term is
more usefully applied to a general concept or doctrine, whether implicit or
asserted, which an imaginative work is designed to incorporate and make
persuasive to the reader (M.H. Abrams:1970).
Some critics have claimed that all non-trivial works of literature,
including lyric poems, involve an implicit theme which is embodied and
dramatized in the evolving meanings and imagery.Theme is the basic idea which
is than developed to convey the idea of the poet. It is developing of the theme
which later becomes a poem.
Thus we can assume that theme is the poet‟s reason in writing a poem.
In short, theme plays an important role in literature including poem and
lyric.Themes often explore timeless and universal ideas. Most themes are implied
rather than explicitly stated. The theme is different from the superficial outlay of
the text; it is normally the meaning of the text on a more abstract level. (M.H.
Abrams:1970)
2.2.3 Lyric
In the most common use of the term, a lyric is any fairly short poem,
consisting of the utterance by a single speaker who expresses a state of mind or a
process of perception, thought, and feeling. Lyrics are the written words in a song.
Lyrics can be written during compisition of a song or after the accompanying
music is composed. In the original Greek, “lyric” signified a song rendered to the
accompaniment of a lyre. The lyre is a string instrument known for its use in
Greek classical antiquity. It is similar in appearance to a small harp but with
distinct differences.
1.3
Theoretical Framework
In theoretical bases, there are some descriptions about the theories
which are used to analyzed the data. The main theories used in this study are the
theories of figurative language proposed by Knickerbocker and Reninger and
theory of meaning by Leech.
1.3.1 The Figure of Speech Proposed by Knickerbocker and Reningen
There are various definition about the figure of speech. The following
are some definitions about the figure of speech :
1. Knickbocker and Reninger (1963:367) stated that figurative language is
sometimes called metaphorical language, or simply metaphor, because its
Greek ancestor metapherein means to carry meaning beyond its literal meaning
(meta=beyond + pherein=to bring – i.e, to bring beyond). Regarding the kinds
of figurative language, they proposed some kinds of figurative language
namely simile, metaphor, personification, synecdhoche, metonymy, hyperbole,
irony, dead metaphor, allusion, and paradox.
2. Figurative language is an expression that deviates from everyday language by
using comparison, analogy, and allusion. Rozakis (199 5: 28) defined that
“Figurative language is saying one thing in terms of another”. It means that
figurative language is an expression used by person or the author indirectly by
using the comparison. It cannot be interpreted literally because the comparison
in figurative language expression has the meaning. Based on this definition,
figurative language means that expressing something in another way to refer
one thing by giving the implied meaning.
3. According to Abrams (1981: 63) explained that “Figurative language is a
deviation from what speakers of a language apprehend as the ordinary or
standard, significance or sequence of words, in order to achieve some special
meaning or effect”. It can be said that figurative language is different from the
language that we use in daily activity.
1.3.1.1 Simile
There are some definitions about simile :
1. Simile is a stated comparison, introduced by the words “like” or “as”.
For example : “My love is like a red red rose.”
It called simile because the word “like” in this sentence has function to
compare “my love” with “red rose”. The comparison is explicit and it is
common method to describe the beauty of the girl by comparing her with red
rose. Red rose is usually identical with beautiful things. (Knickerbocker
and
Reninger; 1963; 367)
2. According to (Bredin, 1998: 68) he stated that Simile is much less investigated
than metaphor, although it occurs as frequently in discourse, as he mentioned
"Like metaphor, it is a semantic figure, a mental process playing a central role
in the way we think and talk about the world, which often associates different
spheres". It can have an affirmative or a negative form: the affirmative form
asserts likeness between the entities compared, as 'the sun is like an orange' and
the negative one denies likeness, as 'the sun is not like an orange'.
3. M. H. Abrams (1970) explained in a simile, a comparison between two
distinctly different things is explicitly indicated by the word "like" or "as." A
simple example is Robert Burns, "O my love's like a red, red rose."
1.3.1.2 Metaphor
Here are some definitions about metaphor :
1. Metaphor is an implied comparison, in which „like‟ or „as‟ are omitted.
For example : “Life‟s but a walking shadow” – Instead of saying life is like a
walking shadow (Knickerbocker and Reninger; 1963; 367).
2. Rozakis (1995: 33) stated that “A metaphor is a comparison without the words
like or as.” We can conclude that metaphor is the process of comparing two
unlike things as if they are one. This thing happened because metaphor does
not have connective words such as like, as, than, similar to and seems
determining them as figurative. Metaphor also often called an implied simile.
In simile, the comparison is seen clearly. The concept of simile is A is like B,
the concept of metaphor is A is B.
3. The first definition of metaphor is expressed by Aristotle as "a shift carrying
over a word from its normal use to a new one" (Richards, 1965: 89).
For example : “The customer is king”.
Many qualities a king has, like influence, importance, power and so on are
attributed to a customer. Metaphor is more imaginative and artistic than simile,
as it makes language more powerful and takes the reader toward the emotional
thoughts.
2.3.1.3 Personification
Personification is a metaphor, of course, in the sense that there is an
implied comparison between a non human being and a human being. Giving
human characteristics to an object, animal, or an abstract idea. (Knickerbocker
and Reninger; 1963; 367)
For example :
1. “The old train crept along the narrow.”
The old train like human being with the word “crept” that is meaning
crawl. By crawling is a connotation with the slow motion, like old
people.
2. “Adam was awakened by the sun hitting his face.”
Despite of the sun is able to hit Adam‟s face, the sun does not hit his
face literally, but the sunshine fall on his face. After being hit, we
usually felt a sensation of heat. The sunshine on the face eventually
makes the person feel the heat.
2.3.1.4 Synecdoche
Synecdoche is a figure of speech that showing the use of a part for the
whole. Synecdoche substitutes some significant detail or aspect of an experience
for the experience itself.
For example : “Fifty winters (years) passed him by.”
The word “winters” using a part for the whole sentence and in this sentence means
“Fifty years passed him by”. (Knickerbocker and Reninger; 1963; 367)
2.3.1.5 Metonymy
Below are some definitions about metonymy :
1. Describing one thing by using the term for another thing closely associated
with it.
For example : “The crown” used for “The King”.
Those words are having closely relationship for the empire. The empire itself
have a king and crown as a symbol of government. (Knickerbocker and
Reninger; 1963; 367)
2. M. H. Abrams (1970) explained in metonymy (Greek for "a change of name")
the literal term for one thing is applied to another with which it has become
closely associated because of a recurrent relationship in common experience.
Thus "the crown" or "the scepter" can be used to stand for a king and
"Hollywood" for the film industry.
2.3.1.6 Hyperbole
Some definitions about hyperbole :
1. Hyperbole is an exaggeration used for special effect.
For example : “Drink to me only with thin eyes. Go and catch a falling star”.
In this sentence is impossible that no one could catch a falling star and the star
cannot fall. The word “Go and catch a falling star” is an overstatement.
(Knickerbocker and Reninger; 1963; 367)
2. The figure of speech, or trope, called hyperbole (Greek for "overshooting") is
bold overstatement, or the extravagant exaggeration of fact or of possibility. It
may be used either for serious or ironic or comic effect. (M. H. Abrams:1970)
2.3.1.7 Irony
The following are some definitions about irony :
1. A statement whose real meaning in completely opposed to its professed or
surface meaning.
For example : “The Czar is the voice of God and shall live forever”.
“The Czar” is only a human being and the voices came out from the mouth is
generally not different from the human. The word “shall live forever” is
opposed the real meaning that we can not shall live forever. (Knickerbocker
and Reninger; 1963; 367)
2. Rozakis stated that “Irony states one thing in one of voice when, in fact, the
opposite meaning is intended (1995: 33).” From that statement we can
conclude that irony is not seen from what it is said but rather to interpret the
meaning from the context or situation. For instance, imagine that you had a
very bad day on which you failed a test, lost your wallet, and wrecked your
car. If your friend were to ask how your day went and you replied “Great!
What a best day ever.” It can be known that you (the speaker) are in a bad
situation and in a bad mood, but the speaker says something different from
what he wants to mean instead.
2.3.1.8 Dead Metaphor
Some definitions about dead metaphor :
1. A metaphor which has lost its figurative meaning through endless use.
For example : “The back of the chairs, the face of the clock”.
(Knickerbocker and Reninger; 1963; 367)
2. A dead metaphor is one which, like "the leg of a table" or "the heart of the
matter," has been used so long and become so common that its users have
ceased to be aware of the discrepancy between vehicle and tenor. Many dead
metaphors, however, are only moribund and can be brought back to life.
2.3.1.9 Allusion
Here are some definitions about allusion :
1. A reference for some well-known place, event, or person. It is not a
comparison in the exact sense, but a figurein the sense that it implies more than
its narrow meaning.
For example : “No! I am Prince Hamlet, nor was meant to be”.
The reference is that no one to be a prince and the person who always called
Prince Hamlet with a honest way acknowledgement that is not a prince
himself. (Knickerbocker and Reninger; 1963; 367)
2. M. H. Abrams (1970) also explain that allusion is a passing reference, without
explicit identification, to a literary or historical person, place, or event, or to
another literary work or passage.
2.3.1.10 Paradox
Some definitions about paradox :
1. Paradox is a statement of which surface, on obvious meaning seems to be
illogical, even absurd, but making good sense upon closer examination.
(Knickerbocker and Reninger; 1963; 367)
For example : “Light is the darkest thing in physics”.
From that sentence, the words „light‟, „darkest‟, and „physic‟ are paradox,
because it is the part of sense similar to human having a legs and hands for
making good sense.
2. A paradox is a statement which seems on its face to be logically contradictory
or absurd, yet turns out to be interpretable in a way that makes good sense.
(M. H. Abrams:1970)
2.3.2 The Meaning of Words
According to Leech (1974), there are seven kinds of associative
meaning, such as connotative meaning, stylistic meaning, affective meaning,
reflected meaning, collocative meaning, thematic meaning, and conceptual
meaning. Each of them will be explained below.
2.3.2.1 Connotative Meaning
Leech assert in his Semantics (1974:14) that connotative meaning is the
communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over
andabove its purely conceptual content. It is not only the physical appearance, but
alsopsychological and social properties. And it extends to typical and putative
properties. Leech also says that connotative meaning is not specific to language,
but it is shared with other communicative system such as in music and visual art.
For example :
The words „women‟ can mean in conceptual ways pass though three
characteristic (+HUMAN, -MALE, +ADULT), then that three characteristic
must given a right words in uses. In the different expalanation or in the „real
world‟, can be attribute from that reference, but it is also found as much as
characterisitc which one not entered in those criteria which already we know also
can be the reference by the words „women‟. The reference is not only including
physical characterictic („have two legs‟, „have a womb‟) but also in mental and
social characterictic („have a friend‟, „have motherly instinct‟). (Leech; 1974:16)
2.3.2.2 Stylistic Meaning
Stylistic meaning is a piece of language conveys about the social
circumstances of its use. We „decode‟ the stylistic meaning of the text through our
recognition of different dimensions and levels of usage within the same language.
we recognize some words or pronunciations as being dialectical, i.e.
For examples :
1. They chucked a stone at the cops, and then did a bunk with the loot.
2. After casting a stone at the police, they absconded with the money.
Sentence (1) could be said by the two criminals, talking casually about
the crime afterwards; sentence (2) might be said by the chief of the
police in making the official report; both could describe the same
happening. (Leech, 1974: 15)
2.3.2.3 Affective Meaning
According to Leech (1974: 18) Affective meaning, as this sort of meaning
canbe called, is often explicitly conveyed through the conceptual or connotative
contentof the words used. Affective meaning appears when the utterance describes
the speaker‟s feeling and attitude to the address. Affective meaning has more
directly a reflection of the speaker‟s personal attitude or feelings toward the
listener or the target of the utterance. Such feelings orattitudes are usually
negative or insincere in nature. They are normally expressed through such forms
of language use as insult, flattery, hyperbole or sarcasm.
For examples :
1. “You are a vicious tyrant and a villainous reprobation and I hate you”
Or “I hate you, you idiot”.
We are left with a little doubt about the speaker‟s feelings towards the
listener. Here speaker seems to have a very negative attitude towards
his listener. This is called affective meaning. But very often we are
more discreet (cautious) and convey our attitude indirectly.
2. “Will you belt up?”
It can be turned into a playful remark between intimates if said with the
intonation of a request. Words like darling, sweetheart or hooligan,
vandal have inherent emotive quality and they can be used neutrally.
2.3.2.4 Reflected Meaning
Leech (1974: 19) stated that reflected meaning isthe meaning which arises
in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of
our response to another sense. Therefore, the people often havedifficulty in use a
word with a particular sense. Leech says that in church service „the comforter and
the Holy Ghost ‟refer to the third in Trinity. They are religious words. But
unconsciously there is a response to their non-religious meanings too. Thus the
„comforter‟ sounds warm and comforting while the „Ghost‟ sounds „awesome‟ or
even „dreadful‟. One sense of the word seems to rub off on another especially
through relative frequency and familiarity (e.g. a ghost is more frequent and
familiar in no religious sense.).
2.3.2.5 Collocative Meaning
Collocative meaning means what is communicated through association
with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word. Collocative
meaning refers to associations of a word because of its usual or habitual cooccurrence with certain types of words. For example, „Pretty‟ and „handsome‟
indicate „good looking‟.
On the other hand, the word „handsome‟ collocates with – „boys‟ men, etc.
so „pretty woman‟ and „handsome man‟. While different kinds of attractiveness,
hence „handsome woman‟ may mean attractive but in a mannish way. (Leech,
1974:22-23)
2.3.2.6 Thematic Meaning
Thematic meaning is what is communicated by the way in which a speaker
orwriter organizes the message, in term of ordering, focus and emphasis.
Thematic meaning is mainly a matter of choice between alternativegrammatical
constructions. It is also helps us to understand the message and its implications
properly. (Leech, 1974:25-26)
For example :
1. Mrs. Smith donated the first prize
2. The first prize was donated by Mrs. Smith.
In the first sentence “who gave away the prize “is more important, but
in the second sentence “what did Mrs. Smith gave is important”. Thus
the change of focus change the meaning also. The first suggests that we
already know Mrs. Smith (perhaps through earlier mention) its
known/given information while it‟s new information.
2.3.2.7 Conceptual Meaning
Conceptual meaning is also called logical or cognitive meaning. It is the
basic propositional meaning which corresponds to the primary dictionary
definition. A meaning is stylistically neutral and objective as opposed to other
kinds of associative meanings. Conceptual Meanings are the core meaning while
other six types are the peripheral. It is peripheral in as sense that it is nonessential. They are stylistically marked and subjective kind of meanings.
Leech gives primacy to conceptual meaning because it has sophisticated
organization based on the principle of contrastiveness and hierarchical structure.
For example, Old age „Woman‟ - „Non-trouser wearing or sari wearing‟ in Indian
context must have seemed definite connotation in the past. Present „Woman‟---Salwar/T-shirt/Jeans wearing. Some times connotation varies from person to
person also. E.g. connotations of the word „woman‟ for misogynist and a person
of feminist vary. The boundary between conceptual and connotative seems to be
analogous. Connotative meaning is regarded as incidental, comparatively
unstable, in determinant, open ended, variable according to age, culture and
individual, whereas conceptual meaning is not like that . It can be codified in
terms of limited symbols.