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surpassed our predecessors, if not in the
words, at all events in the matter."
Cosmology
In contrast to ancient Greek philosophers
who believed that the universe had an
infinite past with no beginning, medieval
philosophers and theologians developed the
concept of the universe having a finite past
with a beginning (see Temporal finitism).
This view was inspired by the creation myth
shared by the three Abrahamic religions:
Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The
Christian philosopher, John Philoponus,
presented the first such argument against the
ancient Greek notion of an infinite past.
However, the most sophisticated medieval
arguments against an infinite past were
developed by the early Muslim philosopher,
Al-Kindi (Alkindus); the Jewish philosopher,
Saadia Gaon (Saadia ben Joseph); and the
Muslim theologian, Al-Ghazali (Algazel).
They developed two logical arguments
against an infinite past, the first being the
"argument from the impossibility of the
existence of an actual infinite", which states:
"An actual infinite cannot exist."
"An infinite temporal regress of events is an
actual infinite."
".•. An infinite temporal regress of events
cannot exist."
The second argument, the "argument from
the impossibility of completing an actual
infinite by successive addition", states:
"An actual infinite cannot be completed by
successive addition."
"The temporal series of past events has been
completed by successive addition."
".•. The temporal series of past events
cannot be an actual infinite."
Both arguments were adopted by later
Christian philosophers and theologians, and
the second argument in particular became
more famous after it was adopted by
Immanuel Kant in his thesis of the first
antimony concerning time.
Experimental astronomy, astrophysics and
celestial mechanics
û 35ü
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In the 9th century, the eldest Banu Musa
brother, Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa ibn
Shakir, made significant contributions to
astrophysics and celestial mechanics. He was
the first to hypothesize that the heavenly
bodies and celestial spheres are subject to
the same laws of physics as Earth, unlike the
ancients who believed that the celestial
spheres followed their own set of physical
laws different from that of Earth.[40] In his
Astral Motion and The Force of Attraction,
Muhammad ibn Musa also proposed that
there is a force of attraction between
he a v e nl y bod i e s , [4 1 ] fo re s ha d o w i ng
Newton's law of universal gravitation.
(to be continued......)
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Sagittari us.In the 10th century , Abd
al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi) carried out
observations on the stars and described their
positions, magnitudes, brightness, and colour
and drawings for each constellation in his
Book of Fixed Stars (964). He also gave the
first descriptions and pictures of "A Little
Cloud" now known as the Andromeda
Galaxy. He mentions it as lying before the
mouth of a Big Fish, an Arabic constellation.
This "cloud" was apparently commonly
known to the Isfahan astronomers, very
probably before 905 AD. The first recorded
mention of the Large Magellanic Cloud was
also given by Abd Al-Rahman al-Sufi.
Ibn Yunus observed more than 10,000
entries for the sun's position for many years
using a large astrolabe with a diameter of
nearly 1.4 meters. His observations on
eclipses were still used centuries later in
Simon Newcomb's investigations on the
motion of the moon, while his other
observations inspired Laplace's Obliquity of
the Ecliptic and Inequalities of Jupiter and
Saturn's.
A bu -Ma hmu d a l -K hu j a nd i re l a t i v e l y
accurately computed the axial tilt to be
23°32'19" (23.53°)]. In 1006, the Egyptian
astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan observed SN
1006, the brightest supernova in recorded
history, and left a detailed description of the
temporary star. He says that the object was
two to three times as large as the disc of
Venus and about one-quarter the brightness
of the Moon, and that the star was low on
the southern horiz on. Monks at the
Be n e d i c t i n e a b be y a t S t . Ga l l l a t e r
corroborated bin Ridwan's observations as
to magnitude and location in the sky.
Early heliocentric models
In the late ni nth c entury , Ja' fa r ibn
Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi
(Albumasar) developed a planetary model
which some have interpreted as a
heliocentric model. This is due to his orbital
revolutions of the planets being given as
û 36ü
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he l i oce ntri c re vol u tions ra the r tha n
geocentric revolutions, and the only known
planetary theory in which this occurs is in
the heliocentric theory. His work on
planetary theory has not survived, but his
astronomical data was later recorded by
al-Hashimi, Abu Rayhan al-Biruni and
al-Sijzi.
In the early eleventh century, al-Biruni had
met several Indian scholars who believed in
a heliocentric system. In his Indica, he
discusses the theories on the Earth's rotation
supported by Brahmagupta and other Indian
astronomers, while in his Canon Masudicus,
al-Biruni writes that Aryabhata's followers
assigned the first movement from east to
west to the Earth and a second movement
from west to east to the fixed stars. Al-Biruni
also wrote that al-Sijzi also believed the
Earth was moving and invented an astrolabe
called the "Zuraqi" based on this idea:
"I have seen the astrolabe called Zuraqi
invented by Abu Sa'id Sijzi. I liked it very
much and praised him a great deal, as it is
based on the idea entertained by some to the
effect that the motion we see is due to the
Earth's movement and not to that of the sky.
By my life, it is a problem difficult of
solution and refutation. [...] For it is the same
whether you take it that the Earth is in
motion or the sky. For, in both cases, it does
not affect the Astronomical Science. It is just
for the physicist to see if it is possible to
refute it."
In his Indica, al-Biruni briefly refers to his
work on the refutation of heliocentrism, the
Key of Astronomy, which is now lost:
"The most prominent of both modern and
ancient astronomers have deeply studied the
question of the moving earth, and tried to
refute it. We, too, have composed a book on
the subject called Miftah 'ilm al-hai'ah (Key
of Astronomy), in which we think we have
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(greatest) with the article al- and it has since
been known to the world as Al-megiste or,
after popular use in Western translation,
Almagest. though much of the Almagest was
incorrect, even in premise, it remained a
standard astronomical text in both the
Islamic world and Europe until the Maragha
Revolution and Copernican Revolution.[25]
Ptolemy also produced other works, such as
Optics, Harmonica, and some suggest he
also wrote Tetrabiblon.
The Almagest was a particularly unifying
work for its exhaustive lists of sidereal
phenomena. He drew up a list of
chronological tables of Assyrian, Persian,
Gre e k, a nd R oma n ki ng s for u se in
reckoning the lapse of time between known
astronomical events and fixed dates. In
addition to its relevance to calculating
accurate calendars, it linked far and foreign
cultures together by a common interest in
the stars and astrology. The work of Ptolemy
was replicated and refined over the years
under Arab, Persian and other Muslim
astronomers and astrologers.
825-1025
The period throughout the ninth, tenth and
early eleventh centuries was one of vigorous
investigation, in which the superiority of the
Ptolemaic system of astronomy was accepted
and significant contributions made to it.
Astronomical research was greatly supported
by the Abbasid caliph al-Mamun. Baghdad
and Damascus became the centers of such
activity. The caliphs not only supported this
work financially, but endowed the work with
formal prestige.
Observational astronomy
Al-Khwarizmi, the father of algebra and
algorithms, wrote the Zij al-Sindh, the first
orig inal Zij in Islamic a stronomy .In
observational astronomy, the first major
original Muslim work of astronomy was Zij
al-Sindh by al-Khwarizimi in 830. The work
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contains tables for the movements of the
sun, the moon and the five planets known at
the time. The work is significant as it
introduced Indian and Ptolemaic concepts
into Islamic sciences. This work also marked
the turning point in Islamic astronomy.
Hitherto, Muslim astronomers had adopted a
primarily research approach to the field,
translating works of others and learning
already discovered knowledge.
Al-Khwarizmi's work marked the beginning
of non-traditional methods of study and
calculations.
In 850, al-Farghani wrote Kitab fi Jawani ("A
compendium of the science of stars"). The
book primarily gave a summary of Ptolemic
cosmography. However, it also corrected
Ptolemy's Almagest based on findings of
earlier Iranian astronomers. Al-Farghani gave
revised values for the obliquity of the
ecliptic, the precessional movement of the
apogees of the sun and the moon, and the
circumference of the earth. The books were
widely circulated through the Muslim world,
and even translated into Latin.
Muhammad ibn Jabir al-Harrani al-Battani
(Albatenius) (853-929) discovered that the
direction of the S un's eccentric was
changing, which in modern astronomy is
equivalent to the Earth moving in an
elliptical orbit around the Sun.His times for
the new moon, lengths for the solar year and
sidereal year, prediction of eclipses, and
work on the phenomenon of parallax,
carried astronomers "to the verge of
relativity and the space age." Around the
same time, Yahya Ibn Abi Mansour carried
out extensive observations and tests, and
wrote the Al-Zij al-Mumtahan, in which he
completely revised the Almagest values.
Azophi's Book of Fixed Stars, which
described more than a thousand stars in
detail and gave the first descriptions on the
Andromeda Galaxy and Large Magellanic
Cloud. The constellation pictured here is
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The science historian Donald Routledge Hill
has divided the history of Islamic astronomy
into the four following distinct time periods
in its history:
Assimilation and syncretization of earlier
Hellenistic, Indian and Sassanid astronomy
(700—825 AD)
Vigorous investigation, and acceptance and
modification to the Ptolemaic system
(825—1025 AD)
Flourishing of a distinctive Islamic system of
astronomy (1025—1450 AD)
Stagnation, where few significant
contributions were made (1450—1900 AD)
610-700
From the beginning, Muslim community in
Medina sight new moon to determine the
lunar months especially Ramadan and holy
days.
In approximately 638 A.D, Caliph Umar
introduced a new lunar calendar which is
known as lunar calendar was made on the
basis of Islamic view point. This calendar has
twelve lunar months, the beginnings of
which are determined by the sighting of the
crescent moon. This calendar is about 11
days shorter than the solar year. This
calendar is still in use for religious purposes
among Muslims.
700-825
This period was most notably the period of
assimilation and syncretization of earlier
Hellenistic, Indian and Sassanid astronomy
occurred during the eighth and early ninth
centuries.
Impetus
Historians point out several factors that
fostered the growth of Islamic astronomy.
The first was the proximity of the Muslim
world to the world of ancient learning. Much
of the ancient Greek, Sanskrit and Middle
Persian texts were translated into Arabic
during the ninth century. This process was
enhanced by the tolerance towards scholars
of other religions.
û 38ü
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Another impetus came from Islamic religious
observances, which presented a host of
problems in mathematical astronomy. In
solving these religious problems the Islamic
scholars went far bey ond the Greek
mathematical methods.
Ancient influences and translation
movement
During this period, a number of Sanskrit and
Middle Persian texts were first translated into
Arabic. The most notable of the texts was
Zij al-Sindhind,[22] based on the Surya
Siddhanta and the works of Brahmagupta,
and translated by Muhammad al-Fazari and
Yaqub ibn Tariq in 777. Sources indicate that
the text was translated after an Indian
astronomer visited the court of Caliph
Al-Mansur in 770. The most notable Middle
Persian text translated was the Zij al-Shah, a
collection of astronomical tables compiled in
Sassanid Persia over two centuries.
Fragments of text during this period indicate
that Arabs adopted the sine function
(inherited from Indian trigonometry) instead
of the chords of arc used in Hellenistic
mathematics. Another Indian influence was
an approximate formula used for
timekeeping by Muslim astronomers.
A page from Ptolemy's Almagest.Islamic
interest in astronomy ran parallel to the
interest in mathematics. Especially
noteworthy in this regard was the Almagest
(c. 150) of the astronomer Ptolemy (c.
100-178). The Almagest was a landmark
work in its field, assembling, as Euclid's
E l e me nts ha d pre v i ou s l y d one w i th
geometrical works, all extant knowledge in
the field of astronomy that was known to
the author. This work was originally known
as The Mathematical Composition, but after
it had c ome to be used a s a text in
a stronomy , i t w a s c a l l e d The Gre a t
Astronomer. The Islamic world called it The
Greatest prefixing the Greek work megiste
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Muhammad's death, and rumours began
spreading about this being God's personal
condolence. Muhammad is said to have
replied:
"An eclipse is a phenomenon of nature. It is
foolish to attribute such things to the death
or birth of a human being."
Islamic rules
There are several rules in Islam which lead
Mu sl i m s t o u se be tte r a s trono mi c a l
calculations and observations.
The first issue is the Islamic calendar. The
Qur'an says: "The number of months in the
sight of Allah is twelve (in a year) so
ordained by Him the day He created the
heavens and the earth; of them four are
sacred; that is the straight usage."Therefore
Muslims could not follow the Christian or
Hebrew calendars and they thus had to
develop a new one.
The other issue is moon sighting. Islamic
months do not begin at the astronomical
new moon, defined as the time when the
moon has the same celestial longitude as the
sun and is therefore invisible; instead they
begin when the thin crescent moon is first
sighted in the western evening sky. The
Qur'an says: "They ask you about the waxing
and waning phases of the crescent moons,
say they are to mark fixed times for mankind
and Hajj." This led Muslims to find the
phases of the moon in the sky, and their
efforts led to new mathematical calculations
and observational instruments, as well as a
special science being formed specifically for
moon sighting.
Muslims are also expected to pray towards
the Kaaba in Mecca and orient their
mosques in that direction. Thus they need to
determine the direction of Mecca from a
given location. Another problem is the time
of Salah. Muslims need to determine from
celestial bodies the proper times for the
prayers at sunrise, at midday, in the
û 39ü
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afternoon, at sunset, and in the evening.
Necessity of spherical geometry
Predicting just when the crescent moon
would become visible is a special challenge
to Islamic mathematical astronomers.
Although Ptolemy's theory of the complex
lunar motion was tolerably accurate near the
time of the new moon, it specified the
moon's path only with respect to the ecliptic.
To predict the first visibility of the moon, it
was necessary to describe its motion with
respect to the horizon, and this problem
demands fairly sophisticated spherical
geometry. Finding the direction of Mecca
and the time of Salah are the reasons which
led to Muslims developing spherical
geometry. Solving any of these problems
involves finding the unknown sides or angles
of a triangle on the celestial sphere from the
known sides and angles. A way of finding
the time of day, for example, is to construct
a triangle whose vertices are the zenith, the
north celestial pole, and the sun's position.
The observer must know the altitude of the
sun and that of the pole; the former can be
observed, and the latter is equal to the
observer's latitude. The time is then given by
the angle at the intersection of the meridian
(the arc through the zenith and the pole) and
the sun's hour circle (the arc through the sun
and the pole).
History
Pre-Islamic Arabian knowledge of stars was
empirical; their knowledge was what they
observed regarding the rising and setting of
stars. The rise of Islam is claimed to have
provoked increased Arab thought in this
field. The foundations of Islamic astronomy
closely parallels the genesis of other Islamic
sciences in its assimilation of foreign material
and the amalgamation of the disparate
elements of that material to create a science
that was essentially Islamic. These include
Indian, Sassanid and Hellenistic works which
were translated and built upon.
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Islam and Astronomy
Islam has affected astronomy directly and
indirectly. A major impetus for the flowering
of astronomy in Islam came from religious
observances, which presented an assortment
of problems in mathematical astronomy,
specifically in spherical geometry.
Background
In the 7th century, both Christians and Jews
observed holy days, such as Easter and
Passover, whose timing was determined by
the phases of the moon. Both communities
had confronted the fact that the
approximately 29.5-day lunar months are not
commensurable with the 365-day solar year.
To solve the problem, Christians and Jews
had adopted a scheme based on a discovery
made in circa 430 BC by the Athenian
astronomer Meton. In the 19-year Metonic
cycle, there were 12 years of 12 lunar months
and seven years of 13 lunar months. The
periodic insertion of a 13th month kept
calendar dates in step with the seasons.
On the other hand, astronomers used
Ptolemy's way to calculate the place of the
moon and stars. The method Ptolemy used
to solve spherical triangles was a clumsy one
devised late in the first century by Menelaus
of Alexandria. It involved setting up two
intersecting right triangles; by applying
Menelaus' theorem it was possible to solve
one of the six sides, but only if the other five
sides were known. To tell the time from the
sun's altitude, for instance, repeated
applications of Menelaus' theorem were
required. For medieval Islamic astronomers,
there was an obvious challenge to find a
simpler trigonometric method.
Islamic attitude towards astronomy
Islam advised Muslims to find ways of using
the stars. The Qur'an says: "And He it is
Who has made the stars for you that you
may follow the right direction with their help
û 40ü
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amid the deep darkness of the land and the
sea." (Al-An`am :98) On the basis of this
adv i c e Mu sl i m be g a n to fi nd be tte r
observational and navigational instruments,
thus most navigational stars today have
Arabic names.
Other influences of the Qur'an on Islamic
astronomy included its "insistence that the
Universe is ruled by a single set of laws"
which was "rooted in the Islamic concept of
tawhîd, the unity of God", as well its "greater
respect for empirical data than was common
in the preceding Greek civilization" which
inspired Muslims to place a greater emphasis
on empirical observation, in contrast to
ancient Greek philosophers such as the
Platonists and Aristotelians who expressed a
general distrust towards the senses and
instead viewed reason alone as being
sufficient to understanding nature. The
Qur'an's insistence on observation, reason
and contemplation ("see", "think" and
"contemplate"), on the other hand, led
Muslims to develop an early scientific
method based on these principles,
particularly empirical observation.
There are also several cosmological verses in
the Qur'an (610-632) which some modern
writers have interpreted as foreshadowing
the expansion of the universe and possibly
even the Big Bang theory:
Don't those who reject faith see that the
heavens and the earth were a single entity
then We ripped them apart?
And the heavens We did create with Our
Hands, and We do cause it to expand.Qur'an
51:47
Several hadiths attributed to Muhammad
also show that he was generally opposed to
astrology as well as superstition in general.
An example of this is when an eclipse
occurred during his son Ibrahim ibn
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Crab Nebula
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An ultraviolet image of the Sun's active photosphere
as viewed by the TRACE space telescope