Atlas of the World’s Languages
in Danger of Disappearing
UNESCO PUBLISHING
Editor: Stephen A. Wurm
Cartographer: Ian Heyward
Atlas of the World’s Languages
in Danger of Disappearing
Atlas of the World’s Languages
in Danger of Disappearing
Second edition, revised, enlarged and updated
Editor: Stephen A. Wurm
UNESCO PUBLISHING
Cartographer: Ian Heyward
UNESCO wishes to acknowledge the assistance of the Japanese
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, through the UNESCO/Japan Trust Fund
for the Preservation of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, in
the publication of this Atlas. The Organization also expresses its
gratitude to the Department of Linguistics of the Australian
National University, Canberra, for its invaluable support to this
undertaking.
The authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation
of the facts contained in this book and for the opinions expressed
therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not
commit the Organization. The designations employed and the
presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply
the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area
or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers
or boundaries.
Published in 2001 by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization,
7 place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP
Typeset by Susanne Almeida-Klein
Printed by Sagrafic, Barcelona
ISBN 92-3-103798-6
© UNESCO 1996, 2001
(ISBN first edition: 92-3-103255-0 )
Preface and introduction to the second edition
In contrast to the first edition, the present edition has five parts:
(1) an introduction detailing developments in the study of endangered languages since 1996; (2) a description of the phenomenon
of language endangerment and the death of languages; (3) a short
report on efforts undertaken by the scientific community, in part
in co-operation with UNESCO, to describe and record endangered
languages; (4) a fairly detailed overview of language endangerment and death in all major parts of the world; and (5) a small
atlas of fourteen maps, some of which are new, and others of
which have been revised, updated and expanded from the maps
that appeared in the first edition.
The period between the publication of the first edition of this Atlas
(1996) and this second edition has been characterized by an
unprecedented expansion in the study of languages in danger of
disappearing in many places. This has, in part, been due to the
appearance of a very popular, easily accessible Atlas addressed to
the educated layman and of course to linguists. Its popularity in
many parts of the world led to wide, unexpected media interest
with press, telephone, radio and television interviews that were
broadcast widely. Interested in supporting the study of languages
in danger of disappearing since 1992, the UNESCO Sector for
Culture welcomed an approach by a sister agency, the International Council of Philosophy and Humanistic Studies (CIPSH),
and agreed to provide funds. It also backed the publication of
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World’s Languages
in Danger
of Disappearing
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relevant sources of information on languages in danger of disappearing, including the first edition of the present Atlas and a
monumental three-volume publication on contact languages in the
Pacific, Asia, and the Americas, many of which are under threat
(Wurm, Mühlhäusler and Tryon, 1996). This essential activity is
now gradually being taken in hand by other world and regional
organizations interested in the study and maintenance of minority
and other languages in danger of disappearing. These include the
Permanent International Committee of Linguists (CIPL) and the
UNESCO/Japan Trust Fund for the Preservation of the Intangible
Cultural Heritage, which in 2000 made available five short-term
grants for the immediate study of and work on seriously endangered languages in various parts of the world. The work was
carried out in the context of a contract between the Intangible
Heritage Section of UNESCO and CIPL; the Linguistic Circle of
Copenhagen; the Volkswagen Stiftung in Germany, which gave five
substantial grants for the purpose in 2000; the Foundation for
Endangered Languages in Britain, which has been giving grants for
such work in recent years; and the significant new Languages of
the Pacific Rim project directed from Kyoto, Japan, among others.
All concerned are fully aware of the fact that languages, in their
great diversity, are the most important part of the intangible
culture of humanity, each language reflecting as it does different
thought patterns and philosophies. With each vanishing language,
an irreplaceable element of our complete understanding of human
thought in its multiform variations is lost for ever.
Since 1997 an increasing number of research projects and studies
of individual languages in danger of disappearing have been
undertaken with a view to their maintenance or at least to the
preservation of knowledge of them for posterity. Conferences,
symposia and other meetings of experts have taken place in many
parts of the world, dealing with the subject of language endangerment and extinction, and the study, maintenance and reinvigoration of languages in danger of disappearing. Furthermore, the
revival of recently or even long extinct languages is becoming a
topical issue in many parts of the world, with the descendants of
the last speakers clamouring for materials on their ancestral
languages in order to gain an insight into how they sounded and
functioned, and to relearn them at least in part so that they can
use words and phrases as symbols of their reawakened ethnic identity. For instance, in Australia, several dying or extinct languages
have now been revived and already have several dozen speakers,
with more and more members of the respective ethnic communities
learning their ancestral tongues.
Recent conferences and symposia on language endangerment and
the maintenance and reinvigoration of threatened languages have
in a short space of time led to the publication of substantial
volumes by major international houses. These convey their findings to the public, be they specialists or interested members of the
educated general public concerned about the disappearance of
languages and the consequent loss of the most precious part of
humankind’s non-material culture. Mention may be made of a
conference held at La Trobe University in Melbourne, Australia
(1999) on the subject of language endangerment and maintenance, the conclusions of which were published by Curzon Press in
2001. A major symposium on seriously endangered and moribund
languages everywhere took place near Bonn, Germany (February
2000). It was attended by leading experts from all parts of the
world, and its findings published under the title Language Diversity
Endangered (Brenziger, 2001). In October 2000, a meeting of
experts on threatened pidgin and creole languages took place in
Manila, Philippines, the results of which were published there. In
November 2000, a major Japanese research project for the longterm study of threatened languages of the entire Pacific Rim area
was launched at a symposium in Kyoto, Japan, at which leading
world experts on language endangerment gave lectures followed
by discussions, the results of which are being published there.
publications from all over the world. The inclusion of this section
greatly facilitates the task of linguists, scholars and other parties
in keeping abreast of publishing activity in regard to language
endangerment and threatened languages in the world. Many relevant publications appear here and there in obscure journals and
are difficult for scholars to trace. A conference to launch this
initiative was held in November 2000 at the Royal National Library
of the Netherlands in The Hague, and was attended by leading
linguists and bibliographers.
In addition to the ever more frequent conference and symposium
activities on language endangerment, and the publication of their
conclusions in book form, a number of monumental publications
on threatened languages have appeared or will shortly appear,
including a three-volume Atlas of Languages of Intercultural
Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas (Wurm,
Mühlhäusler and Tryon, 1996). Another major publication is the
Encyclopedia of the Endangered Languages of the World, edited by
Moseley (forthcoming). Other major atlases of threatened
languages in certain parts of the world are in advanced preparation, including the Atlas of Endangered Languages in Latin America
and Threatened Languages of the Pacific and Australia, both edited
by S. A. Wurm, and similar atlases of the threatened languages of
South-East Asia and Africa to follow.
In another new development, serial and periodic publications on
individual threatened languages and language endangerment in
general have begun to appear. These include Materials on
Endangered Languages in the Indo-Pacific, being issues of the more
than 500-volume Pacific Linguistics series issued by the
Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian
Studies, Australian National University, Canberra. The first volume
is devoted to endangered languages in Papua New Guinea, while
others on languages in West Papua (Irian Jaya) and the Himalayas
region are in preparation. Mouton de Gruyter Publishers plan to
start a Journal of Language Endangerment in 2001.
A further important event in the study of, and information on,
language endangerment and individual threatened languages is
the recent inclusion of a specific section on the subject in the
distinguished Linguistic Bibliography published annually by CIPL
and giving bibliographic information on over 20,000 linguistic
Such unprecedented activity and growing interest in the field of
language endangerment and threatened languages would have
been unthinkable a decade ago. Now, however, they are expected
to increase and gather strength. It is hoped that this updated and
enlarged edition of the Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger of
Disappearing will contribute to this development.
S. A. W., 2001
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Preface to the first edition (1996)
The phenomenon of the death of languages has been known for a
very long time. Some languages have disappeared without leaving
any trace. Others jealously guard their own secrets because no one
has succeeded in deciphering them. Finally, there are those which
have evolved and given birth to new languages. We know that, like
any living thing, a language placed in a specific context blossoms
or fades away and dies.
With the upsurge in means of communication, our own period
seems to have created more situations of conflict between the
languages of the world than ever before, by the same token
causing more and more languages to disappear at an accelerating
pace. Although the phenomenon of the disappearance of
languages is well known, its systematic study at world level is very
recent, and the task of describing and recording languages before
they disappear is only just beginning.
This study pursues three aims which are set out in three chapters.
The first chapter gives a brief description of the phenomenon of
the death of languages. The second part reports on the efforts
undertaken by the scientific community, in part in co-operation
with UNESCO, to describe, record and introduce threatened
languages into the data bank. The last part goes on to draw up an
atlas of a selection of the very many threatened languages of the
world that have been identified in the present state of research.
This overview will enable researchers all over the world to fill in
this outline as their studies progress.
Professor Stephen A. Wurm
Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies
The Australian National University
Canberra, Australia
9
Contents
Preface to the first
edition (1996)
8
International collaboration
in the field 11
Endangered languages and language
disappearance 13
History and languages
17
CIPL, CIPSH, UNESCO, and languages
in danger 23
Remarks on the present Atlas
Africa
Eurasia 28
Europe
28
Siberia 30
Caucasus 32
Preface and introduction
to the second edition 5
27
Asia 33
China 33
Himalayan Chain
34
Indian subcontinent 35
Central Asia: Pamir area 36
South-East Asia 37
43
America 44
Arctic North America East
Arctic North America West
Canada 46
United States 46
Mexico 47
Central and South America
Select bibliography
51
Maps 53
Greater Pacific Area 38
Japan 39
Index 83
Taiwan 39
Philippines 39
Malaysia 40
Indonesia 40
Papua New Guinea
40
Solomon Islands (including the Santa Cruz Archipelago)
41
Vanuatu 41
New Caledonia and Loyalty Islands
41
Fiji and Rotuma 42
Micronesia 42
Polynesia 42
Australia 42
44
45
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Atlas of the
World’s Languages
in Danger
of Disappearing
International collaboration in the field
In the past few years, there has been a surge of interest in and
work on the many languages throughout the world that are in
danger of disappearing. UNESCO has taken an interest in them,
and in their study and maintenance. The International Council for
Philosophy and Humanistic Studies (CIPSH), a non-governmental
organization that works with UNESCO, and the Permanent
International Committee of Linguists (CIPL), have both been very
active in this field, with a growing number of linguists and relevant institutions in the world turning their attention to the
increasing problem of languages that are in danger of disappearing. In this undertaking, it is heartening to see that a growing
number of experts and others from regions where languages are in
danger of disappearing, themselves sometimes speakers of these
very languages, are entering dedicating their own work to the
study and maintenance of dying languages.
The following, non-exhaustivelist, gives the names of many individuals working in this field. Reginald Amenoo (Ghana and
Zimbabwe), Ayo Bamgbose (Nigeria), Victor Atknine (Siberia
[Khakas]), Nils Helander (Norway [Saami]), Kirikae Hideo (Japan
[Ainu]), G. N. Kurilov (Yakutia, Siberia [Yukagir]), Dob (China
[Mongol]), Suwilai Premsirat (South-East Asia [Thai]), Otto Nekitel
(Papua New Guinea), Wangkanyi Ngurra Tjurta (Australia), Edna
Ahgeak MacLean (Alaska [Inupiaq Eskimo]), Marie-Claude MattéiMuller (Venezuela), Jon Landaburu (Colombia), and many others,
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World’s Languages
in Danger
of Disappearing
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among them Aryon Rodrigues (Brazil), Wang Jun (China), Michael
Krauss (Alaska), Mei Lee-Smith (Australia, China), Juha Janhunen
(Finland, Siberia, China), Tapani Salminen (Finland, Siberia), Hein
v. d. Voort (Netherlands, Arctic America, Brazil), Peter Bakker
(Netherlands, Denmark, Canada, Alaska), Willem Adelaar
(Netherlands, South America), Matthias Brenzinger (Germany,
Africa), Bernd Heine (Germany, Africa), David Bradley (Australia,
China, South-East Asia), Stephen Wurm (Australia, the Pacific,
Central Asia, Siberia, South America), Beatriz Garza Cuarm Adelaar
(Netherlands, South America), Matthias Brenzinger (Germany,
Africa), Bernd Heine (Germany, Africa), David Bradley (Australia,
China, South-East Asnd North Africa), Bruce Connell (England,
Central Africa), Barbara Grimes (United States, general), George
van Driem (Netherlands, North and South Asia), Colette Grinewald
(United States, Central America), Olga Kazakevitch (Russia,
Siberia), Aleksandr E. Kibrik (Russia, Siberia), Denny Moore
(Brazil, Lowland South America), Jonathan Owens (England, the
Middle East), Akira Yamamoto (United States, North America),
Mahendra K. Verma (England, India), Tasaku Tsunoda (Japan,
Australia), Kazuto Matsumura (Japan [Finno-Ugrian]), Osamu
Sakiyama (Japan, Pacific Rim), Ulrike Mosel (Germany, Polynesia),
Hans-Jürgen Sasse (Germany, Africa), Nicholas Ostler (England,
Foundation for Endangered Languages), Osahito Miyoka (Japan,
Pacific Rim), Alexandra Aikhenvald (Australia, Lowland South
America, Siberia), Robert W. Dixon (Australia), Peter Mühlhäusler
(Australia [Pidgin and Creole languages]), Maya Bradley
(Australia, South-East Asia and China), Stephen Morey (Australia
[Tai languages]), Christina Eira (Australia [Hmong]), John Bowden
(Australia, Eastern Indonesia), John Hajek (Australia, Eastern
Indonesia), Peter Austin (Australia), Luise Hercus (Australia),
Barry J. Blake (Australia), Gavan Breen (Australia), Thomas
Dutton (Australia, Papua New Guinea), C. L. Voorhoeve
(Netherlands [West Papua, Halmahera]), Nikolaus P. Himmelmann
(Germany [Sulawesi]), William McGregor (Australia), Otto Nekitel
(Papua New Guinea), Ger P. Reesinck (Netherlands [Papuan
languages]), Malcolm Ross (Australia, South Western Pacific), Wim
A. L. Stockhof (Netherlands [Papuan languages of Timor area]),
Nicholas Thieberger (Australia), Alexander Adelaar (Australia,
Indonesia), Mark Donohue (Australia, West Papua), Charles Grimes
(Australia, Eastern Indonesia), Paul Jen-Kuei Li (Taiwan), Eva
Lindström (Sweden [East Papuan]), Theodorus Purba (West
Papua), Victor Golla (United States, North America), Mily Crevels
(Netherlands, South America), Yolanda Lastra (United States,
Mexico), Ofelia Zepeda (United States), Jane Hill (United States),
Doris Bartholomew (United States, Mexico), Gerrit Dimmendaal
(Netherlands, Africa, Middle East), and hundreds more.
Endangered languages and language
disappearance
According to our estimate there are about 6,000 languages spoken
in the world today, most of them in several dialects. We know of
many languages that are no longer spoken, in other words, that
have become extinct and are dead. Only a few of those, such as
Latin, Ancient Greek and Sanskrit, have been kept alive artificially
and are still widely known, and sometimes even spoken in certain
special circumstances by quite a number of persons, as is the case
with Latin and Sanskrit, and by a few persons in the case of
Ancient Greek and Egyptian.
Each language reflects a unique world-view and culture complex,
mirroring the manner in which a speech community has resolved
its problems in dealing with the world, and has formulated its
thinking, its system of philosophy and understanding of the world
around it. In this, each language is the means of expression of the
intangible cultural heritage of a people, and it remains a reflection
of this culture for some time even after the culture which underlies
it decays and crumbles, often under the impact of an intrusive,
powerful, usually metropolitan, different culture. However, with
the death and disappearance of such a language, an irreplaceable
unit in our knowledge and understanding of human thought and
world-view is lost forever.
The dying and disappearance of languages have been going on for
thousands of years as a natural event in human society, but at a
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slow rate, with a few languages here and there in the world disappearing slowly over the years. This trend sometimes increased
locally for a short period of time, for instance when a powerful,
conquering group of warriors attacked and killed off certain small
groups of people speaking a variety of different languages, and
whose languages died with them, or when natural disasters such
as violent volcanic eruptions or great floods wiped out small tribes
of people who spoke a number of local languages. However, such
events did not bring about the disappearance of hundreds of
languages at the same time and at a steady or increasing rate, and
did not result in a drastic and catastrophic reduction in the
number of languages spoken in the world.
However, the past three hundred years or so have seen a dramatic
increase in the death and disappearance of languages, at a
steadily increasing rate in many parts of the world, leading to a
situation today in which 3,000 or more languages that are still
spoken are endangered, seriously endangered or dying, with many
other still viable languages already showing signs of being potentially endangered and soon entering the phase where they will be
endangered and will face disappearance.
What exactly does it mean when a language is referred to as being
‘endangered’? Basically, the language of any community that is no
longer learned by children, or at least by a large part of the children
of that community (say, at least 30 per cent), should be regarded as
‘endangered’ or at least ‘potentially endangered’. If a large portion
of the children switch to another language, then more and more children will act likewise until there are no child speakers left, and the
language will eventually disappear with the death of its last speakers.
It is important to know that a language which is in danger of
disappearing can still be saved, provided that an appropriate
language policy is adopted: the case of Hebrew is a good example
of the revival of a language that ceased to be a living community
language thousands of years ago.
A language can become ‘endangered’ for other reasons even if it
has child speakers. The first of these reasons is the forceful splitting up and transplanting of the speech community that speaks a
given language, putting small groups or even only individuals of
the speech community into communities that use another
language. This will inevitably kill the original language of the
transplanted people in a short amount of time. A second situation
in which a language becomes ‘endangered’ and threatens to disappear occurs when a particular speech community comes into faceto-face contact with carriers of a more aggressive culture, who
speak another, usually metropolitan, language. The first culture is
overwhelmed and threatened with disintegration, because mastery
of the intrusive language offers economic advantages to the
speakers of the language of the weaker culture. Parents of children
in the weaker culture tend to encourage their children to use the
language of the stronger culture in preference to their own, and
will themselves tend to speak to their children in that preferred
language. The young generation will soon learn to despise their
traditional language and regard it as worthless and inferior, and
cease to be interested in it. A third group of causes for the endangerment or even disappearance of local and minority languages
can be indirectly attributed to the actions of people of a dominant
culture that lead to the destruction of the environment, habitat
and livelihood of the speakers of local languages, e.g. mining, oil
drilling, excessive tree felling, damming of rivers, warfare, etc.
These actions lead to the transplanting and scattering of the
speakers of the local languages, with disastrous results for their
languages. Other types of causes of the endangerment or disappearance of very small to moderately small, local languages
include natural catastrophes such as volcanic eruptions, severe
earthquakes, tsunamis (gigantic waves hitting shorelines after a
seaquake), floods, wildfires, new devastating diseases and
epidemics resulting from contacts between speakers of local
languages and those of a dominant culture, where the former have
no resistance to diseases such as influenza or tuberculosis, and in
the past, to smallpox and the like.
In our discussion of language endangerment, an important factor is
the number of speakers of a given language. Languages spoken by
a large group are less vulnerable to the danger of disappearing
than others. However, the problem here is that the question of
large or small numbers of speakers is quite relative and is determined by the number of the speakers of surrounding languages who
are culturally aggressive. In Australia, very few of the many
autochthonous languages ever had – or have even today – more
than 1,000 speakers, but they are none the less regarded and
referred to as large languages, because the average number of
speakers of viable Australian languages with fewer speakers is a few
hundred or even less. The situation is similar in New Guinea and
adjacent islands, in parts of Melanesia, and some other parts of the
world. On the other hand, in areas such as India where numerous
languages have millions of speakers, a language with 10,000 or
even more speakers is regarded as a small language, and will feel
pressure from neighbouring languages with millions of speakers.
There are many examples of the three main reasons that we have
given above for language endangerment. The paradox now comes
to light: il would appear that the way to prevent a language from
becoming ‘endangered’ – especially in the second, and to some
extent the first, category – would be to promote bi- or multilingualism, which is already the norm in many parts of the world,
with several thousand, especially smallish, languages spoken by
bi- and multilinguals, be they a few members of a speech community, or very many, or the entire community. Bi- and multilingualism make it possible for speakers of languages under threat
from languages spoken by bearers of aggressive cultures and civilizations to acquire a good knowledge of the latter for economic
and other reasons, while maintaining a good knowledge of their
original languages. This allows them to preserve their cultural and
traditional identity and maintain their own self-respect and selfesteem. Bi- and multilinguals tend to be superior to monolinguals
in having more flexible, more alert minds and a greater and
quicker thinking capacity on the basis of a much greater volume of
memory which they have for mastering two (or in the case of
multilinguals more than two) different language systems with
different vocabularies, grammars, sound structures and idiomatic
expressions. Bi- and multilingualism from very early childhood
onwards, to be maintained past the age of six years, is the most
advantageous quality any person can possess. Unfortunately, it is
not encouraged in most of the major cultures, the speakers of
whose languages are overwhelmingly monolingual and wrongly
regard monolingualism as the norm and the preferred state for
human language.
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History and languages
Meetings between groups of people previously unknown to each
other, and contact with unknown languages, are common events in
everyday life and in human history. Over the past thousand years or
so, the shifting of geographical centres of power and domination,
as well as sheer demographic increase, has led to intensifying
contacts between different cultures, and to increasing contact
between groups of people speaking different and mutually
incomprehensible languages on an increasing scale. For hundreds
of years, these events remained relatively sporadic and, apart
from a few exceptions, of relatively minor consequence from a
linguistic point of view. Minority groups, usually smaller in
population, often the bearers of complex, sophisticated, local
traditional cultures, were frequently less culturally aggressive and
politically powerful than the groups with whom they came into
contact.
Things took a turn for the worse in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, however, with the explorations, widening of economic
interests and expansionist tendencies of a number of European
peoples – Dutch, English, French, Portuguese, Spaniards and
others, and including Russians moving into Siberia and the Far
East. A devastating consequenceof these migrations was the introduction of new diseases into areas such as North America, Siberia
and later Australia, where, for instance, smallpox epidemics took a
terrible toll, decimating the local populations, disrupting societal
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structure and, naturally, changing the situation from a language
point of view since few people – or even none at all – now spoke
certain languages. Some speech communities in North America,
Siberia and Australia, for instance, were dramatically reduced in
number through smallpox epidemics.
However, the decrease in the numbers of speakers of languages
and the disruption of societies through the introduction of
epidemic diseases was merely one consequence of the meeting of
two cultures. Encounters between local peoples with people from
more aggressive cultures and civilizations frequently resulted in a
clash between the two groups, on a cultural level at the very least.
The influence of the dominant culture, economically and culturally
speaking, upon the local traditional culture and their language
ecology, were more pervasive and destructive in certain parts of
the world. Overpowering and irresistible cultural and social pressure from outside often heavily influenced local languages, when it
did not simply cause them to disappear. Traditional languages
found themselves unsuited to function as vehicles of expression
for the new culture. This situation was usually made worse by the
negative, contemptuous, destructive and intolerant attitudes
towards the languages of local populations by members of the
dominant culture group. All of this had a tendency to adversely
affect the attitudes of the speakers of the traditional languages
towards their own languages, which they began to regard as
inferior to the language of the intrusive dominant culture. Such an
effect may be compounded by economic factors: knowledge of the
language of the economically stronger culture by members of the
economically weaker traditional language speech community tends
to lead to economic advantages for the latter which are unobtain-
able by those who do not possess this knowledge. Such economic
advantages usually include eligibility for jobs, with good monetary
rewards, allowing access to coveted goods and services (something
that gives the impression to the speakers of the traditional
languages that their own languages are useless in the changing
economic situation, and makes them forget other, social and
intangible cultural and psychological values inherent in their
traditional languages. Such impressions and attitudes mean that
they have less and less regard for their traditional languages, and
this leads to an increased use of the language of the dominant
cultures and the eventual disappearance of the traditional
languages.
This scenario can worsen if, in addition, the representatives of the
dominant cultures undertake deliberate acts to discourage the
continued use of the traditional languages, and this sometimes in
contradiction with an official position that would seem to
encourage the continued existence of local cultures. Such actions
were, in differing grades of intensity, carried out in the not-sodistant past in much of Aboriginal Australia; in England, with
respect to the Welsh language; in North America and in the former
USSR, where children were taken from their families and placed in
boarding schools, where the languages of instruction became
English or Russian, and children were often forbidden to speak
their mother tongue at school. In addition, the inhabitants of
settlements of different ethnic minorities were regrouped by
means of forced relocations. This led to the total destruction of
traditional cultures and values and the loss of traditional
languages in many instances.
Dominated peoples cling to their language as the last rampart
against foreign domination. Isolated from all the domains of
public life (administration, politics, justice, etc.) and modern
activities (trade and industry) and deprived of the major means of
communication (press, radio and TV), the speakers of dominated
languages are marginalized, and their language is condemned,
sooner or later, to disappear.
they are ultimately saying the same thing in different guises. This
theory implies that the disappearance of any one language is a
minor occurrence – the disappearance of one among many of the
same kind. Curiously enough, this theory has many followers, but
anyone working seriously with translation between languages from
two very different cultures immediately recognizes its fallacy and
knows it to be wrong.
Circumstances like the ones described above, or similar to them,
have led to the death and disappearance of hundreds of languages
over the past 300 years and on an accelerating basis, especially in
the past 100 years, above all in America and Australia. Hundreds
more languages will very likely suffer the same fate in the foreseeable future. According to our estimates, about half (i.e. about
3,000) of the approximately 6,000 languages in the world are now
endangered to some degree or another.
Underlying many of the developments and problems mentioned
above is a practical factor which, until very recently, has attracted
little, if any, attention among linguists and others concerned with
the problem of languages in danger of disappearing, and whose
importance has probably not been properly understood.
A second theory about language argues that most perceptions of
the world and parts of the world are brought into being and
sustained by language itself. Therefore, different languages
emphasize and filter various aspects of a multifaceted reality in a
vast number of different ways. According to this theory, and as has
already been said above, every language reflects a unique worldview and culture complex mirroring the manner in which a speech
community has resolved its problems in dealing with the world,
and has formulated its thinking, philosophy and understanding of
the world around it. This theory explains why linguistic diversity is
an invaluable asset and resource rather than an obstacle to
progress, and why the disappearance of any one language constitutes an irretrievable and tragic loss to valuable and irreplaceable
human knowledge.
According to one ‘theory’ about language and the relationship
between language and the material and non-material (i.e. spiritual
and intangible) elements surrounding its speakers, the world is
thought to consist of many parts, and each language provides a
different set of labels for the same set of parts. This theory maintains that the differences between languages are only superficial,
and that any one language can fully translate any other, because
It seems remarkable and rather strange that, in contrast to the
great concern shown by many people for animal and plant species
threatened by extinction, there are, with relatively few exceptions,
few organized groups concerned about the fact that about half
of one of humanity’s most precious commodities – language diversity – is also threatened by extinction. This attitude is, curiously
enough, shared by some linguists whose interests in human
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language do not include the role and function of language in
culture. It has only been relatively recently that a fair number of
linguists have begun to show any alarm at all at the rapidly
progressing extinction and endangerment of languages. This
change in attitude largely coincides with an increasing awareness
of language as an intrinsic part of the culture and society of those
who speak it.
Frequently, when people are made aware of the problem, their
reaction is simply to ask why there is any problem at all, and what
value there could be in studying, or in trying to maintain, all of
the world’s languages. But this reaction reflects ignorance of the
complexity and high level of human thought inherent in each individual language, including the languages spoken by people
regarded as ‘primitive’ by the speakers of languages with general
or international ‘currency’. It also reflects their ignorance of the
fact that each language is unique, in as much as each language
has a different thought pattern and world-view underlying it, and
that the loss of any one language means a contraction, reduction
and impoverishment of the sum total of the reservoir of human
thought and knowledge as expressible through language, the tool
enabling cultures to exist through intercommunication.
To give just a few examples, many highly effective medicinal plants
are known only to people in traditional cultures; their languages
possess specific names for these plants. When their languages and
cultures are lost, the knowledge about these plants and their
healing properties is lost too, unless a linguist or other interested
person has recorded the names and a description of the properties
before the disappearance. Curare and quinine are examples from
South America. Their medicinal properties were known to the local
forest tribes long before they came into contact with Europeans.
Another striking example was recently reported from northern
Australia, where ailments such as severe skin ulcers, which failed
to respond to European drugs, cleared up quickly when lotions
derived from certain plants known to members of local Aboriginal
tribes were applied at the local hospital. The Aborigines had developed a detailed knowledge of the use of medicinal plants.
Fortunately, the nursing sister on hand had been in contact with
Aboriginal people for twenty-two years, and took the Aboriginal
people, their knowledge and their culture seriously. The success of
this and similar traditional treatments has broken the ice with
certain doctors trained according to rational principles, and a wide
search for other effective medicinal plants in Australia has now
begun with the help of Aboriginal people providing the words that
they use (in their now seriously endangered languages) for these
plants.
Another, slightly different example, will illustrate the value of the
study of traditional, and now endangered, languages for
enhancing the thought patterns and perception abilities of
speakers of metropolitan languages. In the Inuit languages, there
are many different words for a concept that is expressed in just
one word in the English language, namely, ‘snow’, and each of the
Inuit words indicates a completely different type of snow. From
this, English speakers could come to a new discovery about sharpening one’s perception of natural phenomena. There are thousands
of similar examples from little-known languages that can enrich
the entire perceptual field of those who speak only one general or
international language. Thus there is considerable value and merit
in the study and proper understanding of local, and especially
endangered, languages. It is probably high time for the message
to be more widely disseminated. The effective spreading of a
similar message concerning the dangers of the impoverishment of
biodiversity in the world resulting from the extinction of animal
and plant species has fallen on fertile ground – it is hoped that
the message concerning the impoverishment of human thought
resulting from the extinction and disappearance of languages may
also be heard and understood.
There is a strongly ingrained belief, especially among native
speakers of what are considered to be major, dominating
languages, that monolingualism and monoculturalism alone
constitute the normal and acceptable state for human beings.
Consequently, speakers of other languages that come within the
political orbit of a nation or region ruled by speakers of one
language, and who are to become members or at least associate
members of such a nation, are faced with a hard choice: either
they become full representatives of the culture of such a nation
and speak – or at least pretend to speak – the dominant language
monolingually, or they stay out. If circumstances have placed them
by force within such a political orbit, they become underprivileged
fringe members of the community. It rarely occurs to speakers of a
dominant language that bi- and multilingualism is widespread and
is becoming the norm in many continents or countries or regions
(e.g. Finland, Switzerland, much of other parts of Europe, Africa,
India, Indonesia, the south-western Pacific area, Paraguay, the
Philippines – to name just a few).
We might mention here that in some places (e.g. New Guinea and
New Caledonia, where small, indigenous speech communities, each
of them speaking a different language, are in close contact with
each other and have been for a long time), egalitarian multilingualism is the norm, with all languages having equal standing and
prestige. This indeed constitutes a fitting example for other civilizations to follow! Australia is headed this way: a very large
proportion of the population is foreign born; numerous cultural
patterns exist peacefully side by side; multiculturalism is official
government policy; and numerous European and Asian languages
can be heard everywhere in the streets with bi- and multilingualism on the rise. The same holds in New Zealand, where Maori,
the original Polynesian language of the country, holds official
status along with English, and is now taught in many schools.
Switzerland is a good European example: here, even the small,
now standardized, Romansch language (about 67,000 speakers)
enjoys official status and receives full government support. A
similar situation exists in southern Finland for Finnish and
Swedish, and there are other recent examples of similar positive
developments and attitudes.
What we have just outlined in the above paragraphs indicates that
it is possible for minority and other small languages, together with
at least some elements of their traditional cultures, to continue to
exist in a context of stable bilingualism and biculturalism even
after their speakers have acquired full knowledge and mastery of
the dominant language and culture into whose orbit they have
inescapably been drawn by historical events. Their traditional
language and culture gives them something to be proud of,
and provides a counterbalance to the often paternalistic,
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contemptuous or intolerant attitudes of certain monolingual
speakers of the dominant language. The continued possession of a
traditional language and aspects of their own culture gives the
speakers of the minority and lesser-spoken languages the feeling
that they are in possession of something that the speakers of the
dominant language do not have. This, in addition to their bi- and
perhaps multilingualism, and indeed biculturalism, is an intangible
yet very real asset.
It should also be pointed out here that, although it is not so
widely known, bi- and multiculturalism are also quite possible in
human society. An individual can be just as readily bicultural, ‘at
home in two cultures’, as bilingual. Another culture, with its characteristic thought patterns and world-views, can be learned as
other languages can be learned. In groups and nations, bi- and
multiculturalism mean the peaceful, tolerant and conflict-free
coexistence, side-by-side, of individuals belonging to different
cultures.
The question of the intellectual and emotional advantages of bi- or
multilingualism and biculturalism gives rise, then, to the following
considerations. 1) From a practical point of view, those concerned
have access to a far greater volume of information and knowledge
than monolinguals, possess a larger stock of knowledge (both
linguistic and general) in their minds, grasp different semantic
associations better, and, being used to switching languages and
thought patterns, have more flexible minds. 2) They are less rigid
in their attitudes and have a tendency to be more tolerant of the
unknown than monolinguals (i.e. they are less hostile and suspicious); they are more inclined to regard manifestations of other
cultures by individuals as acceptable and respectable, even though
different from their own cultures. 3) Their thought patterns and
world-view are better balanced due to their familiarity with
different, often somewhat contradictory concepts. They have
greater ability than monolinguals to learn concepts, ideas and
things that are entirely new, to fit into novel situations without
trauma, and to understand the different facets of a problem.
Bi- or multilingualism and biculturalism and understanding and
tolerance of other cultures from early childhood onwards is an
ideal to be attained by human beings. At the same time, languages
and their associated thought patterns and world-views are given
viability, even though they may be under subtle or heavy pressure
from another language and culture, whose carriers regard monolingualism and monoculturalism as an ideal and are therefore less
tolerant, more single-minded and culturally aggressive.
Stable bilingualism can continue for centuries as long as the
languages exist side by side as equals, and there is no pressure
from one side or other in favour of its language. Such pressure can
be withstood by awareness that one’s own language is not inferior
to the other, that one can be fully at home in both, and that bi- or
multilingualism, and not monolingualism, is essentially the norm
in a large part of the world.
CIPL, CIPSH, UNESCO and languages in danger
The urgent world situation concerning languages in danger of
disappearing prompted the Permanent International Committee of
Linguists (CIPL) to focus its attention on endangered languages a
number of years ago. At the 14th International Congress of
Linguists in Berlin in 1987, the Committee was asked officially to
make endangered languages a central topic for the 15th
International Congress of Linguists in Quebec in 1992. At the 17th
International Congress of Linguists, to be held in Oaxaca, Mexico,
in 2002, a plenary session will be devoted to the subject of endangered languages as one of the four main themes of the event.
This led to the appearance in 1991 of Endangered Languages,
edited by R. H. Robins and E. M. Uhlenbeck, an important work
published under the auspices of the International Council of
Philosophy and Humanistic Studies (CIPSH). This book included
four contributions from the periodical Diogenes (Volume 143),
published by CIPSH in parallel editions in several languages
including English, French and Spanish. Endangered Languages has
now been translated into Spanish with a view to publication in
that language.
To further what by then had become a combined CIPSH-CIPL
project, S. A. Wurm, in his capacity as president of CIPSH at the
time, contacted the Sector for Culture at UNESCO in this matter
and proposed that steps be taken for: (i) identification of the
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endangered languages in the world; (ii) establishment of a data
bank and communication centre to receive, store and make available to interested scholars and other persons information on
endangered and dying languages; and (iii) urgent study of
languages threatened with extinction in the near or immediate
future, especially of languages which have not been studied, or
studied very little, and which are either isolated languages (i.e.
are not related, or only very distantly related, to known
languages) or are in some way special and unusual.
At the 15th International Congress of Linguists held in Quebec
(Canada) in 1992, endangered languages were one of the two main
themes and gave rise to a plenary session. A resolution on endangered languages for the attention of UNESCO was unanimously
adopted on that occasion, as follows:
As the disappearance of any one language constitutes an irretrievable
loss to mankind, it is for UNESCO a task of great urgency to respond to
this situation by promoting and, if possible, sponsoring programmes of
linguistic organizations for the description – in the form of grammars,
dictionaries and texts, including the recording of the oral literatures – of
mously adopted a resolution requesting that UNESCO negotiate
with the Government of Japan for the establishment of a clearing
house and data bank centre in Tokyo.
The response of UNESCO through its Sector for Culture, and of the
Japanese authorities, was very favourable, and following negotiations, the centre was established as part of the newly created
Department of Asian and Pacific Linguistics, Institute of CrossCultural Studies, at the Faculty of Letters of the University of
Tokyo, with three academic staff members. It had its official
opening in November 1995 in the course of an International
Symposium on Endangered Languages. It now possesses material
on over 500 endangered languages, although it has not been very
active.
By 1994, CIPSH was beginning to receive applications for the study
of endangered languages in various parts of the world, which it
then vetted, suitable ones being forwarded to UNESCO for
financing. Grants were handed out to successful applicants by
CIPSH. The financing of endangered language study applications
by UNESCO through CIPSH ceased in 1999.
hitherto unstudied or inadequately documented endangered and dying
languages.
The next step was taken at the 21st CIPSH General Assembly in
1992 in Harare (Zimbabwe), when a colloquium was held on the
theme, ‘Life and Death of Languages, in Particular in Africa’, at
which a number of Africanist linguists participated. The Assembly
unanimously endorsed the resolution which had been adopted by
the 15th International Congress of Linguists, and also unani-
In 2000, other national and international organizations gradually
took over the funding of similar studies and activities. In this
connection, two urgent research projects undertaken in 1995 with
financial assistance by CIPL involved the study of two unusual
endangered languages in Papua New Guinea. Both of these studies
were concluded with the preparation of grammatical descriptions,
extensive vocabularies and texts with interlinear and free translations. The study of another dying Papua New Guinea language
which had only one fluent speaker left, was undertaken at the
same time, with its results also being published. CIPL intends to
support further studies of languages in danger of disappearing.
The study of languages in danger of disappearing has two aims.
Firstly, in the case of languages that are irrefutably on the way out
and moribund, but have not been studied in detail, every effort
should be made to carry out what could be described as a museal
study for posterity to preserve as much as possible of the knowledge of their sound structure, grammar, vocabulary, texts with
interlinear and free translations including specimens of discourse
and oral literature, folklore, traditions and myths, together with
sound recordings. This would make it possible for scholars and the
descendants of the last speakers to know what the language was
like, and enable these descendants to acquire a knowledge of the
dead language again – something that is now increasingly occurring with the reawakening of ethnic identity feelings among many
groups in various parts of the world.
In the case of endangered languages with a number of speakers,
but which have not been studied in detail, the same type of study
is necessary, but with an additional aim: if there is a desire on the
part of the speakers to maintain their language, perhaps in a bilingual situation, the results of such a study would, together with
some advice on language maintenance, enable the speakers to
induce and teach the children (and adolescents and young adults)
in their community to learn this language or to relearn it if they
have lost their previous knowledge of it. Such situations are occurring with increasing frequency as people whose languages are in
danger of disappearing remember their ethnic identity and wish to
reinforce it through the powerful symbol of their traditional
languages.
The interest in languages in danger of disappearing extends to the
maintenance and preservation of such languages. Different
methods are used to maintain endangered languages and possibly
revive those seriously endangered. Most importantly, the ethnic
self-awareness of the speakers of such languages should be awakened and strengthened as they come to realize that they possess
something that speakers of the dominant language around them
do not have. Major efforts should be made to concentrate on
helping their children acquire and maintain a knowledge of the
endangered language. Special playing situations in which the
endangered language is exclusively used might be developed, with
rewards for children who respond positively. Additional reasons
and circumstances should be envisaged to raise the interest of the
speakers of an endangered language in preserving and maintaining that language. For instance, their language could be used
as a secret language, unintelligible to the speakers of the dominant language, whom they may have reason to regard as their
oppressors. As a background to the revival and maintenance of an
endangered language, still-remembered aspects of the traditional
culture and activities of its speakers should be reawakened.
The percentage of the hitherto unstudied or only little studied
endangered or dying languages that can still be studied before
their extinction and irretrievable disappearance, and knowledge
and information about them preserved for posterity, will depend
on the amount of funding available for this purpose, the availability of scholars and local people with some linguistic training (a
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question closely connected with the amount of funding available)
and in part on the co-operation and goodwill of the authorities in
some countries, particularly in developing countries. An appreciable number of endangered and dying languages could
accordingly be selected for study before their extinction, or at
least material on them collected, so that they remain visible. It is
hoped that activities will enable a number of endangered
languages, whose adult speakers are anxious to maintain and
preserve them, to continue as living languages. Also, it is hoped
that the results of work in various projects will be made available
to the interested audience worldwide, which in turn may be
expected to have beneficial results for the wider appreciation and
recognition of the problem of endangered languages. Publications
may make more people aware of the fact that many endangered
languages exist and this may increasingly result in the realization
among decision-makers and speakers of endangered languages
themselves that the worldwide problem is very serious indeed.
Remarks on the present atlas
It was felt necessary, in order to attract public interest to the
serious worldwide problem of endangered languages and language
disappearance in a graphic and easily understandable manner, to
republish this small Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger of
Disappearing. It is well known that a few appropriate graphic
representations of a problem will convey a message much more
succinctly and convincingly than any number of pages of detailed
explanation.
The maps are intended to show the seriousness and widespread
nature of the endangerment and disappearance of languages in
many parts of the world. In a selective manner, they cover the
entire globe. On each map, languages are shown by their names,
with one of five symbols added. These symbols indicate whether
languages are in danger of disappearing, moribund or already
extinct. ‘In danger of disappearing’ indicates a progressive process
that moves from potentially endangered to endangered, and on to
seriously endangered, and eventually to moribund, and ultimately
to extinct. The meanings of the terms used here are: potentially
endangered, children are no longer learning the language; endangered, the youngest speakers are young adults; seriously endangered, the youngest speakers are moving into middle age and
beyond in the more advanced stage of the process, and many no
longer have a good knowledge of the language; moribund, only a
handful of speakers are left, mostly very old; and finally, extinct,
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no speakers are left. See the page before the maps for the relevant
symbols.
This small Atlas is not intended to give full coverage of the
languages of the world which belong to the categories ranging
from ‘in danger of disappearing’ to ‘moribund’, with some extinct
languages added; however, by showing a number of such
languages for a range of areas in all major parts of the world, it
intends to convey a graphic, easily understood image of the
extremely widespread nature of the problem of language endangerment. It is hoped that when the reader comes to the full realization that he or she is looking only at a sample of the problem,
the full, grim truth will sink in fully.
In many cases, especially with endangered languages that have
almost disappeared and moribund languages, it is difficult, if not
impossible, to indicate the present area of such languages,
because quite often they are no longer spoken anywhere near their
traditional areas. This is because the speakers have been removed
far away to reservations or resettlement places by local authorities, or scattered far and wide by them into communities or settlements among speakers of other languages. Alternatively, the last
speakers of a moribund language may have sought shelter with
other speech communities on a voluntary basis wherever they met
with a friendly reception or at least tolerance. On most of the
maps, no borders of languages have been indicated, even in cases
in which their surviving speakers are still living more or less inside
their traditional area, but are now so few in number that indicating the area in which their language is spoken becomes meaningless. Often it is not known where all the scattered remaining
speakers of such languages (especially moribund), may be living.
Only the language name with the appropriate symbol has been
given. The symbol has been placed either in the approximate area
where some speakers of the named language are known to be
living, or, if the location of such an area is not well-known, after a
given language name on the understanding that the name and
symbol mark the approximate location of the language in question. With coastal languages, the combination of language name
and symbol may well extend into the sea.
The individual maps cover areas of quite different size, ranging
from parts of countries such as the north-east of China to wider
areas such as the northern and eastern, western and southern
parts of Canada, Siberia, a part of East Africa and so forth, and
continental areas such as Australia, Africa, much of Europe, and all
of South America. The latter type of maps show the widespread,
pervasive nature of the problem over vast geographical expanses,
and are thus more impressive.
The explanations given on the situation of endangered languages
in the areas dealt with on maps in this Atlas reflect the present
state of research, which at present is only preliminary.
Eurasia
Europe
The only languages in Europe that are generally known to be in
danger of disappearing are the Celtic languages of Britain and
Ireland, such as Scottish Gaelic, Irish Gaelic and Welsh. Manx is
already extinct, and Cornish died out at the end of the eighteenth
century, but was artificially revived and now has a number of
speakers. In French Brittany, Breton is spoken. In Scandinavia,
several of the Saami (Lappish) languages are seriously endangered
or moribund. Not far from Finland, on Russian territory, several
small threatened Finno-Ugrian languages are spoken, such as
Ingrian, Ludian, Olonetsian, Vepsian, Votian and the large
Karelian. The Finno-Ugrian moribund Livonian is found in western
Lithuania. The Finno-Ugrian languages also include the Estonian,
Finnish and Hungarian languages which are not endangered. The
Saami languages mentioned above also belong to the Finno-Ugrian
group. In northern Germany, Frisian and Low German, as well as
several small surviving Slavic languages such as Kashubian and
Sorbian, are on the danger list. Further south in Switzerland and
northern Italy, several Rhaeto-Romansh languages are in danger,
i.e. Romansch, Ladin and Friulan, as are a number of other
Romance languages in Italy (including Sardinia), Albania, Greece,
southern France and Spain, such as Ligurian, Lombardian,
Piemontese, the four forms of Sardinian, and also Corsican on
French Corsica. All these are endangered to some extent, as are
Franco-Provençal and Provençal which are endangered in Italy and
seriously endangered in France. In the Balkans, the threatened
Istriot and Istro-Rumanian in Croatia and Aromunian in Albania
are also Romance languages (French, Italian, Portuguese and
Spanish too are important Romance languages). Meglenitic and
Tsakonian in Greece are related to Greek. The threatened Gagauz in
European Turkey, Bulgaria, the former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia and Moldavia is a Turkic language closely related to
Turkish. Karaim in Lithuania, the Ukraine, and on the Crimean
Peninsula in the northern part of the Black Sea is also Turkic, as
are Nogai and Crimean Tatar. In Belgium, France and Spain there
are several further threatened Romance languages such as Walloon
in Belgium, Franco-Provençal, Provençal (Occitan), Auvergnat,
Limousin, Languedocien and Gascon (also in Spain) in France, also
Aragonese, Asturian, Galician and Leonese in Spain. Mozarabic in
southern Spain is extinct. The Basque language, which is endangered in Spain and seriously endangered in France, is not IndoEuropean like most of the other languages in Europe (except for
the Finno-Ugrian languages mentioned above) and it is an isolate
language, that is, it seems to be unrelated to any other known
language. The only other remaining threatened language in Europe
outside Russia is Scots in Scotland, which is becoming endangered. Romance Catalan in eastern Spain (and overlapping into
France), regarded by some as potentially endangered, is now
increasingly re-invigorated.
In European Russia, apart from small Finno-Ugrian languages near
Finland already mentioned above, several Finno-Ugrian languages
in the north are in danger, such as Moksha and Erzya, Western and
Eastern Mari, Udmurt, Permyak and Komi. There are also two
endangered Turkic languages in north-eastern Russia, in addition
to the threatened ones mentioned before in the south of European
Russia. These northern ones are the highly aberrant Turkic
language called Chuvash, and the Bashkir language which is
closely related to Tatar of the same area and further east, which is
not threatened. The Mongolian Kalmyk language, to the northeast of the Black Sea on the lower Volga River, is endangered.
Finally, there are varieties of the Romani (Gypsy) language in most
parts of Europe, most of them threatened to some extent at least.
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The plight of most of these languages is due to heavy pressure
from the dominant languages of the countries where they are
spoken; in some cases, especially in the past, this has been
combined with deliberate policies aiming at their suppression.
Some notable exceptions to this are countries such as Norway,
Switzerland and a few others which have been actively furthering
and supporting the use of minority languages. In recent years,
there has been a strong upswing in interest for minority languages
in many places in Europe, and a strengthening of the ethnic and
linguistic awareness of their speakers.
Siberia
In western and southern Siberia, most local languages are in
danger of disappearing: Finno-Ugrian, Samoyedic, Turkic,
Mongolian and Tungusic languages, and one Palaeo-Siberian
language.
The Finno-Ugrian languages in western Siberia belong to the
Ugrian section of Finno-Ugrian, whereas all Finno-Ugrian
languages mentioned under ‘Europe’ belong to the Finnic section
of Finno-Ugrian, except for Hungarian, which is Ugrian, and
include the western Siberian Mansi and Khanty languages, its
nearest relatives. The ancestors of the present-day Hungarians
lived in the same area as today’s Mansi and Khanty speakers, but
left that area about 3,000–4,000 years ago. The Western Siberian
Ugrian languages are seriously endangered and moribund. The
Samoyedic languages are related to the Finno-Ugrian languages,
and together with them constitute the Uralian languages group.
The Samoyedic languages are located in north-western Siberia,
and the so-called southern Samoyedic languages, of which Selkup
is the only surviving member, is seriously endangered in parts of
its territory and moribund in others. Kamas survived until the early
1990s, but Mator died long ago. Of the north-western Samoyedic
languages Nenets, Enets and Nganasan, the Tundra Nenets dialect
is only endangered, the others being seriously endangered or
moribund. Nganasan is functioning well among the members of
the old generation, but is not being passed on properly to the
younger generation.
The Mongolian, Tungusic and Turkic languages belong to the socalled Altaic group, to which some linguists also attach Japanese
and Korean. The closely interrelated Turkic languages (with the
exception of the Churash language mentioned under ‘Europe’) are
found in Turkey, the Caucasus, eastern Europe and eastern
European Russia (see the ‘Europe’ section), Central Asia, Siberia,
northern Mongolia and northern and western China. In Siberia
they are mostly small languages spoken in south-western Siberia,
such as Siberian Tatar, Shor, Teleut, Altai, Khakas, Chulym and
Tofa. Most of these are endangered or seriously endangered, with
the last two moribund. In northern and north-eastern Siberia, the
large Yakut and the Dolgan languages are Turkic, with Dolgan
spoken by Turkicized Samoyeds. Both are well-functioning
languages, though regarded by some linguists as potentially
endangered. Yakut is now taking over from Russian as the interlanguage lingua franca, or contact language, in north-eastern
Siberia. The speakers of most of the small south-western Siberian
Turkic languages were originally speakers of southern Samoyedic
languages, but became Turkicized. The closely interrelated
Mongolian languages are spoken in Mongolia, southern Siberia and
northern and western China. In Siberia, only the regionally potentially or seriously endangered Buryat language is spoken, as well
as the regionally endangered or moribund Khamnigan Mongol
language near the border of northern China. The closely interrelated Tungusic languages are very widespread in central, eastern
and north-eastern Siberia, on the Kamchatka Peninsula, on
Sakhalin Island, and in north-eastern and western China, but they
have few speakers, with the exception of the Sibo dialect of the
Manchu language, which was the language of the Manchu
conquerers of China in the early seventeenth century AD, and the
official language of the Manchu dynasty which ruled China until
1913. Their language has now almost vanished in China, there are
only a few aged speakers left in north-east China (see the Northeast China map in this Atlas, p. 58), but a Manchu garrison was
sent to Western China (Xinjiang) in the seventeenth century, and
among their descendants there are still well over 20,000 speakers
of a dialectal form of Manchu called Sibo. The largest ethnic
Tungusic group today are the Ewenki, widespread in small communities from central to eastern and south-eastern Siberia, and into
north-east China. In Siberia, there are 26,000 ethnic Ewenki, and
close to 20,000 in China. Only 6,000 still speak the language in
Siberia, whereas many of those in China still know their language.
There are efforts for its revival in Siberia. Other important
Tungusic languages are Even in north-eastern Siberia and on the
Kamchatka Peninsula, and a number of small Tungusic languages
in the Russian Far East and on Sakhalin Island, such as Nanay,
Negidal, Olcha, Oroch, Orok and Udege. All of these are seriously
endangered or moribund.
The remaining languages of Siberia are Palaeo-Siberian languages
belonging to three different groups that are probably not related
to each other, and there is one doubtful language. In western
Siberia, along the middle and upper Yenisey River there is (in part
was) the Ketic group of languages of which the seriously endangered Ket and the moribund Yug are the surviving members. Kot on
the upper Yenisey has long been extinct. The Ketic languages do
not seem to be related to any other known languages, though
there have been attempts to link them with languages outside
Siberia. A large Palaeo-Siberian group is the Chukchee-KoryakAlyutor-Kamchadal group in north-eastern Siberia and the
Kamchatka Peninsula. The first three are individual languages, all
of them seriously endangered. Kamchadal originally consisted of
three languages, of which only Itelmen proper survives today as a
moribund language. The other two are extinct. A moribund small
language, Kerek, is closely related to Chukchee. Further, there is
the Nivkh language on the lower Amur River in the Russian Far East
and on northern Sakhalin Island. It seems unrelated to any other
known language, though attempts have been made to link it with
the Chukchee group. Finally, the doubtful Palaeo-Siberian
language is Yukagir, spoken in two separate locations in northeastern Siberia. The extinct Chuvan language was also Yukagiric.
Recent studies suggest strongly that the language is related to the
Uralian languages (see above). It seems moribund, but attempts at
reviving it are in progress.
In addition to all these languages, there are several Asiatic Eskimo
languages on the eastern shores of the Chukchee Peninsula, such
as Central Siberian Yupik Eskimo, which is extinct in two locations
and endangered in another, Naukanski Eskimo, which is seriously
endangered, and Sirenitski Eskimo which became extinct in 1999
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with the death of its last speaker (see the Arctic North America
West map, p. 74).
All the threatened languages mentioned above have been under
enormous pressure from Russian and, in the past, were the target
of deliberate Soviet policies aiming at obliterating them, through
methods such as the removal of children to distant boarding
schools where they were forbidden to speak their language to one
another, and forced resettling of members of speech communities
among speakers of other languages including Russian. Only since
the disintegration of the former Soviet Union have there been
signs of a reawakening of ethnic identity awareness among some
Siberian peoples, with simultaneous growing interest in the
preservation, revival and furthering of their languages.
A considerable amount of work on endangered and dying
languages in Siberia has been carried out by Russian scholars,
scholars from outside Russia (i.e. linguists from Europe, in particular from Finland, Hungary and some other countries), as well as
by American scholars from Alaska. Increasingly, linguists from the
local language areas have also been studying endangered Siberian
languages. However, there is still much work to be done on them.
Caucasus
The Caucasus area contains a number of languages in danger,
especially in Daghestan and the Georgian Republic. Some of them
are under pressure from large local languages, such as Turkic Azerbaijan, and from Russian. Their speakers are fiercely proud of their
ethnic identity, and resist the demise of their languages strongly.
The forty Caucasian languages constitute a separate group of
interrelated languages with four subgroups: north-western, northeastern (or Daghestan), and southern Caucasus languages, with a
northern (or northern central) group geographically between the
north-western and north-eastern groups. The language of the
Chechens belongs to this northern group. Famous languages of the
north-western group are Circassian and Abkhas, which are noted
for having the largest number of consonants of any language in
the world and very few vowels – this makes them sound so alien
that outsiders doubt whether they are listening to a human
language when they hear it. Georgian is a well-known member of
the southern group, and the Caucasian language with the largest
number of speakers, over 5,000,000. The twenty-seven northeastern languages are the most numerous; some of them have very
few speakers. Some of the more familiar names of north-eastern
languages are Andi, Archi, Avar, Hunzib, Lak, Lezgin, Tabassaran,
Tsakhur and Udi.
There are a number of Turkic and other non-Caucasian languages
(Iranian Kurdish, Ossetic, Tat and Talysh) in the Caucasus area. The
most important are the Turkic Azerbaijan language in the southeast, which exerts pressure on several north-eastern Caucasian
languages, and the Indo-European Armenian language. The Turkic
Nogai (already mentioned in the Europe section) and Kumyk
languages are important as trade languages in the east of the
Caucasus area, and they also put pressure on some north-eastern
Caucasian languages.
The one moribund Caucasus language is the northern Caucasus
Bats (or Batsbi) in one village in northern Georgia, which is
succumbing to Georgian. Some quite large languages of the northeastern group have lost whole villages to the Azerbaijan language
and could perhaps be regarded as potentially endangered, e.g. the
Lak and Tabassaran languages. Some of the north-eastern
languages have quite substantial numbers of speakers: Tabassaran
has today 78,000 speakers. There are some with far fewer
speakers: Tsakhur has 5,200; Udi 6,100; Hunzib 5,000; Khinalug
1,000; Budukh 900; Kryz 1,300; Archi, Tindi and Godoberi have
similar small numbers of speakers, and Hinukh even less. These
languages are potentially endangered, as is Hinukh, under pressure from the large local languages, and from Russian, though the
fierce pride of the speakers, mentioned above, acts as a bulwark
against language loss.
The situation is different in the southern Caucasus Group, where
the speakers of the four small languages Adzhar, Laz, Mingrelian
and Svan, which are closely related to Georgian and spoken within
Georgia, are all bilingual in Georgia, with their languages being
now gradually superseded by Georgian. They have to be regarded
as endangered.
Much work on Caucasus languages has been carried out by Russian
and non-Russian scholars, but there is still room for work on these
languages, especially the north-eastern ones.
Asia
China
In China, the main areas where languages are in danger of disappearing are in north-east and north-western China and western
Xinjiang, and Yunnan in the far south. These languages are in part
under heavy pressure from Chinese. In some areas, ethnic identity
is strengthening, with a positive influence on language maintenance.
The present Atlas contains a map of the threatened languages of
north-east China. All of them belong to the Altaic group (see
‘Siberia’ under ‘Eurasia’), i.e. the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic
parts of it. The only Turkic language is the moribund Manchurian
Kirghiz (Fuyu). The Mongolian languages are Eastern Buriat in
China, Khamnigan Mongol, Old and New Bargut and Dagur; and the
Tungusic ones are Ewenki proper, Khamnigan Ewenki, Orochen,
Manchu, and Solon. With the exception of Eastern Buriat in China,
and Dagur and Solon in western locations where they are only
potentially endangered, these languages are all endangered, seriously endangered, or moribund, although the number of speakers
of Ewenki proper and Khamnigan Ewenki are still considerable.
Elsewhere in China, there are threatened languages in the northwest and in western Xinjiang, the westernmost province of China.
The local languages here are mainly Turkic and Mongolian; the
main Turkic language, Uyghur, has 6,000,000 speakers. Of other
Turkic languages, Kazak is also strongly represented with
1,000,000 speakers. Kirghiz has 100,000 speakers in Xinjiang. The
very large Turkic languages, Uzbek and Tatar, are only slightly
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represented in Xinjiang and elsewhere in China. The small local
Turkic language, Western Yugur, is spoken in Kansu Province in
north-west China by less than 5,000 speakers in the neighbourhood of Mongolian languages; it is potentially endangered. Next to
it is the small Mongolian Eastern or Yellow Yugur language with
even fewer speakers, also potentially endangered. In the westernmost part of Xinjiang Province, several Turkic, Mongolian and
Tungusic languages are spoken. Most of the local people, but not
the Chinese living there, are multilingual in their own language, a
Turkic (Uyghur) and a Mongolian language (Oirat dialect), as well
as in Chinese. The Tungusic Sibo-Manchu language is spoken only
by the Sibo themselves, but they also speak every one of the
languages known by the other non-Chinese-mother tongue
speakers there. The number of speakers of the small, moribund
Tungusic Orochen language is dwindling.
In southern parts of China such as Yunnan Province, there are a
large number of smallish, mainly Tibeto-Burman languages which
are related to Tibetan and Burman, and ultimately also to Chinese,
because all these languages belong to the vast Chino-Tibetan
group of languages. In the same areas, there are also other, often
smallish, languages not related to the Tibeto-Burman languages,
such as the so-called Miao-Yao languages, spoken mostly by people
living in the mountains, also the so-called Kam-Tai languages
related to the Thai language of Thailand, and to the Austronesian
languages of the Pacific area (see the text of the Pacific survey
map), and also some of the so-called Austroasiatic languages
which are spoken mainly outside China in South-East Asia and
India. Some of these languages, especially small ones, are threatened, e.g. the (Miao-) Yao language Bunu which has only 1,400
speakers, the She language, also Miao-Yao, spoken by only 1,000
of the 300,000 ethnic She, and others (see also the text of the
map of South-East Asia). The level of endangerment in southern
China is not yet well known, in spite of ongoing research work. For
instance, the large Yi nationality, which was until very recently
believed to have four different languages, was found last year to
have a much larger number of small to very small languages, many
of them probably threatened.
A considerable amount of work on endangered languages in
Yunnan has been carried out through the Nationality Languages
Department of the Yunnan Institute of Nationalities, and by
scholars from outside China; still, a great deal of work remains to
be done on these languages. Similarly, scholars from inside and
outside China have undertaken extensive work on endangered
languages in north-east and north-west China and in Xinjiang, but
much remains to be done on certain languages.
Himalayan Chain
The threatened languages on the map of the Himalayan Chain
belong to the family of Tibeto-Burman, or its various branches. For
the term ‘Tibeto-Burman’, see the text on China. Tibeto-Burman
languages are very widespread, and as can be seen from the inset
map of India and Myanmar (former Burma), they occur (or occurred) in those countries as well. One remarkable fact is that all
Tibeto-Burman languages show inflections, i.e. grammatical
changes in the words, whereas the related Chinese has virtually no
such inflections. It is believed that thousands of years ago,
Chinese had such inflections, but lost them long ago, perhaps
through simplification as a trade and contact language with
speakers of other languages, possibly ancestors of today’s Thai
languages, in the small area of ancient China.
Of the languages shown on the map, Darmiya, Rangkhas, Tolcha
and Chaudangsi/Byangsi in the west, on Indian territory, belong
to the West Himalayish branch of Tibeto-Burman. Of the languages
on Nepalese territory, Dura, Rohani, Chantel and Bhrahmu in the
west belong to the so-called Bodish branch, and Hayu, Dumi,
Tilung, Bungla, Saam, Lumba and Chintang in central and eastern
Nepal to the so-called Kiranti/Rai branch. Dhimal in eastern Nepal,
Lepcha, Toto and Tahom on Indian territory and Pyu and Danan in
Myanmar belong to other branches of Tibeto-Burman.
The potentially endangered, endangered, seriously endangered,
moribund or extinct status of the Himalayan Chain languages on
the map is the result of pressure from dominant languages: in
Nepal especially from Nepali, on Indian territory from relevant
languages in northern and north-western India, and in Myanmar
from Myanmar languages in the central and eastern parts of the
country.
A large amount of work has been done in endangered languages of
the Himalayan Chain and in Tibeto-Burman languages in general,
mainly by linguists from Europe, especially the Netherlands and
the United Kingdom, Australia and the United States, but much
further work remains to be done.
Indian subcontinent
On the Indian subcontinent, relatively few languages are in danger
of disappearing in spite of the multiplicity of languages. Their
vitality may be explained by means of widespread egalitarian biand multilingualism. The languages which do appear to be in
danger of disappearing are tribal and other relatively small
languages, which are losing speakers to the various larger
languages in the Indian subcontinent.
The extremely large number of languages on the Indian subcontinent are Indo-Aryan in the centre and to some extent in the
north, Iranian languages in the north-west and especially in
Pakistan, Dravidian languages in the southern part of India,
Austroasiatic languages in the central eastern part, and TibetoBurman in the north. In addition, there are other languages in the
far central north of India such as the isolate language Burushaski
and languages of the Andaman isolated group on the Andaman
Islands Chain to the east of India, to name but a few.
Threatened languages on the Indian subcontinent are essentially
in the north-west, north, north-east, east and southern centre.
Those in the north-west are Indo-Aryan and Iranian, such as Dardi
and the seriously endangered Kohistani. Those in the north and
north-west are largely Tibeto-Burman languages of which a few
have already been mentioned in the text on the Himalayan Chain.
There are also threatened Romany (Gypsy) languages in the far
north. Those in the southern centre are Dravidian, such as the
seriously endangered Kota and Toda languages. Kuvi is extinct
there. Those in the east are essentially Austroasiatic languages,
such as the seriously endangered Birhor and Parenga, and the
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endangered Nahali. Several are extinct, such as Gorum, Bonda and
Gata. Among the threatened Tibeto-Burman languages several are
moribund, e.g. Kami, Khowar, Khami, Kawri and Tlangtlang; seriously endangered, such as Aimol, Aka (Hrusso), Gurung, Kagate,
Mru and Purum; or endangered, including Chin, Jad, Kanashi,
Khampti, Khoirao, Langrong, Ralte and Tat.
Of the ten languages of the Greater Andaman Islands, nine are
extinct and one is moribund. On the Little Andaman Island, Önge
still has over 100 speakers, and the Shompen language, on
another island, about 70.
A very large amount of work on the languages of the Indian
subcontinent has been done over the years by Indian, British and
other scholars, however, relatively little attention was paid to the
small threatened languages, except for Tibeto-Burman languages,
in which outside linguists have long been interested (see the text
on the Himalayan Chain). A great deal of work remains to be done
on the numerous languages of the Indian subcontinent.
Central Asia: Pamir area
Another area in Asia with a number of endangered and moribund
languages is the Pamir Mountains area in Central Asia with the
adjacent regions in Afghanistan and China. The languages in
danger are Pamir Iranian languages; one Mongolian language in
Afghanistan is moribund.
The threatened Pamir languages belong to the Iranian language
group. They are spoken mainly in the valleys of the Pyandzh River
(the border river between Tajikistan and Afghanistan) and its tributaries in Tajikistan and Afghanistan. The languages are Shugni,
with 50,000 speakers, formerly the lingua franca in the Pamir area.
It has lost this role to Russian and Tajik by now. Closely related to
it are Rushan (16,000 speakers), Bartangi (2,000 speakers) and
Oroshori (1,500 speakers). Pamir languages less closely related to
Shugni are Yazgulami (2,000 speakers) and Ishkashim (2,100
speakers). Further south-east and east of those languages,
another Pamir language, Wakhi, is spoken by 10,000 speakers in
Afghanistan, 20,000 in Pakistan. A small number of its speakers
overlap into China, where to the north, in the easternmost part of
Xinjiang Province, another small Pamir language, Sarikoli, is
spoken. In China, both Sarikoli and Wakhi are wrongly called Tajik,
which is an Iranian language very close to Persian, and the official
language of Tajikistan. It is only distantly related to the Pamir
languages.
The small Pamir languages Bartangi, Ishkashim, Oroshori and
Yazgulami are becoming potentially endangered, if not actually
endangered under pressure from Russian and Tajik. Sarikoli in
China is under pressure from Wakhi, the Turkic Uyghur, which is the
main local contact language in Xinjiang, and from Chinese. The
moribund Mongol language in Afghanistan is called Moghol.
Much work has been done in the Pamir languages by Russian and
outside linguists, and on Sarikoli (‘Tajik’) by Chinese scholars, but
more remains to be done.
South-East Asia
On the Malaccan Peninsula in Malaysia and the Nicobar and
Andaman Islands in India, a number of languages are in danger of
disappearing, largely under pressure from the major languages of
those countries. There are some signs of ethnic and linguistic
revivalism.
Linguistically, South-East Asia extends northward well into
southern China. It contains all the language types typical of those
found in South-East Asian countries, namely, Tibeto-Burman
languages, languages of various branches of Austroasiatic, and TaiKadai to which the varieties of the Thai language belong. Other
sections of Tai-Kadai include the very large group of Austronesian
languages in the Greater Pacific Area, which contains about 1,200
languages. Austronesian languages (of the so-called Chamic family)
are found in China on Hainan Island, and in Viet Nam. The mix of
language types and languages is different in the various South-East
Asian countries, but the presence of many, mostly small to very
small languages of several kinds is typical everywhere.
The map of South-East Asia given in the Atlas comprises parts of
Viet Nam, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Thailand, Myanmar,
China and India. Further south, in Cambodia and Malaysia, outside
the area covered by the map, the situation found is comparable to
that shown in a sampling manner in the parts of the countries
appearing on the map: one (or several in the case of India) large
official, and dominant language(s) in each country, with usually
many, smaller languages belonging to type(s) of languages
different from the dominant language(s) even if they may be
distantly related to it (or them). So, for instance, of the threat-
ened and extinct languages shown in the eastern part of India
appearing on the map, all are Tibeto-Burman in the close cluster
on both sides of the India-Myanmar border.
Further north, Tai-Kadai languages occur. The threatened
languages appearing in the section of Myanmar shown on the map
are all Tibeto-Burman, some of them sections of Tibeto-Burman
that are different from that to which Burmese, the dominant
language of Myanmar, belongs. The threatened languages shown on
the Thailand part of the map are also Tibeto-Burman and are unrelated to the dominant Thai language of Thailand (Tai-Kadai). The
threatened languages appearing on the Lao People’s Democratic
Republic section of the map are Mon-Khmer Austroasiatic
languages. However, the dominant language of Lao P.D.R., Laotian,
is a Tai-Kadai language closely related to Thai, and therefore
unrelated to, and very different from, these threatened languages
of Lao P.D.R. In Viet Nam, the dominant language, Vietnamese, is a
Mon-Khmer Austroasiatic language, and therefore related to most
of the languages appearing in the southern part of Viet Nam on the
map and which are also Austroasiatic. Mang in the northern part of
Viet Nam is also Mon-Khmer, but the other threatened languages in
the north of Viet Nam are Tai-Kadai. Most of the threatened
languages in China shown on the map are Tibeto-Burman.
The endangerment and extinction of many small languages in
South-East Asia results from pressure on them from larger and/or
dominant languages. Many of the small local languages still
manage to resist these pressures, especially in the light of
re-awakening feelings of ethnic identity among speakers of small
languages.
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Linguists from Australia, Europe, the United States and universities in South-East Asia have been carrying out a considerable
amount of work on the endangered languages of South-East Asia.
However, especially in view of the large number of small languages
in the area, quite a few of which are endangered, much more
remains to be done.
of the Solomon Islands and all of Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji,
Micronesia and Polynesia. They are all interrelated and form the
largest group of related languages in the world, in terms of multitude of languages. They are subdivided into four subgroups in
Taiwan, and one huge group, called Malayo-Polynesian, that occupies all of the other Austronesian language areas.
The Greater Pacific Area comprises Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines,
Insular Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon
Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji, Micronesia, Polynesia and
Australia. Over two thousand living languages, about a third of the
languages in the world, are located in this area. At the same time,
until recently, the Greater Pacific Area has been the area least
affected by language endangerment in the world, with the exception of Australia, New Caledonia and Taiwan. This situation has
deteriorated during the last two decades, but it is still better than
in most other parts of the world. Details will be given for the
various regions discussed below, but in general it may be pointed
out that the total number of threatened languages in the Greater
Pacific Area excluding Australia is 304, with 49 languages recently
extinct.
The second largest group, comprising about 800 languages, is the
so-called family of Papuan languages, which occupy most of Irian
Jaya (West Papua) and Papua New Guinea, East Timor, the
northern part of the Halmahera Islands, some parts of West Timor
and some large islands to the west of Timor. There are also a few
Papuan languages in the Solomon Islands and in the Santa Cruz
Archipelago, which lies to the east of the Solomon Islands. The
Papuan languages do not form a single group of interrelated
languages, but there is one very large group of nearly 500 related
languages that occupies much of the island of New Guinea and the
Timor area; a group of about 100 related languages is located in
north-eastern Papua New Guinea; a group of about 50 languages is
located in northern Papua New Guinea; a group of about
30 languages is found in the northern three-quarters of the Bird’s
Head Peninsula of Irian Jaya and in northern Halmahera; and
another one of 34 languages is situated in eastern non-peninsular
Irian Jaya.
The indigenous languages of the Greater Pacific Area belong
almost exclusively to three quite different kinds. The largest category is the group of approximately 1,200 Austronesian languages
that extend from Taiwan, across the Philippines, Insular Malaysia,
most of Indonesia, many coastal areas of Papua New Guinea, most
The remaining Papuan languages belong to a number of small,
unrelated groups. The third group includes the interrelated
Australian Aboriginal languages, which belong to a very large
family occupying the southern seven-eighths of Australia, with
about 20 small related families in Arnhem Land (the northern
Greater Pacific Area
Australian peninsula area), and in areas to the south-east of it.
The long-extinct languages of Tasmania may or may not be related
to Australian languages: the evidence is inconclusive.
Other languages in the Greater Pacific Area are Japanese and Ainu
on Japan, and a southern Chinese (Min) and Mandarin Chinese on
Taiwan – the result of Min and Mandarin immigration.
Japan
The Japanese language of Japan is one of the Altaic languages
(see Siberia), but with a very large number of loanwords from
Ancient Chinese, and some influence from Austronesian languages
(see above). The Ainu language is generally regarded as a PaleoSiberian isolate language, but some linguists have tried to link it
with the Altaic languages. It was spoken on northern Hokkaido
Island of Japan, on Sakhalin Island to north of it, and on the Kuril
Islands chain which links Sakhalin with the Kamchatka Peninsula
to the north. It became extinct on the Kuril Islands around the
early years of the twentieth century, and on Sakhalin Island in the
late twentieth century. On Hokkaido it was officially neglected
until the late 1980s, when there were only eight elderly speakers
left. Then there was a sudden turnabout in attitude. The language
received strong support, teaching facilities were established, and a
most impressive Ainu museum built on Hokkaido with language
teaching facilities. A considerable number of semi-speakers who
had feared to use the language were found, and encouraged to use
it again. A number of young Ainu have since learned the language,
which seems to show signs of reviving.
Taiwan
Of the twenty-three local languages spoken originally on Taiwan,
seven are threatened, six are in a moribund state, and only one is
endangered. Three languages have become extinct recently, eight
are still fully functioning, and five became extinct a long time ago.
The reason for the extinction and endangerment of Austronesian
languages in Taiwan was pressure from the dominant Chinese
speakers and their language. Until a few years ago, attitudes and
policies towards the Austronesian languages were negative and
discouraging. However, less than a decade ago, these attitudes
suddenly shifted completely, and now the languages are supported
by the authorities.
Philippines
Of the 165 languages on the Philippines, 13 are threatened and 4
became extinct recently. There is great tolerance towards small
languages, and there are no monolingual speakers of dominant
European languages or other comparable aggressive monolingual
speakers there today – hence little language endangerment. The
speakers of very large Philippine languages, such as Tagalog
(10 million first-language and 30–40 million second-language
speakers) are mostly monolingual, but usually bi- and multilingual
speakers of small Philippine languages simply add the knowledge
of Tagalog to their repertory of languages, without losing their
own languages in the process.
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Malaysia
There are about 130 languages in insular Malaysia, i.e. Sarawak
and Sabah on Borneo, all of them Malayo-Polynesian. Only three of
them are regarded as endangered, although there are very likely
quite a few more, and one is extinct.
Indonesia
There are large numbers of languages in Indonesia – well over 400
Malayo-Polynesian and about 240 Papuan languages, a total of
over 640 local languages. The only language used for all official
and public purposes, all educational pursuits, and all the media, is
Indonesian. There is no direct oppression of any other language,
as has been practised by monolingual speakers of dominant metropolitan, especially European, languages in Australia, the Americas,
etc. but there is some discouragement of speakers of local
languages in several parts of Indonesia. Because education is
solely in Indonesian, children are conditioned to regard it as superior to their own mother tongues, and use it at home and with
other family members in preference to their own languages, thus
precipitating the potential endangerment of these latter
languages, which then progressively become endangered.
Sumatra: of the thirteen languages on Sumatra, only two are
threatened, and one of them is perhaps extinct. The other
languages are all large and functioning well.
Java: there is no language endangerment in the Java area.
Sulawesi: of the over 110 languages of Sulawesi, 36 are threatened
and one is extinct.
Maluku: of the over 80 languages of the Maluku area, 22 are
threatened and 11 are extinct.
Timor-Flores and Bima-Sumba area: of the 50 or so MalayoPolynesian languages of this area, eight are threatened, none
extinct. Of the 18 Papuan languages there, at least three are
threatened. The now independent East Timor area is geographically included in this region, with at least one of the Papuan
languages there seriously endangered or moribund.
West Papua and Halmahera Island area: of the over 50 MalayoPolynesian languages of this area, eleven are threatened, and
one extinct. Of the about 250 Papuan languages, 56 are
threatened.
The endangerment situation in the various parts of Indonesia is as
follows:
Papua New Guinea
Kalimantan (southern Borneo): of some fifty languages in
Kalimantan, only one is believed to be endangered, but the endangerment situation there is very little known; a much larger number
of languages may be in danger.
Papua New Guinea has about 820 or more local languages – the
highest number of languages in any area of comparable size in the
whole world. Very few languages have tens of thousands of
speakers, but a very great number of languages are small to very
small, with a few hundred speakers or far less. Until two decades
ago or so, Papua New Guinea was the area least affected by
language endangerment in the world. The speakers of each
language were, and still are, fiercely proud of their language,
which they regard as the main symbol of their ethnic identity.
However, there has been a very great increase in speaker mobility
since the late 1970s, resulting in a steadily increasing number of
marriages between speakers of different languages, many of them
outside the range of the very widespread traditional multilingualism in the country. In such cases, the family language has
usually become the national language Tok Pisin, an interindiginous contact language and lingua franca spoken by over
80 per cent of all Papua New Guineans as a language of wider
intercommunication. It has a complicated Austronesian-type
grammar and many English-derived words. The children are beginning to learn it as their first language, starting the chain of
potential endangerment. Also, only about 30 major languages are
used in education and by the media, thereby reducing the importance of many other, especially small, languages in the eyes of the
locals. The attitude of the government and authorities towards all
local languages is positive, but that does not help very much
under these circumstances. Of the estimated 240 MalayoPolynesian languages of Papua New Guinea, about 35 are threatened and 3 extinct. Of about 580 Papuan languages there, over 40
are threatened, and 13 extinct.
Solomon Islands (including the Santa Cruz Archipelago)
In the Solomon Islands, the government and senior authorities,
who are largely members of an English-educated élite, have a
rather negative attitude towards local languages, which is an
obstacle for their maintenance. Large missionary and church
languages exercise a dominant influence over small local
languages. The English-based lingua franca Tok Pijin also puts
pressure on small local languages. Of the 44 Malayo-Polynesian
languages in the Solomon Islands, 12 are threatened and 2
extinct. Of the 10 Papuan languages there, 1 is threatened and 3
are extinct.
Vanuatu
Many years of English-French condominium status as the former
New Hebridies did not help the many small languages of Vanuatu,
and since independence, the English-based lingua franca Bislama,
which is similar to the Tok Pisin of Papua New Guinea, has brought
increasing pressure to bear on them. All of the about 110
languages on Vanuatu are Malayo-Polynesian. Some 33 are threatened, and 3 recently became extinct.
New Caledonia and Loyalty Islands
In New Caledonia, the French language, as a dominant metropolitan language spoken by monolinguals, has had a devastating
influence on the maintenance of the local languages. Of the
60,000 indiginous people, today, only some 20,000 or so still have
a knowledge of one or several local languages. Since the strong
awakening of ethnic-identity feeling among the local population a
couple of decades ago, the language situation has been improving;
also, the attitudes of the French authorities have softened, and
they have granted some concessions regarding other languages. Of
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the 33 Malayo-Polynesian languages there, 13 are threatened and
2 recently became extinct, with one of these two being revived.
Fiji and Rotuma
There are 2 Malayo-Polynesian languages here, both fully functioning.
Micronesia
There are 22 Malayo-Polynesian Micronesian languages: 3 are
threatened, and 1 is extinct.
Polynesia
Of the Polynesian languages, Maori in New Zealand, Hawaiian on
Hawaii, and Rapanui on Easter Island became almost extinct some
time ago. All 3 have been revived and are functioning quite well,
but their long-term future is not certain. The Tahitian language in
the Society Islands had been receding rapidly before French, especially in the town of Papeete, the capital of French Polynesia, but
has recovered very strongly during the last decade, and is now in
turn threatening other Polynesian languages in French Polynesia,
especially Tuamotuan, and two languages in the Austral Islands,
and is beginning to put pressure on Marquesan. There are 37
Malayo-Polynesian Polynesian languages, of which seven to nine
are regarded as threatened.
Australia
Australia has one of the worst records on language endangerment
and extinction in the world. Until about 1970, very harsh assimilation policies were in vogue, especially the concentration of
speakers of different Aboriginal language backgrounds in camps
where they could not continue to use their own languages.
Children receiving education in standard Australian schools and
dormitories were forbidden to use their languages. Long before
this, Aborigines were dislocated through pastoral and agricultural
activities by immigrant settlers, mining activities, and so on. Since
the 1970s, there has been a complete turnabout towards
Aborigines and their languages. In the north of Australia, where
some languages were still functioning well, bilingual education
was introduced (though this came under threat recently because of
the attitude of the Northern Territory government), Aborigines
have been encouraged to maintain and reinvigorate their
language, and a few extinct or near extinct languages have been
revived. However, most of this has come too late. In the Language
Atlas of the Pacific Area (Wurm and Hattori, 1981–83), well over a
hundred Australian languages were indicated as having one to ten
surviving speakers, but almost all are now extinct.
The original number of Australian languages is unclear. About 600
different forms of Aboriginal languages have been identified for
the past and present, many of these, especially those known only
through scanty records from the past, are likely to be different
dialects of one language. It seems fair to suggest that there may
have been around 400 or more Australian languages of which a
hundred or so became extinct over half a century, if not a century
or more ago. About 180 are known to have become recently or
relatively recently extinct, about 120 are threatened at present –
many of these are in a moribund state, and only about 25 are still
more or less fully functioning.
A very large amount of work has been carried out on languages of
the Greater Pacific Area, including threatened and now extinct
ones, in the respective countries, including Indonesia, but especially at the Australian National University in Canberra and other
Australian institutions. However, considering the enormous
number of languages in this vast area, much work remains to be
done.
Africa
The approximately 1,400 (or more) languages of Africa have been
classified in various ways. One fairly generally accepted classification defines four major groups of interrelated languages.
Afro-Asiatic: This group of about 200 or more languages with about
175 million speakers occupies the greater part of northern Africa,
including the eastern ‘horn’ of the continent, except for the
central Sahara, and areas on the upper Nile. The well-known
Semitic languages belong to this group, of which Arabic, found on
the Arabian Peninsula as well, and ancient Egyptian. The
southernmost extension of the group is around Lake Chad. Wellknown members of this group are Arabic (over 100 million
speakers), Hausa in West Africa, Amharic, and Somali, both in East
Africa.
Niger-Kordofanian: This very vast group covers most of the
southern two-thirds of Africa except for a large area in the southwest. Its main branch is the Niger-Congo branch which contains
more than 1,000 languages with some 200 million speakers. The
well-known Bantu languages of central, eastern and southern
Africa constitute a sub-group of the Niger-Congo branch. They
number about 500 and comprise more than 100 million speakers.
Well-known Bantu languages are Swahili in East Africa and Shona,
and Xhosa and Zulu in South Africa. The Niger-Kordofanian group
has that name because another, though very small, main branch is
constituted by the Kordofanian languages. This group includes
about 30 languages with 300,000 speakers, spoken in the Sudan,
isolated from the other main branch, the Niger-Congo, by
languages of the Afro-Asiatic group, and the Nilo-Saharan group
mentioned below.
Nilo-Saharan: This group of about 140 or more languages, with
perhaps 11 million speakers in widely scattered parts of Central
and East Africa, had been difficult to recognize because of the
considerable differences between its members and their scattered
locations. They are surrounded by either Afro-Asiatic or NigerCongo languges. Well-known members of this group are Masai and
Nubian in East Africa.
Khoisan: This group of about 30 languages, with over 100,000
speakers, is located in a large part of south-west Africa. Khoisan
languages are likely to have originally been spoken throughout
most of southern Africa. However, the southward expansion of
Bantu speakers occupied much of their original area, and the
immigration of Dutch settlers from the south narrowed it down
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further. Two related languages are spoken in northern Tanzania –
obviously remnant languages in mountainous country, from the
earlier, much more widespread Khoisan language area. Today, most
Khoisan languages are found in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana
and Angola. The Hottentot and Bushman languages are wellknown members of the Khoisan group. One renowned feature of
the Khoisan languages is their use of ‘click’ sounds instead of ordinary stop consonants p, t and k. Many of the Khoisan languages
have become endangered by pressure from the large Bantu
languages – the speakers of some of which borrowed a few click
sounds into their own languages from Khoisan languages, so for
instance the Xhosa (Nelson Mandela’s language) language
speakers (the Xh indicates a so-called lateral click articulation of
the side of the tongue against the inner right side back molars,
with an h-sound aspiration following).
The endangerment of African languages, especially small ones,
results from the pressure exerted by large African languages. The
governments of most African countries favour large African
languages, and have negative attitudes and language policies
against small ones. Some governments even favour the excolonial languages, especially English and Friench, and are against
the use of any African language of their countries for official
purposes.
The language endangerment and extinction situation in Africa is
only imperfectly and patchily known, because for quite a long
time, linguistic fieldworkers have been unable to make surveys in
quite a few parts of Africa because of continuing warfare and
unsafe conditions. This factor also adds significantly to language
endangerment and extinction of languages in some areas, as also
do extended droughts and resulting famines in some areas.
The survey map of African language endangerment and extinction
in the Atlas is evidence of this patchiness of our knowledge. It
gives the location and status of 124 threatened languages
(excluding potentially endangered ones) and a selection of 48
extinct languages in Africa. Taking into account the number of
languages in areas not surveyed recently to establish the number
of threatened and extinct languages, more than twice these
figures may have to be assumed for them, i.e. about 250 threatened and 50 extinct, giving a total of well over 400. If potentially
endangered languages were included, a total of at least 500–600
would not be an unrealistic estimate.
A large amount of work on endangered African languages has been
carried out by linguists from outside Africa, mainly from Europe
(e.g. from Germany), and also by linguists from institutions in
African countries. With the multiplicity of endangered languages
on the African continent, a very extensive amount of work remains
to be done.
America
Arctic North America East
This map in the Atlas gives information on the location and status
of the four threatened (and one extinct) forms of Inuit Eskimo in
north-eastern Arctic Canada, and also on the seven now extinct
Eskimo Pidgin languages in that area. The Eskimo languages
belong to two different types: one very widespread type comprises
the forms spoken in western, eastern and northern Greenland, and
all the forms of Eskimo spoken in northern Canada, as well as
those in northern Alaska. From Greenland to the Mackenzie Delta
in far north-western Canada, this form is known as Inuit Eskimo,
and in northern Alaska as Inupiaq Eskimo. The local variations in
these areas are so closely related that Inuit Eskimos from one of
them can understand much of what speakers of other local variations say, especially when they speak about matters of everyday
occurrence. The other type is that of several Yupik Eskimo
languages in southern and western Alaska, in the Bering Strait and
in the extreme western part of the Chukchi Peninsula. They are not
mutually intelligible, nor are they mutually intelligible with Inuit
Eskimo. They are shown on the Arctic North America West map.
There are still several fully functioning forms of Inuit Eskimo in
northern Canada. Attitudes and language policies in Canada were,
until recently, negative for the Eskimo (and Amerindian). However,
they have now changed for the better here and in other parts of
the world. Endangerment and extinction of Eskimo languages in
Canada were the result of pressure from English and French, and of
adverse attitudes and policies in the past. The Pidgin languages
simply fell into disuse and became extinct as a consequence.
Arctic North America West
This map gives information on the distribution and status of the
threatened Inuit Eskimo and Yupik Eskimo languages in western
Canada, Alaska and the extreme eastern part of the Chukchi
Peninsula across the Bering Strait. The Yupik Eskimo languages
include two closely related forms of Pacific Yupik in the south
(Chugach and Koniag Eskimo), Central Alaskan Yupik, Bering Strait
Eskimo in the Nome area (Kotzebue Sound Eskimo further north is
Inuit), and Asiatic Eskimo on the Chukchi Peninsula. Central
Siberian Yupik in the south had two languages, the Provideniya
language and the Sirennitski language (which became extinct in
1999 with the death of the last speaker). The northern language of
Asiatic Eskimo is Naukanski. The map also gives information on the
location and status of Eastern and Western Aleut on the Aleut
Islands. Aleut is related to the Eskimo languages. The map also
gives information on the location and status of Amerindian
languages in the interior of Alaska and a portion of north-western
Canada. All of these belong to the widespread Athabaskan
languages, some of which, like Apache, are found as far south as
the United States and northern Mexico. The map also gives information on the location of former Eskimo Pidgins and trade
languages in the area which it covers. All of these are now
extinct.
Reasons and circumstances for the endangerment of Eskimo, Aleut
and American Indian languages in the Canadian part of the map
are similar to those given for the Arctic North America East. For
the Alaskan and Russian parts of the map, the reasons are similar
too, except that attitudes and policies of the United States relative
to indigenous languages have not improved much, save that they
were less harsh in Alaska than elsewhere in the country. Russian
policies in the Chukchi Peninsula, and in Alaska under former
Tsarist Russian rule, have also left their mark.
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The Pidgin and trade languages on the map fell into disuse and
eventually became extinct.
Work on some of the languages in danger has been carried out by
Alaskan and Canadian linguists, and also by linguists from Europe
(especially Denmark and the Netherlands), but much additional
work is still needed.
Canada
Of the 121 Amerindian languages in Canada, only 6 (Naskapi,
Attikamek or Tête-de-Boule-Cree, James Bay Cree or East Cree,
Northern Plains Cree, Severn Ojibwe, and Montagnais) are still
fully functioning. Some 10 are extinct (their family membership is
given in parentheses): Huron, Petun, Neutral, Erie, St. Laurence,
Wenro or Wyandot (all Iroquoian), Beothuk (isolate), Pentlach,
Tsetsaut (Salishan), and Nicola (Athabaskan). Of the mixed
languages, Cree-Assiniboine is extinct. All the other Indian
languages in Canada, a total of 104, are threatened to varying
degrees, with 19 of these moribund, and 28 seriously endangered.
Indian language families represented in Canada are the following
(quite a few of them also present in the United States): Beothuk
family-level Isolate, Algonquian f., Iroquoian f., Siouan f.,
Athabaskan (Na-Dene) f., Tlingit f.-Isolate, Kootenay f.-Isolate,
Salishan f., Wakashan f., Tsimshian f., and Haida f.-Isolate. The
reasons for the extinction and endangerment of the Indian
languages in Canada are the same as those given for Arctic North
America East and West, but it should be pointed out again that
attitudes and policies towards indigenous languages in Canada
changed from negative to positive a few years ago.
United States
Before the arrival of the Europeans, about 200 or more languages
are believed to have been spoken in what is now the United States,
but many more may have disappeared without a trace. Today less
than 150 remain, with all of them endangered to a varying extent,
and many of them moribund. Even languages with many thousands
of speakers, such as Navajo, have hardly any children speakers,
and it is believed that almost half the Navajos do not speak their
own language. As far as the family membership of Amerindian
languages in the United States is concerned, quite a few of the
families mentioned in the text of Canada extend into, or have their
largest part in, the United States, such as Algonquian f. (referred
to as Algic family when including the Ritwan languages in
California), Athabaskan f., Iroquoian f., Siouan f., Salishan f.,
Wakashan f. and so on. Other families in the United States are
Muskogean f., Caddoan f., Chimakuan f., Kiowa-Tanoan f., and
Uto-Aztecan f. Some are quite small; for instance the Chimakuan
family contains only two languages. There are also family-level
isolates, i.e. single languages constituting a family, for instance
Zukogean f., Caddoan f., Chimakuan f., Kiowa-Tanoan f., and UtoAztecan f. Some are quite small; for instance the Chimakuat of the
Rocky Mountains, there are many more.
Reasons for the endangerment and extinction of languages in the
United States are the same as those mentioned for Arctic North
America and Canada, except that for a long time, the treatment of
the Indians and their languages was much harsher in mainland
United States than in Canada and Alaska, leading to the extinction
of a larger number of languages there. Although some reversals of
negative attitudes and policies involving Indian languages were
observed in the 1970s in the United States, there was a backlash
of conservatism and a strengthening of the ‘English only’ policies
in the 1980s that exacerbated the situation of the ongoing extinction of Amerindian languages (Zepeda and Hill, 1991), and it is
still continuing unchecked.
Canadian and United States linguists, as well as linguists from
outside America (especially the Netherlands and Denmark), have
worked very hard to study the dying languages in Canada and the
United States, often with the last few speakers, but there are still
languages which have not been documented and are in urgent
need of study before they disappear completely.
Mexico
The history and situation of Amerindian languages in Mexico is
characterized by a particularly high level of extinction. It is not
known how many languages existed here in the sixteenth century
in the period before the conquest of what is now Mexico, and in
the area of the Mesoamerican culture which excludes a part of
northern Mexico and includes the areas of present-day Guatemala,
Belize and El Salvador, and parts of Honduras, Nicaragua and
Costa Rica in Central America. However, it is certain that the
conquest of much of Mexico by the Aztecs preceding the invasion
by the Spaniards, and the Spanish conquest itself, must have had
a catastrophic effect on the language situation. Considering that
between 1519 and 1605, the Indian population of Mexico dropped
from 25.3 million to 1 million (Garza Cuarón and Lastra, 1991), it
is clear that this must have meant the death of many languages.
Work by Lastra has produced a list of 54 extinct languages which
cannot as yet be classified. In addition, another 65 extinct
languages have been classified, giving a total of over 110 known
extinct languages. The extinction of languages continues today. At
least two languages, Chiapanec (a member of the large
Otomanguean stock) and Cuitlatec have become extinct in Mexico
since the middle of the twentieth century, along with Mangue in
Nicaragua, Honduras and Costa Rica, a relative of Chiapanec.
The slightly less than 100 living or recently extinct languages in
Mexico belong to 15 different groups. Some of them are very large,
with several subgroups and sections such as Uto-Aztecan to which
Nahuatl, the important language of the Aztec, belongs. Other very
large groups are the Otomanguean, to which the important Mixtec
and Zapotekan languages belong, and the Mayan, to which the
Yucatán Maya and many other languages belong. Other groups are
small to very small, some containing only one language each, such
as the Tarascan and Huave groups.
Quite a few Mexican languages are threatened, all because of
heavy pressure from other languages, mainly Spanish, which
accompanies oppressive domination of a speech community by
speakers of another language. At least 14 small languages are
known to be seriously endangered or moribund, and four or five
languages with substantial numbers of speakers are also in danger
of disappearing. Official attempts have been made to stem the tide
of disappearing languages.
Mexican linguists and others from the United States have carried
out studies on many Mexican languages, mainly large ones, and
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there is still an urgent need for work on endangered small
languages and those that are dying.
Central and South America
The linguistic situation here is similar to that in the rest of the
Americas. Many of the surviving languages have heavily reduced
numbers of speakers. Others, which have large numbers of
speakers, function well in some of their area, but are threatened in
others. Adverse economic and social conditions play a part in this,
as well as pressure from Portuguese, Spanish and some large
indigenous languages. In some areas local Indians have developed
a strong sense of local identity, which may contribute to the
preservation of their languages.
The two maps in this Atlas give a balanced sampling of the threatened and recently extinct languages in most of Central America,
and in South America. A large Atlas of these languages in South
America is in an advanced stage of preparation as these lines are
written (Wurm (ed.), Adelaar and Crevels, forthcoming).
South America is unusual in having a very large number of
language families and isolates (estimated to be just below 120),
and a relatively small number of languages (Adelaar, 1991). Many
former languages have disappeared with only their names
remaining, and whole populations were eliminated in eastern
Brazil, most of Argentina and in all of Uruguay. Epidemic diseases,
violent acts of the European colonizers, slavery expeditions in
Brazil, and racial and cultural intermixture favouring the European
element have greatly reduced the number of languages.
Until the 1970s, South American governments and societies were
indifferent or hostile to Indian languages in their countries. Only
since 1970 has there been a growing awareness at the national
levels of the importance of indigenous cultural and linguistic
heritage. In Peru and Bolivia the Indian languages were officially
recognized, bilingual education was attempted, and academic
interest and concern increased markedly.
Most of the languages still spoken today in South America, except
in remote parts of the Amazon region, have received some scientific attention. The Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL) has
carried out a series of studies of individual languages.
In Argentina, Indian languages survive today only in the northwest, north-east, south and south-west. There are none left in the
central areas. In the north-west, there are forms of the large
Quechua language, in the north-east other language families, and
in the south and south-west the Mapuches or Araucanians who
immigrated from Chile. There are a few seriously endangered or
moribund languages. Surviving languages number about 14.
In Bolivia, the Quechua and Aymara languages dominate the highlands. The situation in the lowlands is complicated, with a considerable number of isolates, and languages of other families, among
them the large Tupi-Guaraní family. Indian languages in Bolivia
number about 35.
Brazil has the largest number of surviving Indian languages, i.e.
about 170, with a total of about 155,000 speakers. Somewhat
more than this figure probably became extinct over the past five
centuries. The large groups of languages are the Tupi-Guaraní,
Macro-Jê, Carib and Arawak, plus nine other, smaller families. In
addition, there are ten language isolates.
Chile has one major language, Mapuche or Araucanian, with about
200,000–300,000 speakers. Aymara is spoken in the north, while
in the south some small languages survive, such as Alakaluf or
Qawesqar in the south-west and Yahgan on the islands south of
Tierra del Fuego. There are probably still six languages spoken in
Chile.
In Colombia, many languages have now disappeared, leaving
behind not much more than their names. Today the SIL is very
active in Columbia, and the University of Los Andes in Bogotá has
established a research institute and project for producing descriptions of all indigenous languages in Colombia. The Indians of the
Colombian Andes have strong feelings of ethnicity and support
language studies. In the south of Colombia, and in the forests
extending along its Pacific coast, there are quite a few Indian
languages. In the north, Chibchan languages prevail. These are
related to those in Panama, Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Quite a few
Indian languages are located in the eastern lowlands of Colombia.
The large Arawak family is represented, as are others. The
Columbian Amazon region shows a complex linguistic picture.
Many of the languages belong to the Tucanoan family. The total
number of languages in Colombia is around 65.
Ecuador has one of the highest percentages of Indian population
in South America. Most of these speak Quichua, a form of the large
Quechua language found in the Andean countries south of
Ecuador. It has expanded and replaced many local languages. In
eastern Ecuador, there are languages of several different families.
In the southern part, the languages of the Jivaroan family are
found. The number of Indian languages in Ecuador is 12.
French Guiana has six languages. They belong to the Cariban,
Arawakan and Tupian groups.
Guyana has ten living languages, belonging to the Arawakan and
Cariban groups.
In Paraguay, the Paraguayan Guaraní language is spoken by most
Paraguayans. In eastern Paraguay, all minority groups speak a
Tupi-Guaraní language or a dialect of Guaraní. In the Gran Chaco
region of Paraguay, there are four different language groups, and
also two Tupi-Guaraní languages. There are 14 Indian languages in
Paraguay.
Peru, like Bolivia and Ecuador, has an Indian population of several
million, mainly in the Andean highlands. The eastern lowlands of
Peru and the foothills have the largest tribal population of any
South American country (200,000–221,000). Quechua and Aymara
are the largest languages in the Andean highlands. Quechua
consists of two languages, central Peruvian and non-central
Peruvian; these are not simply dialects. The number of Quechua
speakers in Peru is about 4,400,000. The centre and south of the
Peruvian eastern lowland is inhabited mainly by speakers of the
Arawakan and Panoan language families. In the northern half of
the Peruvian lowland, there are several language isolates and
small families. Along the Colombian border, there are speakers of
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the Tucanoan and a few other language groups. The number of
Indian languages in Peru is between 50 and 60.
languages in Venezuela is 38. Many Central American languages
belong to the Chibchan group. There are several isolate languages.
In Surinam, the coastal languages are Arawakan or Cariban. In the
interior, the languages are Cariban. There are five Indian
languages in Surinam.
The original languages of the Caribbean Islands are now all
extinct.
In Venezuela, Indian languages have mainly been preserved in the
south, the Amacuro Delta of the Orinoco River, and in the area to
the west of Lake Maracaibo. In the south, there are Cariban
languages, and those of other groups. In the Amazonas area, four
languages of the Yamomami family are located. Several language
isolates are also found in the south. In the Amacuro Delta, there is
mainly a large isolate language. To the west of Lake Maracaibo,
there are Arawakan and Cariban languages. The number of Indian
The total number of surviving languages in South America is 375,
many of which are threatened, and a good proportion of them are
moribund.
As pointed out above, extensive studies have been made of South
American Indian languages by South American, American and
European (e.g. Dutch and French) linguists. However, much still
remains to be done, especially concerning moribund isolate
languages.
51
Select bibliography
ADELAAR, W. F. H. 1991. The Endangered Languages Problem: South
America. In: R. H. Robins and E. M. Uhlenbeck (eds.), Endangered
Languages, pp. 45–91. Oxford, Berg Publishers.
BRADLEY, D. (ed.). 2001. Language Endangerment and Language
Maintenance: An Active Approach. London, Curzon Press.
BRENZINGER, M. (ed.). 2001. Language Diversity Endangered. Berlin,
Mouton de Gruyter.
Comité International Permanent des Linguistes (CIPL), under
auspices of the Conseil International de la Philosophie et
Sciences Humaines (CIPSH). Linguistic Bibliography for
Year/Bibliographie linguistique de l’année. M. Janse and S.
(eds.). Martinus Nijhoff. (Annual publication.)
the
des
the
Tol
GARZA CUARÓN, B.; LASTRA, Y. 1991. Endangered Languages in Mexico.
In: R. H. Robins and E. M. Uhlenbeck (eds.), Endangered
Languages, pp. 93–134.
MATZUMURA, K. (ed.). 1998. Studies in Endangered Languages. Tokyo,
Hituzi Syobo. (ICHEL Linguistic Studies, Vol. 1.)
Materials on Languages in Danger of Disappearing in the Asia-Pacific
Region, 1. 1997. S. A. Wurm (ed.), Some Endangered Languages of
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Papua New Guinea: Kaki Ae, Musom, and Aribwatsa. Canberra.
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——. Atlas of Endangered Languages in the Greater Pacific
Area.(Forthcoming.)
MOSELEY, C. (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Endangered Languages of the
World. London, Curzon Press. (Forthcoming.)
WURM, S. A.; HATTORI, S. 1981-83. Language Atlas of the Pacific Area.
Canberra. Australian Academy of the Humanities in collaboration with the Japan Academy. (Also as Pacific Linguistics,
Series C-66, 67.)
ROBINS, R. H.; UHLENBECK, E. M. (eds.). 1991. Endangered Languages.
Oxford, Berg Publishers. (Diogenes Library, No. 1.)
SCHMIDT, A. 1990. The Loss of Australia’s Aboriginal Language
Heritage. Canberra, Aboriginal Studies Press.
SHOJI, H.; JANHUNEN, J. (eds.). 1997. Northern Minority Languages:
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WURM, S. A. 1997. Prospects of Language Preservation in the
North. In: H. Shoji and J. Janhunen (eds.), Northern Minority
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WURM, S. A.; MÜHLHÄUSLER, P.; TRYON, D. T. (eds.). 1996. Atlas of
Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and
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WURM, S. A. (ed.); ADELAAR, W.; CREVELS, M. Atlas of Endangered
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ZEPEDA, O.; HILL, J. H. 1991. The Condition of Native American Languages in the United States. In: R. H. Robin and E. M. Uhlenbeck
(eds.), Endangered Languages, pp. 135–55. Oxford, Berg
Publishers.
53
Symbols used on the maps to indicate
the degree of endangerment of language
Δ
°
•
⊕
+
Potentially endangered language: decreasing numbers
of children learn the language (green)
Endangered language: the youngest speakers are
young adults (red)
Seriously endangered language: the youngest speakers
have reached or passed middle age (red)
Moribund language: only a few elderly speakers are
left (blue)
Extinct language: no speakers are left (black)
Atlas of the
World’s Languages
in Danger
of Disappearing
54
Europe
Potentially endangered
language
Belorussian, Catalan, Tatar
Endangered language
It. Alpine Provençal,
Aragonese, Aromanian,
Asturian, Bashkir, Sp. Basque,
Campidanese, Chuvash,
Corsican, Eastern Mari,
Emilian, Erzya, Faetar,
It. Francoprovençal, Friulian,
Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic,
Galician, Gallurese,
Sp. Gascon, Kalmyk, Karelian,
Komi, Ladin, Ligurian,
Logudorese, Lombard, Low
Saxon, Lower Sorbian,
Moksha, Moldavian Gagauz,
Nogai, North Sámi,
Olonetsian, Permyak,
Piedmontese, Romagnol,
Romansch, Romani, Rusyn,
Sardinian, Sassarese, Scots,
Udmurt, Upper Sorbian,
Voivodena Rusyn, Walloon,
Welsh, Western Frisian
Seriously endangered
language
Fr. Alpine Provençal,
Auvergnat, Fr. Basque, Breton,
Channel Islands French,
Crimean Tatar, Cypriot Arabic,
Eastern Frisian,
Fr. Francoprovençal, Gagauz,
Gallo, Gardiol, Fr. Gascon,
Inari Sámi, Ingrian, Istriot,
Istroromanian, Lithuanian
Karaim, Kashubian,
Kildin Sámi, Languedocian,
Leonese, Limousin,
Ludian, Lule Sámi,
Meglenoromanian,
Norman, Northern Frisian,
Picard, Plautdeitsch,
Poitevin-Saintongeais,
Provençal, Skolt Sámi,
South Sámi, Tsakonian,
Vepsian, Western Mari,
Yiddish
Moribund language
Akkala Sámi, Livonian,
Pite Sámi, Ter Sámi,
Ume Sámi, Votian
Probably extinct language
Italkian,
Eastern Ukranian Karaim
Extinct language
Cornish, Dalmatian,
Gothic, Inorn,
Crimean (Uk.) Karaim,
Kemi Sámi, Manx, Mozarabic,
Old Prussian, Polabian,
Slovincian
(Not shown on map)
Endangerment status unclear
Dalecarlian, Extremaduran,
Latgalian, Scanian,
Vöru Estonian
Languages that are
varieties of larger,
non-endangered or
potentially endangered
languages
Albanian, Angloromani,
Croatian, Algherese Catalan,
Csángó Hungarian,
Oïl languages (Champenois,
Lorrain), Germanic-Italian
(Cimbrian, Mócheno, Walser),
Resian Slovene, Trukhmen
Extinct or nearly-extinct
Jewish languages
Krimchak, Shuadit, Yevancic,
Zarphatic
(For this area see inset)
¡N
60
20¡
0¡
UME SçMI
INSET
(same scale)
NORTH
SçMI
INARI
SçMI
KEMI SçMI
20¡
LULE SçMI
PITE SçMI
ICELAND
FINLAND
SCOTTISH
GAELIC
NORN
St. Petersberg
Helsinki
SWEDEN
Oslo
Stockholm
INGRIAN
VOTIAN
Tallinn
BALTIC
ESTONIA
UDMURT
EASTERN MARI
WESTERN MARI
CHUVASH
Moscow
SEA
LIVONIAN
HEBRIDES
ATLANTIC
SCOTS
OCEAN
SEA
¡N
50
NORTHERN
FRISIAN
WESTERN
FRISIAN
MANX
WELSH
CORNISH
London
POLABIAN
LOW Berlin
SAXON
ei
GERMANY
n
FRANCE
Rh
Brussels
EASTERN
FRISIAN
CHANNEL
BELGIUM
ISLANDS
PICARD
FRENCH
WALLOON
NORMAN
Paris
BRETON
GALLO
BASHKIR
ERZYA
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
LITHUANIA
KARAIM
BELARUS
OLD PRUSSIAN
KASHUBIAN
BELORUSSIAN
SLOVINCIAN
Gdansk
NETHERL.
D. Haag
THE
KALININGRAD
Copenhagen ENCLAVE
(RUS. FED.)
TATAR
Volga
Dublin
Vilnius
DENMARK
UNITED
KINGDOM
IRELAND
IRISH GAELIC
MOKSHA
Riga
LATVIA
NORTH
LOWER SORBIAN
UPPER SORBIAN
Prague
CZECH REP.
KARAIM
Vienna
AUSTRIA
RUSYN
SLOVAKIA
PLAUTDEITSCH
Kiev
Dne
pr
REP.of
MOLDOVA
Chisinau
KARAIM
GAGAUZ
Budapest
CRIMEAN TATAR
NOGAI
GOTHIC
NOGAI
ROMANIA
IAN HUNGARY
POITEVINDIN RIUL
SAINTONGEAIS FRANCOPROVEN‚AL SWITZ.
ROMANI
KALMYK
LA FSLOVENIALjub.
VOIVODENA RUSYN
BLACK SEA
NOGAI
Zagreb
ne
LIMOUSIN
LOMBARD
Bucharest e
CROATIA
AUVERGNAT
ub
ISTRIOT ISTROROMANIAN
Dan
PIEDMONTESE EMILIAN
GAGAUZ
a
r
g
BOSNIA &
l
Be
N
LANGUEDOCIAN
HERZEGOVINA
GAGAUZ
40¡
DALMATIAN
GALICIAN
ALPINE
BULGARIA
Sarajevo
LIGURIAN
PROVEN‚AL
Sofia
ASTURIAN
O
ROMAGNOL
GAGAUZ
G
PROVEN‚AL
BASQUE
Istanbul
GASCON
LEONESE
YU
Ankara
ITALY
Skopje GAGAUZ
LADINO
CORSICAN
Rome
ARAGONESE
PORTUGAL
CORSICA
TURKEY
Tirane
Europe
MEGLENOROMANIAN
Madrid
FAETAR ALBANIA
GALLURESE
CATALAN
Tapani Salminen,
Lisbon
SASSARESE
AROMANIAN
SPAIN
GREECE
SARDINIAN
co-ordinator
LOGUDORESE
ITALKIAN
SYRIA
Athens
CAMPIDANESE
CYPRIOT ARABIC
MOZARABIC
GARDIOL
400
200
TSAKONIAN
Nicosia
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
SL
AV
¡N
de
IA
Rh
o
H
40
20
¡
*
0
¡N
50
UKRAINE
Bratislava
ROMAN
SC
Bern
YIDDISH
POLAND
Warshaw
55
PERMYAK
OLONETSIAN
VEPSIAN
NORWAY
SHETLAND
¡N
60
KOMI
KARELIAN
LUDIAN
SOUTH SçMI
KILDIN
SçMI TER
SçMI
SKOLT
SçMI
AKKALA
SçMI
40¡
SICILY
kilometres
0¡
LEBANON
20¡
*
Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
56
Siberia
Potentially endangered
language
Dolgan, Eastern Buryat, Yakut
Endangered language
Khakas, Siberian Tatar,
Tundra Nenets, Mongol
[south-western Khamnigan]
Seriously endangered
language
Altai, Alyutor, Chuckchee
Proper, Ewen, Ewenki, Forest
Nenets, Hokkaido Ainu,
Kamchatka Ewen, Ket,
Khanty, Koryak, Nanay,
Nganasan, Sakhalin Evenki,
Sakhalin Nivkh, Selkup, Shor,
Teleut, Tundra Nenets,
Western Buryat
Moribund language
Amur Nivkh, Chulym, Forest
Enets, Forest Yukagir, Hejen,
Hokkaido Ainu, Itelmen
Proper, Kerek, Khamnigan
Mongol, Khanty, Mansi,
Negidal, Oroch, Orok, Selkup,
Tofa, Tundra Enets, Tundra
Yukagir, Udege, Ulcha, Yug
Extinct language
Arman, Chuvan, Eastern
Kamchadal, Kamas,
Khamnigan Mongol, Kott, Kuril
Ainu, Mator, Sakhalin Ainu,
Southern Kamchadal, Tundra
Nenets, Yurats
Siberia
St. Lawrence I.
Wrangel I.
Juha Janhunen, co-ordinator
600
300
kilometres
EAST SIBERIAN
C
0
Ra
h
o
uk
SEA
ki
y
CHUCKCHEE
PROPER
Severnaya Zemlya
Nizhnekolymsk
Kotel'nyy I.
LAPTEV SEA
mo
O
In d i
lon
Plain
EWEN
ge
k
Kol y
a
Yamal
er
K
FOREST
YUKAGIR
R
an
Magadan
ge
ARMAN
V
er
Tura
Olekminsk
YUG
Narym
SIBERIAN
TATAR
Yakutsk
Plateau
R U S S I A N
F E D E R A T I O N
Oi
ek
y
an
Semipalatinsk
Sa
Lake
Baykal
Am
Y
l
ab
on
y
ov
y
Chita
A r gun
WESTERN
BURYAT
Irkutsk EASTERN
BURYAT
Petropavlovsk
Kamchatskiy
Okhotsk
SEA OF OKHOTSK
Nikolayevsk
-na-Amure
SAKHALIN NIVKH
SAKHALIN EVENKI
OROK
Aleksandrovsk-Sakhalinskiy
Sakhalin
E W E N K I
m
i
sh
TELEUT
ara
Ang
I rty
SHOR
Biysk
KAMAS
Minusinsk TOFA
KHAKAS E a s t e r n
ALTAI
MATOR
Kirensk
Bratsk
Krasnoyarsk
ITELMEN Peninsula
PROPER
KAMCHATKA EWEN
ma
KOTT
V it
Tomsk
Omsk
CHULYM
EASTERN KAMCHADAL
SOUTHERN
Ust'-Bol'sheretsk KAMCHADAL
AMUR NIVKH
ULCHA
NEGIDAL
Vitim
Yeniseysk
Nizhnekamchatsk
ugdzh
a
Dzh
SELKUP
usk
Y A K U T
e
Tobol'sk
. T
u ng
Siberian
ge
ng
Ob
'
KET
Central
Ran
ur Range
V
ey
n is
Ni z h
k
na
Ra
KHANTY
Plain
Ye
Surgut
Le
uy
ily
ans
Zey
a
ur
Blagoveshchensk
C H I N A
KHAMNIGAN MONGOL
Burey
a
az
Siberian
EWENKI
Turukhansk
T
oy
an
MANSI
FOREST NENETS
A ld
West
kh
Bering I.
Kamchatka
iy
Verkhoyansk
Olenek
ALYUTOR
sk
DOLGAN
a
Khatanga
Verkhnekolymsk
Zashiversk
Ch
Plain
y
otu
Dudinka
Siberian
O le n e k
TUNDRA NENETS
TUNDRA ENETS
YURATS
Salekhard
FOREST ENETS
North
Y an
NGANASAN
Kolyma
ma
Ran
gir
Kolyma
KEREK
KORYAK
TUNDRA
YUKAGIR
KARA SEA
Peninsula
BERING SEA
Anadyr
CHUVAN
BARENTS SEA
Novaya Zemlya
ts
nge
NANAY
KURIL
AINU
Islands
SAKHALIN
AINU
OROCH
Khabarovsk
HEJEN
Kuril
UDEGE
Hokkaido
Sapporo
HOKKAIDO AINU
JAPAN
57
58
North-east China
Potentially endangered
language
Dagur (Hailar), Eastern
Chinese Buryat or Buriat,
western Solon
Endangered language
Dagur (Nonni), Dagur
(Qiqihar), Khamnigan Ewenki,
Khamnigan Mongol
Seriously endangered
language
New Bargut, Ewenki Proper,
eastern Solon, Old Bargut
Moribund language
Dagur (Amur), Manchu,
Manchu (Amur), Manchurian
Kirghiz (Fu Yü), Manchurian
Ölöt, Orochen, Orochen
Extinct language
Manchu, Udege (Qiakala)
<> =
43*(5!
Ze
Sea of Okhotsk
ja
3&&*!
EWENKI PROPER
Sakhalin
He
OROCHEN
B ur
Hokkaido
Hulun Nur
()
NEW BARGUT
Yellow
Sea
SOLON
tze
!*
g
an
DAGUR (Hailar)
EASTERN BURIAT
IN CHINA
OROCHEN
Buir Nur
1
MANCHURIAN
…L…T
!*
,*5
28838
DAGUR
(Qiqihar)
M
$
ng
-
? =
.
%
Xingkai
Hu
UDEGE (Qiakala)
Luzon
*
( !
*5*
&
!*
2,22!&
South
China
Sea
#
/0
(
Mindanao
+
,)
&'
*,*+&*
Lu
a
! 5 ! & *
INDIAN OCEAN
Timor
!"
g
*
He
=
Irian
Jaya
MANCHU
+
<> =
SEA
OF
JAPAN
an
n
Sulawesi
Java
&)
He
Borneo
(
Ji
&'
Sumatra
Liao
,'
ng
eko
(*,*!
/
&
#
PACIFIC OCEAN
A m ur
+#
-$
iang
n J
Ne
+*!*3
MANCHU
OROCHEN
MANCHU
MANCHURIAN
KIRGHIZ (FU Y†)
? =
%0
DAGUR (Nonni)
5!"5,*
(*9*! :!*;
DAGUR
(Amur)
43*(5!
l i J i a ng
o
H
ng
H ua
3'8 6
53*
SOLON
e
n H
&
*2*!
KHAMNIGAN EWENKI
OLD BARGUT
KHAMNIGAN
MONGOL
N u o mi
Sea
of
Japan
2))
eja
Wu su
MANCHU
(Amur)
Ji a
8
2'1 6
3'%# 53*
@ =
3&&*!
hua
43*(5!
5!"5,*
Juha Janhunen, co-ordinator
n
@ =
Y
59
ur
Erg
u
A
m
< =
North-east China
Amur
Kamchatka
Peninsula
Song
3&&*!
Ya
lu
=
#
#6
2'7 6
3'%# 53*
< =
60
Himalayan Chain
Potentially endangered
language
Ahom, Chantel,
Chaudangsi/Byangsi, Darmiya,
Lumba, Rohani
Endangered language
Dhimal, Dumi, Dura, Lepcha,
Tilung, Toto
Seriously endangered
language
Chintang, Hayu
Moribund language
Bungla, Rangkhas, Saam
Extinct language
Bhramu, Tolcha
80¡
82¡
84¡
86¡
88¡
90¡
61
Himalayan Chain
30¡
DARMIYA
RANGKHAS
David Bradley,
co-ordinator
C H I N A
CHAUDANGSI /
BYANGSI
0
30¡
400
200
kilometres
TOLCHA
B ra hm aputra
N
I N D I A
ka
au
Ch
28¡
ROHANI
E
80¡
28¡
BHRAMU
P
82¡
PAKISTAN
DURA
Pokhara
Rapti
Kathmandu
HAYU
A
84¡
DUMI
TILUNG
CHINA
Kathmandu
BHUTAN
Calcutta
VI
MYANMAR
Bombay
LAO
P.D.R.
Rangoon
ET
NA
LEPCHA
TOTO
DHIMAL
si
Ko
INDIA
k
AHOM
BANGLADESH
Karachi
B H U T A N
CHINTANG
a
PAL
nd
Delhi
Ga
NE
Thimbu
BUNGLA
SAAM
LUMBA
L
26¡
26¡
M
Ganges
THAILAND
Patna
Ga
ng
es
Bangkok
Brahmapu
tra
CHANTEL
Ga
ng
es
So
Phnom
Penh
n
B A N G L A D E S H
Bay of Bengal
Indian
Ocean
0
I N D I A
Colombo
1000
kilometres
24¡
24¡
86¡
88¡
90¡
Dhaka
62
South East Asia
Potentially endangered
language
Arem, Bana, Bit, Chawte,
Gazhuo, Hung, Kathu, Lachi,
Laha, Lalo, Lamgang,
Langrong, Lavua, Mang, May,
Mayol, Mlabri, Mpi, Pakatan,
Phonsung, Ruc, Sach, Sak,
Sila, Tanglang, Tha Vung,
Zaozou
Endangered language
Bisu, Lai, Pupeo, Laomian,
Kadu, Ganan, Taman, Aiton,
Phake
Seriously endangered
language
Gelao, Ayizi, Samei, Samatau,
Sanyi, Idu, Khamyang, Lamu
Moribund language
Danan, Hpun, Phalok,
Purum
Extinct language
Kolhreng, Sengmai/Sekmai,
Andro/Phayeng, Tarao,
Chairel/Chakpa, Aimol, Pyu,
Malin, Ahom
ra
Dibrugarh
ut
Jorhat
AITON
TANGLANG
4100
Sarameti
3826
Kohima
nca
3014
3404
Tengchong
HPUN
Bhamo
Yongren
GAZHUO
n
Lincang
bia
LAOMIAN
C H I N A
Yu
Ch
ind
win
M Y A N M A R
ui
from Guizhou
KATHU
Bose
Kaiyuan
an
Wenshan
Gejiu
Ho
Lai Chau
Pingxiang
ng
H
a
migrated
(1850s?)
GELAO
Lao Cai
MANG
SILA
Mengla
Phong Sali
Na
m
LAHA
Son
Son La
Dien Bien Phu
gD
V I E T
a
HANOI
Hai Phong
u
BIT
Taunggyi
N A M
Viet Tri
O
Nansang
Xam Nua
BANA
Nam Dinh
Houayxay
Yenangyaung
Irra
Loikaw
Salw
ee
Thanh Hoa
n
waddy
BISU
Mae Hong Son
Toungoo
DANAN
Louangphabang
Chiang Rai
Pyinmana
Prome
gsh
LAI
a
np
LACHI
( B U R M A )
Bay
of
Bengal
on
Ha Giang
Lancang
Mandalay
PYU
H
PUPEO
Myingyan
Sittwe
200
100
kilometres
Xingyi
Simao
PURUM
Meiktila
0
Kunming
SAMEI
SANYI
SAMATAU
Dian Chi
AYIZI
Fuxian Hu
n
Chuxiong
Nanjian
Kunlong
Chauk
David Bradley, co-ordinator
Dongchuan
LAMU
Longchuan
2359
Monywa
e
Yuxi
Inywa
Kalewa
gtz
Dali
LALO
Baoshan
n
Ya
Ba
Pinlebu
ng
Myitkyina
CHAIREL / CHAKPA
TAMAN
ANDRO / PHAYENG
MALIN
Imphal
Silchar
AIMOL
SENGMAI / SEKMAI
PURUM
LANGRONG
GANAN
TARAO
MAYOL
KOLHRENG
KADU
LAMGANG CHAWTE
SAK
Er Hai
La
Japvo
ZAOZOU
Guiyang
Anshun
South East Asia
Dukou
Bijiang
Makaw
Lumding
I N D I A
Liupanshui
KHAMYANG
Na
Tezpur
a
hm
Nu
Br
63
Jaipur
ap
AHOM
Zhaotong
PHAKE
PHALOK
T H A I L A N D
Chiang Mai
LAVUA
L A O People's Dem. Rep.
MLABRI
Lampang
Gulf
of
Tonkin
Xiang Khoang
MPI
Phrae
Mekong
VIENTIANE
IDU
HUNG
THA VUNG
Vinh
AREM
MAY
RUC
SACH
PAKATAN
PHONSUNG
120oE
164¡E
INSET A
INSET B
TAIWAN
NEW CALEDONIA
Niihau
20¡S
Loya
lt y
Honolulu
20¡S
Lanai
0
20¡N
I sl
Molokai
Maui
10¡S
Pagan
158¡W
Torres Is
14oS
ds
0
ARCHIPELAGO
100
Papeete
Mindoro
Isle of
Pines
kilometres
166¡E
Efate
Mangareva I
Port Vila
18oS
Negros
0
500
Ngalik
150¡W
0
140¡W
140oE
Sabah
167oE
Sulawesi
Kalimantan
INSET E
Mapia
NEW ZEALAND
Admiral
ty
Biak
Salawati
Bangka
Buru
0¡
I sl a
nd
Nauru
Mussau
Tench
s
PAPUA
NEW
GUINEA
Irian
Seram
INDONESIA
Jakarta
Enggano
40S¡
New Ireland
0
Kisar
SOLOMON IS
( see inset G)
Port
Moresby
Timor
Santa Cruz Is
(see inset F)
120oE
Santa Isabel
8¡S
VANUATU
(see inset D)
162¡E
New Georgia
Islands
INSET G
0
50
156¡E
158¡E
160¡E
10¡S
San
Cristobal
Stephen A. Wurm, co-ordinator
140oE
INSET F
Maramasike
kilometres
Pacific, General Overview
168¡E
Ndende
Guadalcanal
100
Reef Is.
Honiara
SOLOMON ISLANDS
10¡S
Duff Is.
10¡S
Malaita
Russell Is.
180¡
Bougainville
Jaya
Choiseul
500
kilometres
New Britain
8¡S
20¡S
169oE
160oE
Halmahera
Sumatra
50 100
kilometres
20¡S
Sarawak
0¡
18oS
Erromango
kilometres
BRUNEI
16oS
20¡S
Rapa
MALAYSIA
Pentecost
Malekula
AUSTRALS
168¡E
Espiritu
Santo
16oS
20¡S
Palawan
164¡E
Tahiti
COOK IS
22¡S
50
14oS
Gaua
SOCIETY IS
PHILIPPINES
Manila
Noumea
Ureparapara
Guam
Luzon
SEA
VANUATU
10¡S
TUAMOTU
CORAL
22¡S
INSET D
Saipan
Hawaii
65
169oE
167oE
Marquesas
MARIANA
IS
Penrhyn
50
kilometres
an
FRENCH POLYNESIA
Kauai
Oahu
20¡N
Wala
140¡W
INSET C
HAWAII
SANTA CRUZ ISLANDS
Utupua
Vanikoro
0
50
kilometres
12¡S
166¡E
168¡E
100
20¡S
Anuta
Each symbol indicates one or several
languages at the same level of endangerment.
Easter I
Fataka
170¡E
27¡10' S
109¡20' W
0
1000
500
kilometres
160oE
20¡S
NEW
CALEDONIA
(see inset A)
66
Australia
Potentially endangered
language
Anindilyakwa, Arrente,
Dhangu Dialects, Djinang,
Gunwinggu, Gupapuyngu,
Gurindji, Iwaidja, Kala Lagaw
Ya, Kuku Yalanji, Maung,
Meriam Mir, Ngankikurungkurr,
Ngarinman, Nunggubuyu,
Nyangumarta, Ritarungo, Tiwi,
Warlpiri, Western Desert, E.,
Western Desert, W., Wik
Mungkan
Endangered language
Adnyamathanha, Baadi,
Bunaba, Garawa, Guguyimidjir,
Kitja, Kuuku Ya'u, Marithiel,
Nakara, Narluma, Ngarinman,
Ngarinyin, Nyamal,
Rembarrunga, Walmajarri,
Wardaman, Warumungu, Wik
Ngathana, Yanyuwa, Yeidji
Seriously endangered
language
Alawa, Antakarinya, Boodi,
Bunaba, Djamindjung,
Gugubera, Gunian, Guragone,
Jawony, Kunbarlang, Kunjen,
Kurrama, Mangarayi,
Maringarr, Miriwoong,
Mudbura, Ngalkbun, Nyamal,
Nyigina, Panytyima, Umpila,
Wageman, Wanman,
Wardaman, Watjarri, Wik
Ngenchera, Worrorra, Yeidji,
Yir Yoront
Moribund language
Antakarinya, Badala,
Banjalang, Dhargari, Djingili,
Duungidjawu, Dyirbal,
Gadjerawang, Gagadu,
Gangalida (Yukulta),
Guragone, Gurdjar, Karajarri,
Kayardild, Lardil, Madngele,
Mangarla, Maridjabin, Marrgu,
Miriwoong, Mullukmulluk,
Ngalakan, Ngaliwuru, Ngandi,
Ngardi, Ngarla, Ngarla,
Waanyi, Wambaya,
Wangaaybuwan-Nyiya,
Wiradhuri, Wunambal
79 89
17
13
87
83 29
Australia
4
7
41
1 WALMAJARRI
Darwin
81
2 GUGUYIMIDJIR
68 80 22
Updated
and enlarged from
67 15 19
3 NUNGGUBUYU
6 62
27
Annette
Schmidt, 1990,
90
4 DHANGU Dialects
45
86
43
Gulf of
5 KITJA
Katherine
3
with
corrections
and additions
21
82 Carpentaria
24 28 69
63
6 RITARUNGO
compiled
by
53
16
Wyndham
46
2
7 DJINANG
14
60 44
36
Stephen A. Wurm
8 GURINDJI
58 35
39
23
47
9 GARAWA
50
88
32
57
12
65
10 WAMBAYA
37
31
26
38
11 WARUMUNGU
18
Indian Ocean
d
40
Cairns
10 9 91
Fi
Or
61
12 BAADI
Coral Sea
tzr
49
30
oy
8
13 MERIAM MIR
Broome
51
92
Halls
11 Tennant Creek
14 WIK NGATHANA
48
Townsville
15 JAWONY
5 Creek
16 NGALKBUN
56
NORTHERN
TERRITORY
17 IWAIDJA
1
Port Hedland
18 NGARINMAN
76
64
84
Mount Isa
52
Hughenden
19 REMBARRUNGA
66
20 NARLUMA
25
20
21 WIK NGENCHERA
59
22 KUNBARLANG
42
75
Alice Springs
23 NGALIWURU
As
34
h bu
Longreach
24 MARIDJABIN
rton 70
Rockhampton
25 GUNIAN
Emerald
77
71
26 NGARINYIN
nk
e
78
D
27 UMPILA
QUEENSLAND
85
Gascoyne
Bundaberg
28 NGANKIKURUNGKURR Carnarvon
Birdsville
72
29 NAKARA
93
Charleville
94
Roma
30 BUNABA
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Oodnadatta
31 KAYARDILD
o
32 YANYUWA
Brisbane
Co
33
33 WATJARRI
SOUTH
AUSTRALIA
34 PANYTYIMA
35 YEIDJI
54
Bourke
Geraldton
Moree 55
36 GUGUBERA
37 KUNJEN
Kalgoorlie
Grafton
38 YIR YORONT
ng
r li
39 LARDIL
a
73
D
Ceduna
Port Macquarie
40 MUDBURA
Dubbo
41 KUUKU YA'U
Whyalla
Perth
Taree
NEW
SOUTH
WALES
42 KURRAMA
Bathurst
Lac
Newcastle
43 MARITHIEL
Adelaide
Griffith hlan
44 MARINGARR
Esperance
Port
Lincoln
Sydney
45 WAGEMAN
74
Goulburn
46 MANGARAYI
Wagga
Albany
ay
Wagga
Canberra
47 WARDAMAN
48 NYIGINA
Echuca Albury
49 DYIRBAL
VICTORIA
50 ALAWA
Melbourne
51 WAANYI
84 NYANGUMARTA
73 WANGAAYBUWAN-NYIYA
62 GURAGONE
52 NGARDI
85 WESTERN DESERT, W.
74 WIRADHURI
63 NGALAKAN
53 DJAMINDJUNG
86 WIK MUNGKAN
75 WANMAN
64 MANGARLA
Tasman Sea
54 ADNYAMATHANHA
87 KALA LAGAW YA
76 WARLPIRI
65 MIRIWOONG
55 BANJALANG
88 KUKU YALANJI
77 ARRENTE
66 NGARLA
56 KARAJARRI
89 MARRGU
78 WESTERN DESERT, E.
67 MADNGELE
57 WORRORRA
90 NGANDI
79 TIWI
68 GAGADU
58 WUNAMBAL
91 GANGALIDA (YUKULTA)
80 GUNWINGGU
69 MULLUKMULLUK
Launceston
59 NYAMAL
92 GURDJAR
81 GUPAPUYNGU
70 NGARLA
TASMANIA
60 GADJERAWANG
93 DUUNGIDJAWU
82 ANINDILYAKWA
71 DHARGARI
Hobart
61 DJINGILI
94 BADALA
83 MAUNG
72 ANTAKARINYA
Warreg
o
ia
Fi
ma
n ti
na
1000
r
500
kilometres
pe
0
67
Mu
rr
68
Africa
Endangered language
Ahlo, Alagwa, Amba, Baga,
Baga Fore, Baiso, Binari,
Bondei, Boni, Bowili,
Burunge, Dahalo, Dimme, El
Hugeirat, Gana, Ganjule,
Gats'ame, Hadza, Haro,
Kamdang, Karko, Kumam,
Kupto, Laro, Logba, Nayi
(Na'o), Ndungo, Nyango-Tafi,
Obulom, Pajade (Badiar),
Phuthi, Poko, Rugungu,
Santrokofi, Sarwa, So, Suba,
Viri, Yahuma, Zaramo, Zay
(Zway)
Seriously endangered
language
Aceron (Guärme), Animere,
Aougila, Arzew, B. Snous,
Birri, Bongo, Bong'om, Buga,
Dahlik, Defaka, Deleny
(Dilling), Dongo-Ko, Duli,
Ebang, Eliri, Fyam, Homa,
Ilue, Jala, Jeri, Ju, Kamdang,
Kanga, Katcha, Kazibati,
Keiga, Kidie Lafafa, Kiong,
Kotoko De Koosseri, Kubi,
Kufa, Kwegu-Mugudi, Lere
Cluster (Gana, Simiri, Takaya),
Lumun/Lomon, Luri, Maslam
(Maltam), Mbara, Mmani
(Bul(l)on), Muuke, Nagumi,
Nalu, Ngbinda, Ngwaba,
Njerep, Okorogbana, 'Ongota
(Birale), Pana, Qemant,
Shabo, Shiki, Siwa, Somyer,
Tenet, Terik, Thuri, Twendi
(Cambap)
Moribund language
Akei, Argobba, Bati, Baldamu,
Beeke, Bete, Birgid, Bubbure,
Buy, Camo, Deti, Fali of
Baissa, Fam, Fumu, Gri, Gule,
Gweno, Holma, I'anni, Kaande,
+Khomani, Korana, Kudu,
Kwadi, Kwisi, Li-Ngbee,
Mbaru, Ndai, Nyang'i, Odut,
Omo Murle, Omotik, Ongamo,
!Ora, Shan, Sheni, Sogoo,
Undu Rishi, Yangkam, Ziriya
Extinct language
Aasax, Ajawa, Anfillo,
Anyokawa, Baga Tsitemu,
Basa-Gumna, Basa-Kontagora,
Boro, Bung, Cena, Coptic,
Elmolo, Gafat, Gey, Guanchen,
Gwara, Hamba, Iing, Iixegwi,
Isuwu, Ixam, Jebel Haraza,
Kalum (ex) Sorbane?, Kasabe
(Luo), Kinare, Kore, Kw'adza,
Kwankwa, Lorkoti, Mindari
(dialect of Timme), Mo'e,
Napore, Ngong, Njanga,
Oropom, Qwarenya (emigration to Israel in 1991), Ruhu,
Segeju, Shiranci, Tonjon
(dialect of Jeri), Yaaku,
Zumaya
Endangered (excluding potentially endangered)
and extinct languages of Africa
!" #$%&!%'$#( )*+*#,!%*#
5
6
8
90
(see inset)
91
121
ERITREA
122
61
7
92
DJIBOUTI
13 123
125
10
62
93 94 95 96
9
ARGOBBA
24
16
113
97
ANFILLO
124
11 12
98 99
25
17
14
126 128
SHABO
102
100
84
103
130
15
21 23 NAYI (NA'O)
18
101
127
129 106
22
DIMME
19
104 105 108
133 134 131
ZAY (ZWAY)
20
107109 110 112
BAISO
135 132
111
GANJULE,
85
118
88 115
GATS'AME, HARO
136
119
116
KWEGU-MUGUDI
87 89
120 82
117
'ONGOTA (BIRALE)
140
138
83 141
OMO MURLE
86
139
142
ELMOLO
114
137
BONG'OM
146
147
RWANDA
143
145
TERIK
153
KINARE
148 150 144
SOUTH
BURUNDI
LORKOTI
154
149
YAAKU
ATLANTIC
151 152
155
BONI
KORE
OCEAN
156
157
INDIAN
DAHALO
UNITED 158
SOGOO
REPUBLIC OF
OCEAN
OMOTIK
TANZANIA
159
SUBA
ONGAMO
AASAX
GWENO
61
27
26
BONDEI
63
162
60
160
30 31
SEGEJU
28 29
163
64
59
HADZA
62
33
65
58
34
ALAGWA
32
66
161
BURUNGE
35 36
37 38
KW'ADZA
164
165
42
68
AKEI
39
67
41
43 40
ZARAMO
57
69
46
HAMBA
70
44
KWADI
45 55
72
56
KWISI
54
73 71
NDUNGO
169
76
166
YAHUMA
74
KWANKWA
53
75
52
DETI
168
47
167
78
77
I'ANNI
170
51
CAMEROON
INSET
+KHOMANI
48
80
KORANA, !ORA, GRI
79
0
1000
200
50
0
49
IIXEGWI
PHUTHI
171
kilometres
172
81
kilometres
IING
IXAM
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
4
3
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
SARWA
MBARA
KOTOKO DE KOOSSERI
MASLAM (MALTAM)
ZUMAYA
MUUKE
BALDAMU
MO'E
GEY
DULI
NDAI
NGONG
KASABE (LUO)
BUNG
NJEREP
NJANGA
TWENDI (CAMBAP)
125
NAGUMI
126
BATI
127
ISUWU
128
POKO
129
KAANDE
130
FUMU
131
VIRI
132
NGBINDA
BEEKE
133
KAZIBATI
134
LI-NGBEE
135
DONGO-KO
136
JEBEL HARAZA
137
BIRGID
138
EL HUGEIRAT
139
DELENY (DILLING)
140
EBANG
141
KARKO
142
KIDIE LAFAFA
143
KATCHA
144
LARO
145
KANGA
146
BUGA
147
KEIGA
ACERON (GU€RME) 148
149
KUFA
150
MIRI
151
KAMDANG
152
LUMUN / LOMON
153
HOMA
154
BIRRI
155
THURI
156
ELIRI
157
BONGO
158
TENET
159
GULE
160
AMBA
161
NYANG'I
162
RUGUNGU
163
KUMAM
164
NAPORE
165
SO
166
OROPOM
167
DAHLIK
168
QEMANT
169
GAFAT
170
QWARENYA
171
(emigration to
172
Israel in 1991)
12
13
14
15
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
2
11
ARZEW
B.SNOUS
GUANCHEN
AOUGILA
SIWA
COPTIC
BUY
PAJADE (BADIAR)
NALU
BAGA FORE, BAGA,
BINARI
BAGA TSITEMU,
KALUM (ex)
SORBANE?, MINDARI
(dialect of TIMME)
MMANI (BUL(L)ON)
PANA
JERI
TONJON
(dialect of JERI)
BORO
ANIMERE
BOWILI
SANTROKOFI
NYANGO-TAFI
AHLO
LOGBA
BASA-GUMNA
ANYOKAWA
BASA-KONTAGORA
SHIRANCI
AJAWA
ZIRIYA
GANA
UNDU RISHI
SHIKI
KUDU
CAMO
SHENI
MBARU
KUBI
JU
SHAN
RUHU
BUBBURE
JALA
NGWABA
LERE CLUSTER
SI, GANA, TAKAYA
FYAM
YANGKAM
LURI
OBULOM
DEFAKA
ILUE
KIONG
ODUT
OKOROGBANA
FALI OF BAISSA
BETE
FAM
SOMYER
HOLMA
KUPTO
GWARA
CENA
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
69
1
70
East Africa
Potentially endangered
language
Alagwa, Bondei, Boni,
Burunge, Kumam, Zaramo
Endangered language
Amba, Burji, Dahalo, Hadza,
Omo-Murle, Rugungu, Tenet
Seriously endangered
language
Bong'om, Kwegu, Omo-Murle,
So, Suba, Terik
Moribund language
Akie, Gweno, Nyang'i,
Ongamo, Sogoo, Suba
Extinct language
Aasax, Elmolo, Hamba, Kinare,
Kore, Kw'adza, Lorkoti,
Napore, Omotik, Oropom,
Segeju, Suba, Yaaku
% ' #
KWEGU
?
OMO-MURLE
#
L. Chew Bahir
'"+)( + .
)"*% +
, (/"
+#&
3
% & # ' AMBA
Mt Stanley
5120
L. Edward
BONG'OM
TERIK
!6
#33
KINARE
#1
DAHALO
5
%)%#'
ONGAMO
3
KORE
3
Me
dite
1
,) +
SEGEJU
'
' L. Rukwn
-1
g
%# ("' )"*% + ,
( # - #
Ru
ah
1
- +( #
"( ,) + *
Atlantic
Ocean
b
Z am e s i
'&+
14
L. Mweru
o
ZARAMO
a
L. Nane
an Sea
Con
L. Tanganyika
rrane
r
KW'ADZA
!1
ge
(1
Ni
GWENO
HADZA
ALAGWA AASAX
BONDEI
BURUNGE
AKIE
(
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%88
Kilimanjaro
5895
BONI
)0#'
L. Manyara
East Africa
&
SOGOO
OMOTIK ?
4
Ocean
3
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SUBA
Victoria
LORKOTI
YAAKU
!33
38313
11
i
! " # $ !
Mt Elgon
4321
!
L. Kivu
373
el
Indian
BURJI
1
OROPOM
Lake
13
ib
ELMOLO
SO
RUGUNGU
KUMAM
L. Albert
Sh
Lake
Turkana
NYANG'I
a
le
*
ub
Ni
TENET
NAPORE
" ( /
#
Gi
231
71
L. Abaya
Nile
5
L. Nyasa
HAMBA
72
Arctic North America East
Potentially endangered
language
Arctic Quebec Inuit, Baffin
Land Inuit, Caribou Eskimos,
East Greenlanders
(2 locations), Iglulik Eskimos,
Netsilik Eskimos, Polar
Eskimos, West Greelanders
Endangered language
Copper Eskimos, East
Greenlanders, Labrador Inuit,
Mackenzie Delta Eskimos,
Netsilik Eskimos, Polar
Eskimos
Seriously endangered
language
Mac. Delta Eskimos
Extinct language
Eskimo – Danish Pidgin,
Eskimo Pidgin used by the
Netsilik Eskimos, Eskimo-Cree/
Montagnais Indian/EskimoEnglish Contact Pidgin,
Eskimo-English of Northern
Quebec, Eskimo-French Pidgin
in Labrador, Eskimo-Gwich'in
(Loucheux) Indian Contact
Pidgin, Northeast Greenlandic,
Sallirmuit, West Greelandic
Eskimo – Germanic Pidgin
140¡
120¡
Beaufort
Sea
100¡
80¡
60¡
POLAR
Etah ESKIMOS
ELLESMERE
Tuktoyaktuk
ISLAND
BANKS ISLAND
EAST
GREENLANDERS
Resolute
DEVON ISLAND
Holman
ICELAND
VICTORIA
Upernavik
NETSILIK
ESKIMOS
COPPER
ESKIMOS
Norman
Wells
SOMERSET
ISLAND
PRINCE OF
WALES
ISLAND
ISLAND
nzie
Scoresbysund
Dundas
5
Macke
GREENLAND
Thule
MELVILLE ISLAND
MACKENZIE DELTA
ESKIMOS
73
Clavering I.
NORTHEAST GREENLANDIC
Eureka
Mould Bay
20¡
40¡
6
2
Clyde
Godhavn
BAFFIN
6
Ritenbenk
Klokkerhuk
Rode Bay
ChristianshŒb
Waigat
IGLULIK ESKIMOS
Echo Bay
Gjoa
Haven
Reykjavik
WEST
GREENLANDERS
Pond Inlet
EAST
GREENLANDERS
Ammassalik
2
ISLAND
60¡
Delftsehaven
7
60¡
Baker Lake
SOUTHAMPTON
ISLAND
CARIBOU
ESKIMOS
2
BAFFIN LAND
INUIT
7
SALLIRMUIT
Iqaluit
FrederikshŒb
Lake Harbour
Churchill
Hudson
Bay
3
Inukjuak
Nelson
Sa s k a t c h ewan
Saskatoon
50¡
Regina
C
A
N
A
Sev
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Fort
Chimo
LABRADOR
INUIT
D
Fort
George
Goose Bay
Battle
Harbour
100¡
Arctic North America East
Hein van der Voort, co-ordinator
0
Winnipeg
U. S. A.
ESKIMO - DANISH PIDGIN
WEST GREENLANDIC ESKIMO - GERMANIC PIDGIN
ESKIMO-ENGLISH OF NORTHERN QUEBEC
ESKIMO-FRENCH PIDGIN IN LABRADOR
ESKIMO-GWICH'IN (LOUCHEUX) INDIAN CONTACT PIDGIN
ESKIMO PIDGIN USED BY THE NETSILIK ESKIMOS
ESKIMO-CREE & MONTAGNAIS INDIAN
& LATER ESKIMO-ENGLISH CONTACT PIDGIN
4
A
Cape Farewell
2
Nain
ern
Great Whale
River
Narssarssuaq
JulianehŒb
Labrador Sea
ARCTIC
QUEBEC
INUIT
Flin Flon
1
Nuuk (GodthŒb)
Sioux Lookout
Moosonee
80¡
60¡
300
kilometres
600
50¡
74
Arctic North America West
Potentially endangered
language
Kotzebue Sound Eskimo,
Central Alaskan Yupik
Endangered language
Aleut, Asiatic Eskimo, Bering
Strait Eskimo including
Qawiaraq, Central Alaskan
Yupik, Central Siberian Yupik,
Chugach Eskimo, Eastern
Aleut, Gwich'in, Kodiak
Eskimo, Kotzebue Sound
Eskimo including Malimiut,
Mackenzie Delta Inuit, North
Slope Inupiaq
Seriously endangered
language
Aleut, Ahtna, Bering Strait
Eskimo including Qawiaraq,
Eastern Aleut, Holikachuk,
Ingalik, Kolchan or Upper
Kuskokwim, Kodiak Eskimo,
Koyukon, Mackenzie Delta
Inuit, Naukanski, Pacific
Yupik, Tanacross, Tanaina,
Tanana, Upper Tanana
Moribund language
Aleut, Eyak, Han, Western
Aleut
Extinct language
Central Siberian Yupik Pidgin,
Eskimo-Athabaskan Sign
Language, Eskimo-Athabaskan
Trade Language also Indian
Russian Contacts, EskimoChukchi-English Contact
Pidgin, Eskimo-English
Herschel Is. Trade Jargon,
Eskimo-English Trade Jargon
(Yukon Delta), EskimoGwich'in (Loucheux) Indian
Contact Pidgin, Indian-Rusian
Contacts, Kotzebue Eskimo
Pidgin, Sirenikski
180¡
160¡
ARCTIC
140¡
OCEAN
8
Beaufort Sea
MACKENZIE DELTA INUIT
5
8
NORTH SLOPE INUPIAQ
Sea
Tuktoyaktuk
Paulatuk
C o l v ill e
B
RUSSIAN
Kotzebue
FEDERATION
12
13
Golovin
Galena
on
Yuk
5
Fort Yukon
Alakanuk
12
11
Tanana
HOLIKACHUK
Unalakleet
Holy Cross
Fort Good Hope
Ma
cke
nz
HAN
TANANA
TANACROSS
CANADA
Dawson
R
AHTNA
Yu
k
Carmacks
UPPER TANANA
Valdez
EYAK
O
Ross River
Watson Lake
Yakutat
Dease Lake
Gulf of Alaska
A
Petersburg
Bear Lake
160¡
250
kilometres
500
140¡
S
I N
180¡
T
0
60¡
Fort Nelson
N
s
Fort Liard
U
I sla nd
ti a n
Fort Simpson
O
Ale u
K
M
Skagway
Hein van der Voort, co-ordinator
Peter Bakker, co-ordinator for Alaskan Indian languages
Dutch Harbor
Further languages in this area
are shown on the map
'Canada and part USA'
Whitehorse
Arctic North America West
Eastern Aleut
C
Y
KOLCHAN or UPPER
KUSKOKWIM
TANAINA
INGALIK
5 ESKIMO-GWICH'IN (LOUCHEUX)
INDIAN CONTACT PIDGIN
Homer
8 ESKIMO-ENGLISH HERSCHEL IS.
CENTRAL ALASKAN YUPIK
TRADE JARGON
Chugach
Eskimo
9 KOTZEBUE ESKIMO PIDGIN
10 ESKIMO-ATHABASKAN SIGN LANGUAGE
PACIFIC YUPIK
11 ESKIMO-ATHABASKAN TRADE LANGUAGE,
Kodiak
ALSO INDIAN-RUSSIAN CONTACTS
12 ESKIMO-ENGLISH TRADE JARGON, YUKON DELTA
Kodiak I.
13 ESKIMO-CHUKCHI-ENGLISH CONTACT PIDGIN
14 CENTRAL SIBERIAN YUPIK PIDGIN
Kodiak
Eskimo
Bering Sea
Western Aleut
ALEUT
Fort Norman
Great Bear Lake
Tanacross
Anchorage
Omeleut
60¡
KOYUKON
Allakaket
on
BERING STRAIT ESKIMO
including Qawiaraq
Fort McPherson
U S A
12
Sirenikski
Provideniya
Central Siberian Yupik
St. Lawrence I.
k
ku
yu
Ko
9
GWICH'IN
ie
13
Uelen
R O OKS RA
NGE
10
KOTZEBUE SOUND ESKIMO
including Malimiut
10
Yuk
on
Naukanski
14
14
ASIATIC ESKIMO
75
Barrow
Wrangel I.
Chukchi
120¡
Banks I.
Dawson
Creek
Prince Rupert
Prince George
Bella Coola
120¡
76
Canada and part of USA
Potentially endangered
language
Algonquin, Chipewyan, East
Swampy Cree, Malliseet,
Micmac, Moose Cree, Northern
Plains Cree, Northwestern
Ojibwe, West Swampy Cree,
Woods Cree/Rock Cree
Endangered language
Blackfoot, Carrier, Central
Ojibwe, Chilcotin, Coast
Tsimshian, Dogrib, Eastern
Ojibwe, Halkomelem, Heiltsuk,
Kwakiutl, Mohawk, Mountain,
Nass-Gitksan, Nootka, North
Slavey, Northern Tutchone,
Ottawa Ojibwe, Saulteaux,
Shuswap, South Slavey,
Southern Tutchone, Tlingit
Seriously endangered
language
Assiniboine, Beaver, Bella
Coola, Cayuga, Comox, Dakota,
Hare, Haisla, Inland Tlingit,
Kaskar, Kutenai, Lillooet,
Okanagan, Oneida, Onondaga,
Potawatomi, Sekani, Sliammon
Comox, Southeastern Plains
Cree, Stoney, Tahltan,
Thompson
Moribund language
Bungee, Chinook Jargon,
Haida, Lakota, Michif, Munsee
Delaware, Nitinaht, Sarcee,
Sechelt, Seneca, Southern
Tsimshian, Squamish, Straits
Salish, Tagish, Tuscarora,
Western Abnaki
Extinct language
Beothuk, Cree-Assiniboine,
Eastern Abenaki, Erie, Huron,
Neutral, Nicola, Nooksack,
Pentlatch, Plateau Sign
Language, St Lawrence
Iroquoian, Tsetsaut, Unami
Delaware, Wenro
NORTHERN
TUTCHONE
SOUTHERN
TUTCHONE
TAGISH
140¡W
HAIDA
TSETSAUT
NASS-GITKSAN
SEKANI
HAISLA
COAST TSIMSHIAN
HAIDA
100¡
110¡
80¡
90¡
70¡
60¡
50¡
Great Bear
Lake
MOUNTAIN
KASKAR
TLINGIT
INLAND TLINGIT
TAHLTAN
120¡
60
¡N
77
Canada and part of USA
DOGRIB
Peter Bakker, co-ordinator
NORTH SLAVEY
Great Slave
Lake
SOUTH SLAVEY
NORTHERN
PLAINS CREE
BEAVER
111
NORTHERN
PLAINS CREE
C A N A D A
Labrador Sea
CHIPEWYAN
Hudson Bay
108
NASKAPI
sca
¡N
HARE
ckenzie
Ma
50
WEST
SOUTHERN
At
SWAMPY CREE
CARRIER
TSIMSHIAN
BELLA COOLA
50 HEILTSUK
¡N
121
STONEY
CHILCOTIN
KWAKIUTL
WOODS CREE /
MONTAGNAIS
EAST
ROCK
CREE
SHUSWAP
110
SLIAMMON COMOX
SWAMPY
CREE
SARCEE
SECHELT
112
JAMES
COMOX
LILLOOET
SEVERN OJIBWA
BAY CREE
SOUTHERN
BLACKFOOT
PENTLATCH
SQUAMISH
PLAINS
CREE
THOMPSON
NOOTKA
KUTENAI
Lake Winnipeg
NICOLA
NITINAHT
NOOKSACK OKANAGAN
CREE-ASSINIBOINE
MOOSE CREE
HALKOMELEM
STRAITS SALISH PLATEAU SIGN
MICMAC
SOUTHEASTERN
PLAINS
CREE
LANGUAGE
CHINOOK
NORTHWESTERN
MICHIF
109
JARGON
OJIBWE
ASSINIBOINE
BUNGEE
ATTIKAMEK
MALLISEET
CENTRAL ST LAWRENCE
OJIBWE
IROQUOIAN
SAULTEAUX
EASTERN
ALGONQUIN
Pacific
L
ABENAKI
St
Lake Huron
EASTERN
WESTERN
Ocean
OJIBWE
Lake Superior
ABENAKI
HURON
POTAWATOMI
MOHAWK
OTTAWA OJIBWE
ONONDAGA
40
DAKOTA
¡N
LAKOTA
WENRO ONEIDA
NEUTRAL
Lake Mitchigan
SENECA
CAYUGA
MUNSEE DELAWARE
Lake Erie
UNAMI DELAWARE
ERIE
U S A
¡
ha
60
130¡
140¡
ba
ALASKA
aw
re
n
ce
Riv
er
13
0¡
W
BEOTHUK
40¡
M iss
i s si
pp
i
O hi
0
500
110¡
Atlantic
1000
kilometres
120¡
o
TUSCARORA
100¡
90¡
80¡
70¡
Ocean
78
Central America
Potentially endangered
language
Aruaco, Cogui, Cuna, Embera,
Garífuna, Guajiro, Guaymi,
Hiwi, Hodi, Miskito, Oayana,
Patamona, Pume, Sumo, Trio,
Waiwai, Wapishana, Waunana,
Yukpa
Endangered language
Bari, Bribri, Jicaque,
Kurripako, Piapoko, Tunebo,
Yanomamï
Seriously endangered
language
Achagua, Akawaio, Baniwa,
Carijona, Chimila, Emerillon,
Guatuso, Kari'ña, Lokono,
Palikur, Paya, Pipil, Rama,
Yeral
Moribund language
Añu, Baré, Boruca, Kuiva,
Mako, Opon-Carare, Puinave,
Saliba, Sape, Tinigua, Uruak,
Warekena, Xinca, Yawarana
Extinct language
Island Carib, Matagalpa,
Muysca, Wanai, Duit, Lenca
79
USA
Central America
Marie-Claude Mattei-Muller
and Jon Landeburu,
co-ordinators
BAHAMAS
GULF OF MEXICO
0
500
250
kilometres
ATLANTIC OCEAN
CUBA
Turks Is.
Cayman Is.
HAITI
MEXICO
BELIZE
Virgin Is.
DOMINICAN
REPUBLIC
PUERTO
RICO
Bay Islands
NICARAGUA
RAMA
St. Vincent
Grenada
Providencia
Aruba
San Andrés
A„U
COGUI
YUKPA
BARI
CHIMILA
KARI'„A
VENEZUELA
Or
inoc
KAR
o
I'„A
LOKONO
WANAI
PUME
KUIVA
AKAWAIO
OPON-CARARE
SALIBA
PATAMONA
WAUNANA
HODI
SAPE
TUNEBO
SURINAME
YAWARANA
DUIT
OAYANA
ACHAGUA
PIAPOKO
URUAK
EMBERA
PUINAVE
MUYSCA
MAKO
WAIWAI
TRIO
HIWI
BANIWA
YANOMAMì
WAPISHANA
KURRIPAKO
WAREKENA
BANIWA
TINIGUA
BARƒ
na
PANAMA
ARUACO
CUNA
A„U
ale
GUAYMI
Trinidad
FRENCH
PALIKUR
GUIANA
EMERILLON
Magd
BRIBRI
Tobago
Bonaire
Curaçao
GUAJIRO
COSTA RICA
PACIFIC OCEAN
Martinique
Barbados
GUATUSO
BORUCA
Dominica
St. Lucia
CARIBBEAN SEA
COLOMBIA
YERAL
CARIJONA
Negro
Branco
MATAGALPA
Guadeloupe
ISLAND
CARIB
JAMAICA
GARêFUNA
GUATEMALA
JICAQUE PAYA
XINCA
HONDURAS
MISKITO
LENCA
PIPIL
EL SALVADOR
SUMO
Anguilla
St. Martin
Antigua
Montserrat
BRAZIL
GUYANA
80
South America
Endangered language
Achuar, Andoke, Camsá,
Candoshi-Shapra, Cayapa,
Chipaya, Chiquitano,
Chiriguano, Chorote, Cinta
Larga, Colorado, Cuaiquer,
Fulniô, Gavião, Guambiano,
Harakmbut, Huitoto, Jaqaru,
Kiangang, Maká, Mapuche,
Maxakali, Mocoví, Mosetén,
Páez, Pilagá, Secoya, ShipiboConibo, Suruí, Toba, Wari,
Yuracaré
Seriously endangered
language
Aikana, Arabela, Arikapu,
Arua, Aweti, Ayuru, Barasána,
Carijona, Cocama-Cocamilla,
Galibi De Oiapoque, Huilliche,
Jebero, Jurití, Karapanã,
Kararaô, Karitiana, Katukina,
Krenjê, Kwaza, Latundê,
Lengua, Makurap, Matipu,
Mekens, Mirití, Movima, Ofayé,
Panará, Qawasqar, Shikuyana,
Tapayuna, Trumai, Yuki
Moribund language
Akutsu, Arikapu, Atacameño,
Awakê, Baré, Botocudo,
Callahuaya, Canichana,
Cayuvava, Chamicuro, Diahói,
Guató, Itonama, Kanoê,
Karipuna, Katawixi, Juma,
Leco, Máku, Munichi, Omagua,
Oro Win, Puruborá, Resígaro,
Salamãi, Suriána, Taushiro,
Tehuelche, Tinigua, Xetá,
Yahgan, Záparo
Extinct language
Atacameño, Apolista, Choló,
Culle, Gününa Küne, Mochica,
Ona, Pataxo, Pijao, Puquina,
Uru, Vilela
NICARAGUA
58
59
60
ZçPARO
COLORADO
CAYAPA
Peru
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
HUITOTO
RESêGARO
SECOYA
ARABELA
ACHUAR
TAUSHIRO
CANDOSHI-SHAPRA
OMAGUA
CHAMICURO
COCAMA-COCAMILLA
JEBERO
MUNICHI
SHIPIBO-CONIBO
CHOLî
CULLE
MOCHICA
HARAKMBUT
JAQARU
PUQUINA
Paraguay
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
CHIRIGUANO
CHOROTE
PILAGç
TOBA
VILELA
MOCOVê
G†N†NA K†NE
TEHUELCHE
ONA
11
as
de
aj
Xingu
os
azon
ira
Ta
p
12
B R A Z I L
25
40
42
26
44 43
27
24
39
28
23
46
45
33
48 38
29
22
37 32
47 49 36
30
83
21
82
31
35
84
85
34
86
87
81
20
88
ai
Aragu
78
79
80
89 90
92
BOLIVIA
91
108
93
CHILE
95
96
Pacific Ocean
PARAGUAY
97
98
99
100
ARGENTINA
ra
nci
sco
Brasilia
14
19
15
16
a
PERU 77
13
Sao F
41
Ju
P
17
94
Rio de Janeiro
18
URUGUAY
Santiago
Buenos Aires
107
Co
106
lora
Montevideo
do
101
South Atlantic Ocean
Chile
104 YAHGAN
105 QAWASQAR
106 HUILLICHE
107 MAPUCHE
108 ATACAME„O
o
Branc
2
1
LENGUA
MAKç
Argentina
Am
Pa
Ecuador
Lima
8
Paragu a y
CAMSç
ANDOKE
CARIJONA
PçEZ
CUAIQUER
GUAMBIANO
PIJAO
TINIGUA
URU
CALLAHUAYA
APOLISTA
CAYUVAVA
MOVIMA
ITONAMA
CANICHANA
MOSETƒN
LECO
YURACARƒ
YUKI
CHIPAYA
CHIQUITANO
64
66 62
61
68
li
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
5
4
3
51
70
71
69
72
73
74
Bolivia
Colombia
50
10
an
75
63
Negro
7
ar
76
52
rana
67
53
6
FRENCH
GUIANA
Tocantins
O
59 Quito
ECUADOR 5865
9
57
aya
KATUKINA
SURIçNA
MIRITê
KARAPANÌ
JURITê
BARASçNA
BARƒ
MçKU
AWAKæ
GALIBI DE OIAPOQUE
SHIKUYANA
KRENJæ
FULNIï
MAXAKALI
PATAXO
BOTOCUDO
XETç
KIANGANG
OFAYƒ
GUATî
AWETI
MATIPU
TAPAYUNA
TRUMAI
KARARAï
PANARç
GAVIÌO
SURUê
CINTA LARGA
SALAMÌI
AIKANA
KWAZA
LATUNDæ
~ ~
AKUTSU
KANOæ
MEKENS
MAKURAP
ARUA
PURUBORç
DIAHîI
JUMA
KATAWIXI
KARITIANA
KARIPUNA
WARI
ORO WIN
ARIKAPU
ARIKAPU
AYURU
54
Uc
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
55
60
SURINAM
COLOMBIA
56
North Atlantic Ocean
Georgetown
Paramaribo
Cayenne
GUYANA
Bogota
1000
kilometres
oco
a
Brazil
rin
81
M
500
PANAMA
a
0
TRINIDAD
& TOBAGO
VENEZUELA
Panama
ru
South America
Mily Crevels and Willem Adelaar,
co-ordinators
Caracas
COSTA
RICA
105
102
103
104
83
Index
Alphabetical list of the languages represented on the maps
The languages mentioned from pp. 54–81 are listed here in
alphabetical order. They are followed by the symbol indicating
their degree of endangerment and the page number(s) of the
corresponding map(s). Certain European languages, not
represented on a map, are followed simply by a page number;
their endangerment status is explained briefly on p. 54.
Examples:
Dahalo, , 69; 71
Dahlik, , 69
Dakota, , 77
Dalecarlian, 54
•
Dahalo appears on two different maps; Dalecarlian is not shown
on a map, but is listed on p. 54.
Aasax, +, 69; 71
Abenaki, Eastern, +, 77
Abenaki, Western, ⊕, 77
Aceron (Guärme), , 69
Achagua, , 79
Achuar, , 81
Adnyamathanha, / , 67
Ahlo, , 69
°
°
•
°
•
•
°
°•
°
•
•
°
Aiton, , 63
Ajawa, +, 69
Akawaio, , 79
Akei, ⊕, 69; 71
Akutsu, ⊕, 81
Alagwa, , 69; Δ, 71
Alawa, , 67
Albanian, 54
Aleut, Eastern, / , 75
Aleut, / , 75
Aleut, Western, ⊕, 75
Algonquin, Δ, 77
Alpine Provençal, French, , 55
Alpine Provençal, Italian, , 55
Altai, , 57
Alyutor, , 57
Amba, , 69; 71
Andoke, , 81
Andro/Phayeng, +, 63
Anfillo, +, 69
Angloromani, 54
Animere, , 69
Anindilyakwa, Δ, 67
Antakarinya, ⊕/ , 67
Añu, ⊕, 79
•
°•
Ahom, Δ, 61; +, 63
Ahtna, , 75
Aikana, , 81
Aimol, +, 63
Ainu, eastern Hokkaido, ⊕, 57
Ainu, Kuril, +, 57
Ainu, Sakhalin, +, 57
Ainu, western Hokkaido, , 57
•
•
•
•
•
°
•
°
°
•
•
Anyokawa, +, 69
Aougila, , 69
Apolista, +, 81
Arabela, , 81
Arabic, Cypriot, , 55
Aragonese, , 55
Arem, Δ, 63
Argobba, ⊕, 69
Arikapu, /⊕, 81
Arman, +, 57
Aromanian, , 55
Arrente, Δ, 67
Arua, , 81
Aruaco, Δ, 79
Arzew, , 69
Assiniboine, , 77
Asturian, , 55
Atacameño, +, 81
Auvergnat, , 55
Awakê, ⊕, 81
Aweti, , 81
Ayizi, , 63
Ayuru, , 81
B. Snous, , 69
Baadi, / , 67
•
•
°
•
°
•
•
°
•
•
•
•
•
•
°•
•
84
Badala, ⊕/+, 67
Baga Fore, , 69
Baga Tsitemu, +, 69
Baga, , 69
Baiso, , 69
Baldamu, ⊕, 69
Bana, Δ, 63
Baniwa, , 79
Banjalang, ⊕, 67
Barasána, , 81
Baré, ⊕, 79; 81
Bari, , 79
Basa-Gumna, +, 69
Basa-Kontagora, +, 69
Bashkir, , 55
Basque, French, , 55
Basque, Spanish, , 55
Bati, ⊕, 69
Beaver, , 77
Beeke, ⊕, 69
Bella Coola, , 77
Belorussian, Δ, 55
Beothuk, +, 77
Bete, ⊕, 69
Bhramu, +, 61
Binari, , 69
Birgid, ⊕, 69
Birri, , 69
Bisu, , 63
Bit, Δ, 63
°
°
°
•
•
°
°
•
°
•
•
°
•
°
°
Blackfoot, , 77
Bondei, , 69; Δ, 71
Bongo, , 69
Bong'om, , 69; 71
Boni, , 69; Δ, 71
Boro, +, 69
Boruca, ⊕, 79
Botocudo, ⊕, 81
Bowili, , 69
Breton, , 55
Bribri, , 79
Bubbure, ⊕, 69
Buga, , 69
Bunaba, / , 67
Bung, +, 69
Bungee, ⊕, 77
Bungla, ⊕, 61
Buriat (also Buryat), Eastern,
in China, Δ, 59
Burji, , 71
Burunge, , 69; Δ, 71
Buryat (also Buriat),
Eastern, Δ, 57
Buryat (also Buriat),
Western, , 57
Buy, ⊕, 69
Callahuaya, ⊕, 81
Camo, ⊕, 69
Campidanese, , 55
Camsá, , 81
°
•
•
°
°•
°
•
°•
°
°
•
°
°
°
Candoshi-Shapra, , 81
Canichana, ⊕, 81
Carijona, , 79; 81
Carrier, , 77
Catalan, Δ, 55
Catalan, Algherese, 54
Cayapa, , 81
Cayuga, , 77
Cayuvava, ⊕, 81
Cena, +, 69
Chairel/Chakpa, +, 63
Chamicuro, ⊕, 81
Chantel, Δ, 61
Chaudangsi/Byangsi, Δ, 61
Chawte, Δ, 63
Chilcotin, , 77
Chimila, , 79
Chintang, , 61
Chipaya, , 81
Chipewyan, Δ, 77
Chiquitano, , 81
Chiriguano, , 81
Choló, +, 81
Chorote, , 81
Chuckchee Proper, , 57
Chulym, ⊕, 57
Chuvan, +, 57
Chuvash, , 55
Cinta Larga, , 81
Cocama-Cocamilla, , 81
•
°
°•
°
•
•
°
°
°
°
°
•
° •
Cogui, Δ, 79
Colorado, , 81
Comox, , 77
Comox, Sliammon, , 77
Coptic, +, 69
Cornish, +, 55
Corsican, , 55
Cree, East Swampy, Δ, 77
Cree, Moose, Δ, 77
Cree, Northern Plains, Δ, 77
Cree, Southeastern Plains, ,77
Cree, Southeastern Plains, ,77
Cree, West Swampy, Δ, 77
Cree, Woods/Rock, Δ, 77
Cree-Assiniboine, +, 77
Croatian, 54
Cuaiquer, , 81
Culle, +, 81
Cuna, Δ, 79
Dagur, Amur, ⊕, 59
Dagur, Hailar, Δ, 59
Dagur, Nonni, , 59
Dagur, Qiqihar, , 59
Dahalo, , 69; 71
Dahlik, , 69
Dakota, , 77
Dalecarlian, 54
Dalmatian, +, 55
Danan, ⊕, 63
Darmiya, Δ, 61
•
°
•
°
•
•
°
°
•
•
°
°
•
Defaka, , 69
Delaware, Munsee, ⊕, 77
Delaware, Unami, +, 77
Deleny (Dilling), , 69
Deti, ⊕, 69
Dhangu Dialects, Δ, 67
Dhargari, ⊕, 67
Dhimal, , 61
Diahói, ⊕, 81
Dimme, , 69
Djamindjung, , 67
Djinang, Δ, 67
Djingili, ⊕, 67
Dogrib, , 77
Dongo-Ko, , 69
Duit, +, 79
Duli, , 69
Dumi, , 61
Dura, , 61
Duungidjawu, ⊕/+, 67
Dyirbal, ⊕, 67
Ebang, , 69
El Hugeirat, , 69
Eliri, , 69
Elmolo, +, 69; 71
Embera, Δ, 79
Emerillon, , 79
Emilian, , 55
Enets, Forest, ⊕, 57
Enets, Tundra, ⊕, 57
•
°
° •
°•
•
°
°
•
•
°
°
•
Erie, +, 77
Erzya, , 55
Eskimo Pidgin used by the
Netsilik Eskimos, +, 73
Eskimo, Asiatic, , 75
Eskimo, Bering Strait including
Qawiaraq, / , 75
Eskimo, Caribou, Δ, 73
Eskimo, Chugach, , 75
Eskimo, Copper, , 73
Eskimo, Iglulik, Δ, 73
Eskimo, Kodiak, / , 75
Eskimo, Kotzebue Sound,
including Malimiut,
Δ/ , 75
Eskimo, Mackenzie Delta,
/ , 73
Eskimo, Polar, Δ/ , 73
Eskimo-Athabaskan
Sign Language, +, 75
Eskimo-Athabaskan
Trade Language,
also Indian-Russian
Contacts, +, 75
Eskimo-English Herschel Is.
Trade Jargon, +, 75
Eskimo-English of Northern
Quebec, +, 73
Eskimo-English Trade Jargon
(Yukon Delta), +, 75
°
°
°•
°
°
°•
°
°•
°
Estonian, Vöru, 54
Ewen, , 57
Ewen, Kamchatka, , 57
Ewenki Proper, , 59
Ewenki, , 57
Ewenki, Khamnigan, , 59
Ewenki, Sakhalin, , 57
Extremaduran, 54
Eyak, ⊕, 75
Faetar, , 55
Fali of Baissa, ⊕, 69
Fam, ⊕, 69
Francoprovençal, French, , 55
Francoprovençal, Italian, , 55
French, Channel Islands, , 55
Frisian, Eastern, , 55
Frisian, Northern, , 55
Frisian, Western, , 55
Friulian, , 55
Fulniô, , 81
Fumu, ⊕, 69
Fyam, , 69
Gadjerawang, ⊕, 67
Gaelic, Irish, , 55
Gaelic, Scottish, , 55
Gafat, +, 69
Gagadu, ⊕, 67
Gagauz,Eastern Bulgarian, ,55
Gagauz, Macedonian, , 55
Gagauz, Turkish, , 55
•
•
•
•
•
°
°
•
°•
•
•
°
°
°
•
°
°
•
•
•
Gagauz, Western
Bulgarian, , 55
Gaguaz, Moldavian, , 55
Galibi De , 81
Galician, , 55
Gallo, , 55
Gallurese, , 55
Gana (Lere Cluster), , 69
Gana, , 69
Ganan, , 63
Gangalida (Yukulta), ⊕, 67
Ganjule, , 69
Garawa, , 67
Gardiol, , 55
Garífuna, Δ, 79
Gascon, French, , 55
Gascon, Spanish, , 55
Gats'ame, , 69
Gavião, , 81
Gazhuo, Δ, 63
Gelao, , 63
Germanic-Italian (Cimbrian,
Mócheno, Walser), 54
Gey, +, 69
Gothic, +, 55
Greenlanders, East, Δ/ , 73
Greenlanders, West, Δ, 73
Greenlandic, North Slope, +, 73
Gri, ⊕, 69
Guajiro, Δ, 79
•
°
•
•
°
°
•
°
°
°
°
•
•
°
°
°
•
°
85
86
°
Guambiano, , 81
Guanchen (Guanchi), +, 69
Guató, ⊕, 81
Guatuso, , 79
Guaymi, Δ, 79
Gugubera, , 67
Guguyimidjir, , 67
Gule, ⊕, 69
Gunian, , 67
Gününa Küne, +, 81
Gunwinggu, Δ, 67
Gupapuyngu, Δ, 67
Guragone, ⊕/ , 67
Gurdjar, ⊕, 67
Gurindji, Δ, 67
Gwara, +, 69
Gweno, ⊕, 69; 71
Gwich'in, , 75
Hadza, , 69; 71
Haida, ⊕, 77
Haisla, , 77
Halkomelem, , 77
Hamba, +, 69; 71
Han, ⊕, 75
Harakmbut, , 81
Hare, , 77
Haro, , 69
Hayu, , 61
Heiltsuk, , 77
Hejen, ⊕, 57
•
•
°
•
•
°
•
°
°
°
•
°•
°
Hiwi, Δ, 79
Hodi, Δ, 79
Holikachuk, , 75
Holma, ⊕, 69
Homa, , 69
Hpun, ⊕, 63
Huilliche, , 81
Huitoto, , 81
Hung, Δ, 63
Hungarian, Csángó, 54
Huron, +, 77
I'anni, ⊕, 69
Idu, , 63
Iing, +, 69
Iixegwi, +, 69
Ilue, , 69
Ingalik, , 75
Ingrian, , 55
Inuit, Arctic Quebec, Δ, 73
Inuit, Baffin Land, Δ, 73
Inuit, Labrador, , 73
Inuit, Mackenzie
Delta, / , 75
Inupiaq, North Slope, , 75
Iroquoian, St Lawrence, +, 77
Island Carib, +, 79
Istriot, , 55
Istroromanian, , 55
Isuwu, +, 69
Italkian, ⊕/+, 55
•
•
•
°
•
•
•
•
°
°•
•
°
•
Itelmen Proper, ⊕, 57
Itonama, ⊕, 81
Iwaidja, Δ, 67
Ixam, +, 69
Jala, , 69
Jaqaru, , 81
Jargon, Chinook, ⊕, 77
Jawony, , 67
Jebel Haraza, +, 69
Jebero, , 81
Jeri, , 69
Jicaque, , 79
Ju, , 69
Juma, ⊕, 81
Jurití, , 81
Kaande, ⊕, 69
Kadu, , 63
Kala Lagaw Ya, Δ, 67
Kalmyk, , 55
Kalum (ex) Sorbane?, +, 69
Kamas, +, 57
Kamchadal, Eastern, +, 57
Kamchadal, Southern, +, 57
Kamdang, , 69
Kanga, , 69
Kanoê, ⊕, 81
Karaim, Crimean,
Ukranian, ⊕/+, 55
Karaim, Eastern
Ukranian, ⊕, 55
•
°
•
•
•
°
•
•
°
°
•
°
•
Karaim, Lithuanian, , 55
Karajarri, ⊕, 67
Karapanã, , 81
Kararaô, , 81
Karelian, , 55
Kari'ña, , 79
Karipuna, ⊕, 81
Karitiana, , 81
Karko, , 69
Kasabe (Luo), +, 69
Kashubian, , 55
Kaskar, , 77
Katawixi, ⊕, 81
Katcha, , 69
Kathu, Δ, 63
Katukina, , 81
Kayardild, ⊕, 67
Kazibati, , 69
Keiga, , 69
Kerek, ⊕, 57
Ket, , 57
Khakas, o, 57
Khamyang, , 63
Khanty, eastern and
central, , 57
Khanty, western, ⊕, 57
+Khomani, ⊕, 69
Kiangang, , 81
Kidie Lafafa, , 69
Kinare, +, 69; 71
•
•
°
•
•
°
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
°•
•
Kiong, , 69
Kitja, , 67
Kolchan or Upper
Kuskokwim, , 75
Kolhreng, +, 63
Komi, , 55
Korana, ⊕, 69
Kore, +, 69; 71
Koryak, , 57
Kotoko De Koosseri, , 69
Kott, +, 57
Koyukon, , 75
Krenjê, , 81
Krimchak, 54
Kubi, , 69
Kudu, ⊕, 69
Kufa, , 69
Kuiva, ⊕, 79
Kuku Yalanji, Δ, 67
Kumam, , 69; Δ, 71
Kunbarlang, , 67
Kunjen, , 67
Kupto, , 69
Kurrama, , 67
Kurripako, , 79
Kutenai, , 77
Kuuku Ya'u, , 67
Kwadi, ⊕, 69
Kw'adza, +, 69; 71
Kwakiutl, , 77
°
•
°
•
•
•
•
•
° •
•
°•
°
•
°
°
•
Kwankwa, +, 69
Kwaza, , 81
Kwegu, , 71
Kwegu-Mugudi, , 69
Kwisi, ⊕, 69
Lachi, Δ, 63
Ladin, , 55
Laha, Δ, 63
Lai, , 63
Lakota, ⊕, 77
Lalo, Δ, 63
Lamgang, Δ, 63
Lamu, , 63
Langrong, Δ, 63
Languedocian, , 55
Laomian, , 63
Lardil, ⊕, 67
Laro, , 69
Latgalian, 54
Latundê, , 81
Lavua, Δ, 63
Leco, ⊕, 81
Lenca, +, 79
Lengua, , 81
Leonese, , 55
Lepcha, , 61
Lere Cluster (Gana, Si,
Takaya), , 69
Ligurian, , 55
Lillooet, , 77
•
•
•
°
°
•
•
°
°
•
•
•
°
°
•
•
•
Limousin, , 55
Li-Ngbee, ⊕, 69
Livonian, ⊕, 55
Logba, , 69
Logudorese, , 55
Lokono, , 79
Lombard, , 55
Lorkoti, +, 69; 71
Ludian, , 55
Lumba, Δ, 61
Lumun/Lomon, , 69
Luri, , 69
Madngele, ⊕, 67
Maká, , 81
Mako, ⊕, 79
Máku, ⊕, 81
Makurap, , 81
Malin, +, 63
Malliseet, Δ, 77
Manchu, ⊕/+, 59
Manchu, Amur, ⊕, 59
Manchurian Kirghiz
(Fu Yü), ⊕, 59
Mang, Δ, 63
Mangarayi, , 67
Mangarla, ⊕, 67
Mansi, ⊕, 57
Manx, +, 55
Mapuche, , 81
Mari, Eastern, , 55
°
°
•
°
•
•
•
°
•
•
°
°
•
Mari, Western, , 55
Maridjabin, ⊕, 67
Maringarr, , 67
Marithiel, , 67
Marrgu, ⊕, 67
Maslam (Maltam), , 69
Matagalpa, +, 79
Matipu, , 81
Mator, +, 57
Maung, Δ, 67
Maxakali, , 81
May, Δ, 63
Mayol, Δ, 63
Mbara, /⊕, 69
Meglenoromanian, , 55
Mekens, , 81
Meriam Mir, Δ, 67
Michif, ⊕, 77
Micmac, Δ, 77
Mindari (dialect of
Timme), +, 69
Miri, , 69
Mirití, , 81
Miriwoong, ⊕/ , 67
Miskito, Δ, 79
Mlabri, Δ, 63
Mmani (Bul(l)on), , 69
Mochica, +, 81
Mocoví, , 81
Mo'e, +, 69
•
°
•
•
°
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
°
87
88
°
°
Mohawk, , 77
Moksha, , 55
Mongol, eastern
Khamnigan, , 57
Mongol, Khamnigan, , 59
Mongol, north-western
Khamnigan, ⊕, 57
Mongol, southern
Khamnigan, +, 57
Mosetén, , 81
Mountain, , 77
Movima, , 81
Mozarabic, +, 55
Mpi, Δ, 63
Mudbura, , 67
Mullukmulluk, ⊕, 67
Munichi, ⊕, 81
Muuke, , 69
Muysca, +, 79
Nagumi, , 69
Nakara, , 67
Nalu, , 69
Nanay, , 57
Napore, +, 69; 71
Narluma, , 67
Nass-Gitksan, , 77
Naukanski, , 75
Nayi (Na'o), , 69
Ndai, ⊕, 69
Ndungo, , 69
°
°
°
•
•
•
•
°
•
•
°
°
•
°
°
°
Negidal, ⊕, 57
Nenets, central Tundra, +, 57
Nenets, eastern Tundra, , 57
Nenets, Forest, , 57
Nenets, western Tundra, , 57
Netsilik Eskimos, Δ/ , 73
Neutral, +, 77
New Bargut, , 59
Ngalakan, ⊕, 67
Ngaliwuru, ⊕, 67
Ngalkbun, , 67
Nganasan, , 57
Ngandi, ⊕, 67
Ngankikurungkurr, Δ, 67
Ngardi, ⊕, 67
Ngarinman, Δ/ , 67
Ngarinyin, , 67
Ngarla, ⊕, 67
Ngbinda, , 69
Ngong, +, 69
Ngwaba, , 69
Nicola, +, 77
Nitinaht, ⊕, 77
Nivkh, Amur, ⊕, 57
Nivkh, Sakhalin, , 57
Njanga, +, 69
Njerep, , 69
Nogai, , 55
Nooksack, +, 77
Nootka, , 77
°
•
°
•
•
•
°
°
•
•
•
•
°
°
•
•
Norman, , 55
Norn, +, 55
Nunggubuyu, Δ, 67
Nyamal, / , 67
Nyang'i, ⊕, 69; 71
Nyango-Tafi, , 69
Nyangumarta, Δ, 67
Nyigina, , 67
Oayana, Δ, 79
Obulom, , 69
Odut, ⊕, 69
Ofayé, , 81
Oiapoque, , 81
Oïl (Champenois, Lorrain), 54
Ojibwe, Central, , 77
Ojibwe, Eastern, , 77
Ojibwe, Northwestern, Δ, 77
Ojibwe, Ottawa, , 77
Okanagan, , 77
Okorogbana, , 69
Old Bargut, , 59
Old Prussian, +, 55
Olonetsian, , 55
Ölöt, Manchurian, ⊕, 59
Omagua, ⊕, 81
Omo Murle, ⊕, 69; (?)/ , 71
Omotik, ⊕, 69; ⊕(?)/+, 71
Ona, +, 81
Oneida, , 77
Ongamo, ⊕, 69; 71
°•
°
•
°
•
•
°
°
°
•
•
•
°
° •
•
•
'Ongota (Birale), , 69
Onondaga, , 77
Opon-Carare, ⊕, 79
!Ora, ⊕, 69
Oro Win, ⊕, 81
Oroch, ⊕, 57
Orochen, ⊕, 59
Orok, ⊕, 57
Oropom, +, 69; 71
Pacific languages, 65
Páez, , 81
Pajade (Badiar), , 69
Pakatan, Δ, 63
Palikur, , 79
Pana, , 69
Panará, , 81
Panytyima, , 67
Patamona, Δ, 79
Pataxo, +, 81
Paya, , 79
Pentlatch, +, 77
Permyak, , 55
Phake, , 63
Phalok, ⊕, 63
Phonsung, Δ, 63
Phuthi, , 69
Piapoko, , 79
Picard, , 55
Pidgin, Central Siberian
Yupik, +, 75
•
°
°
•
•
•
•
•
°
°
°
°
•
Pidgin, Eskimo-ChukchiEnglish Contact, +, 75
Pidgin, Eskimo-Cree, EskimoEnglish Contact, also
Montagnais Indian, +, 73
Pidgin, Eskimo–Danish, +, 73
Pidgin, Eskimo-French in
Labrador, +, 73
Pidgin, Eskimo-Gwich'in
(Loucheux) Indian
Contact, +, 73
Pidgin, Eskimo-Gwich'in
(Loucheux) Indian
Contact, +, 75
Pidgin, Kotzebue Eskimo, +, 75
Pidgin, West Greenlandic
Eskimo–Germanic, +, 73
Piedmontese, , 55
Pijao, +, 81
Pilagá, , 81
Pipil, , 79
Pite Sámi, ⊕, 55
Plateau Sign Language, +, 77
Plautdeitsch, , 55
Poitevin-Saintongeais, , 55
Poko, , 69
Polabian, +, 55
Potawatomi, , 77
Provençal, , 55
Puinave, ⊕, 79
°
°
•
•
°
•
•
•
Pume, Δ, 79
Pupeo, , 63
Puquina, +, 81
Puruborá, ⊕, 81
Purum, in India, ⊕, 63
Purum, in Myanmar, ⊕, 63
Pyu, +, 63
Qawasqar, , 81
Qemant, , 69
Qwarenya (emigration to
Israel in 1991), +, 69
Rama, , 79
Rangkhas, ⊕, 61
Rembarrunga, , 67
Resígaro, ⊕, 81
Ritarungo, Δ, 67
Rohani, Δ, 61
Romagnol, , 55
Romani, , 55
Romansch, , 55
Ruc, Δ, 63
Rugungu, , 69; 71
Ruhu, +, 69
Rusyn, , 55
Rusyn, Voivodena, , 55
Saam, ⊕, 61
Sach, Δ, 63
Sak, Δ, 63
Salamãi, ⊕, 81
Saliba, ⊕, 79
°
•
•
•
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
Salish, Straits, ⊕, 77
Sallirmuit, +, 73
Samatau, , 63
Samei, , 63
Sámi, Akkala, ⊕, 55
Sámi, Inari, , 55
Sámi, Kemi, +, 55
Sámi, Kildin, , 55
Sámi, Lule, , 55
Sámi, North, , 55
Sámi, Skolt, , 55
Sámi, South, , 55
Sámi, Ter, ⊕, 55
Sámi, Ume, ⊕, 55
Santrokofi, , 69
Sanyi, , 63
Sape, ⊕, 79
Sarcee, ⊕, 77
Sardinian, , 55
Sarwa, , 69
Sassarese, , 55
Saulteaux, , 77
Saxon, Low, , 55
Scanian, 54
Scots, , 55
Sechelt, ⊕, 77
Secoya, , 81
Segeju, +, 69; 71
Sekani, , 77
Selkup, northern, , 57
•
•
•
•
•
°
•
•
•
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
•
•
Selkup, southern, ⊕, 57
Seneca, ⊕, 77
Sengmai/Sekmai, +, 63
Shabo, , 69
Shan, ⊕, 69
Sheni, ⊕, 69
Shiki, , 69
Shikuyana, , 81
Shipibo-Conibo, , 81
Shiranci, +, 69
Shor, , 57
Shuadit, 54
Shuswap, , 77
Si (Lere Cluster), , 69
Sila, Δ, 63
Sirenikski, +, 75
Siwa, , 69
Slavey, North, , 77
Slavey, South, , 77
Slovene, Resian, 54
Slovincian, +, 55
So, , 69; , 71
Sogoo, ⊕, 69; 71
Solon, eastern, , 59
Solon, western, Δ, 59
Somyer, , 69
Sorbian, Lower, , 55
Sorbian, Upper, , 55
Squamish, ⊕, 77
Stoney, , 77
•
•
•
°
•
°
•
•
°
°
•
°
•
•
•
°
°
89
90
•
°
Suba, , 69; /+, 71
Sumo, Δ, 79
Suriána, ⊕, 81
Suruí, , 81
Tagish, ⊕, 77
Tahltan, , 77
Takaya (Lere Cluster), , 69
Taman, , 63
Tanacross, , 75
Tanaina, , 75
Tanana, , 75
Tanglang, Δ, 63
Tapayuna, , 81
Tarao, +, 63
Tatar, Δ, 55
Tatar, Crimean, , 55
Tatar, Siberian, , 57
Taushiro, ⊕, 81
Tehuelche, ⊕, 81
Teleut, , 57
Tenet, , 69; , 71
Terik, , 69; 71
Tha Vung, Δ, 63
Thompson, , 77
Thuri, , 69
Tilung, , 61
Tinigua, ⊕, 79; 81
Tiwi, Δ, 67
Tlingit, Inland, , 77
Tlingit, , 77
°
•
•
°•
•
•
•
•
°
•
•
•
•
°
•
°
°
•
°
Toba, , 81
Tofa, ⊕, 57
Tolcha, +, 61
Tonjon (dialect of Jeri), +, 69
Toto, , 61
Trio, Δ, 79
Trukhmen, 54
Trumai, , 81
Tsakonian, , 55
Tsetsaut, +, 77
Tsimshian, Coast, , 77
Tsimshian, Southern, ⊕, 77
Tunebo, , 79
Tuscarora, ⊕, 77
Tutchone, Northern, , 77
Tutchone, Southern, , 77
Twendi (Cambap), , 69
Udege (Qiakala), +, 59
Udege, ⊕, 57
Udmurt, , 55
Ulcha, ⊕, 57
Umpila, , 67
Undu Rishi, ⊕, 69
Upper Tanana, , 75
Uru, +, 81
Uruak, ⊕, 79
Vepsian, , 55
Vilela, +, 81
Viri, , 69
Votian, ⊕, 55
°
•
•
°
°
°
°
•
°
•
•
•
°
Waanyi, ⊕, 67
Wageman, , 67
Waiwai, Δ, 79
Walloon, , 55
Walmajarri, , 67
Wambaya, ⊕, 67
Wanai, +, 79
Wangaaybuwan-Nyiya, ⊕, 67
Wanman, , 67
Wapishana, Δ, 79
Wardaman, / , 67
Warekena, ⊕, 79
Wari, , 81
Warlpiri, Δ, 67
Warumungu, , 67
Watjarri, , 67
Waunana, Δ, 79
Welsh, , 55
Wenro, +, 77
Western Desert, E., Δ, 67
Western Desert, W., Δ, 67
Wik Mungkan, Δ, 67
Wik Ngathana, , 67
Wik Ngenchera, , 67
Wiradhuri, ⊕, 67
Worrorra, , 67
Wunambal, ⊕, 67
Xetá, ⊕, 81
Xinca, ⊕, 79
Yaaku, +, 69; 71
•
°
°
•
°•
°
•
°
°
°•
•
Yahgan, ⊕, 81
Yahuma, , 69
Yakut, Δ, 57
Yangkam, ⊕, 69
Yanomamï, , 79
Yanyuwa, , 67
Yawarana, ⊕, 79
Yeidji, / , 67
Yeral, , 79
Yevanric, 54
Yiddish, , 55
Yir Yoront, , 67
Yug, ⊕, 57
Yukagir, Forest, ⊕, 57
Yukagir, Tundra, ⊕, 57
Yuki, , 81
Yukpa, Δ, 79
Yupik, Central
Alaskan , Δ/ , 75
Yupik, Central Siberian,
Yupik, Pacific, , 75
Yuracaré, , 81
Yurats, +, 57
Zaozou, Δ, 63
Záparo, ⊕, 81
Zaramo, , 69; Δ, 71
Zarphatic, 54
Zay (Zway), , 69
Ziriya, ⊕, 69
Zumaya, +, 69
°
°
°
•
°
•
•
•
•
°
•
°
°
°
°, 75
✖ Close to half of the 6,000 languages spoken in the world are doomed or likely to disappear in the foreseeable future.
The disappearance of any language is an irreparable loss for the heritage of all humankind.
✖ This new edition of the Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger of Disappearing, first published in 1996, is intended
to give a graphic picture of the magnitude of the problem in many parts of the world. The reader will find here a comprehensive list
of languages in danger and a concise summary of the worldwide language endangerment situation.
With this book, UNESCO hopes to raise international awareness about what is becoming a catastrophic phenomenon.
Credit is due to the UNESCO/Japan Trust Fund for the Preservation of the Intangible Cultural Heritage for assistance in publishing
this edition.
✖ This book is the result of the outstanding contribution of Professor Stephen A. Wurm to the study of the problem.
His well-known research and tireless combat to safeguard our world linguistic heritage have made it possible
to compile this comprehensive work, which should be required reading for both laymen and specialists concerned about the future
of culture and society.