100
Semicolon ( ; )
It was her prose that gained [Mrs Albert Forrester] that body of devoted
admirers, fit though few, as with her rare gift of phrase she herself put it that
proclaimed her the greatest master of the English language that this century
has seen. She admitted herself that it was her style, sonorous yet racy, polished yet eloquent, that was her strong point; and it was only in her prose that
she had occasion to exhibit the delicious, but restrained, humour that her
readers found so irresistible. It was not a humour of ideas, nor even a humour
of words; it was much more subtle than that, it was a humour of punctuation: in a flash of inspiration she had discovered the comic possibilities of
the semi-colon, and of this she had made abundant and exquisite use. She
was able to place it in such a way that if you were a person of culture with a
keen sense of humour, you did not exactly laugh through a horse-collar, but
you giggled delightedly, and the greater your culture the more delightedly you
giggled. Her friends said that it made every other form of humour coarse and
exaggerated. Several writers had tried to imitate her; but in vain: whatever
else you might say about Mrs Albert Forrester you were bound to admit that
she was able to get every ounce of humour out of the semi-colon and no one
else could get within a mile of her.
—W. Somerset Maugham, The Creative Impulse
The functions of the semicolon fall into two main categories:
• Separating elements, when a comma would be insufficient or unclear
• Linking elements, as an alternative to joining them with a conjunction or
breaking them into two sentences
Semicolon 101
In the first case, the semicolon is required for clarity. In the second case, it is chosen over other equally clear constructions in order to achieve a certain tone or to
emphasize a relationship.
Separating Elements
The most straightforward role of the semicolon is the same as that of the comma:
marking a shift in direction in a sentence. It may be substituted for the comma
only in certain circumstances, however. While there is some room for judgment as
to when to use it, this should not be taken to mean that it is merely a fancy-looking
comma, interchangeable with the latter at the writer’s whim. For the most part, its
role is subject to predictable and objective guidelines.
Note: Before beginning this section, be sure that you have reviewed Basic
Sentence Structure on page 72.
Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses that are
linked by an adverb rather than by a coordinating conjunction
Apart from conjunctions, described on page 74, there are certain words and
phrases that, while technically classified as adverbs because they modify the
actions they are associated with, act like conjunctions in that they indicate a particular relationship between the information they belong with and information
that comes before. There are many such adverbs; a list of commonly used ones is
shown below.
accordingly
for example
instead
otherwise
afterwards
furthermore
later
preferably
also
hence
likewise
rather
anyway
however
meantime
similarly
as a result
ideally
meanwhile
specifically
besides
in brief
moreover
still
certainly
in conclusion
namely
subsequently
consequently
in contrast
nevertheless
that is to say
conversely
in fact
next
then
currently
in short
nonetheless
therefore
earlier
in particular
notwithstanding
thus
eventually
indeed
on the other hand
to wit
finally
initially
ordinarily
understandably
102
Punctuation
Any of these can be placed at either the start or the end of an independent clause,
set off by commas.
However, the presentation was a calamity.
The presentation was a calamity, however.
Understandably, his feelings were hurt.
His feelings were hurt, understandably.
In fact, it was my best performance ever.
It was my best performance ever, in fact.
Because they can appear in either position, if you used one of these adverbs to link
two clauses and preceded it with a comma, the reader might momentarily mistake
it to be the ending of clause #1 rather than the opener of clause #2. This misunderstanding will be cleared up as the sentence continues, but it should be prevented
from occurring in the first place. The solution is to use the stronger separation of
the semicolon, which—unlike a comma—unambiguously shows that the sentence
is shifting direction and a new clause has begun.
I’d rather have the report by tomorrow; however, Monday will do.
I don’t think I’d have much to contribute to the meeting; besides, I have no interest in
the topic.
He finally showed up two hours late; understandably, he met with a frosty reception.
She thought she was early; in fact, she was the last to arrive.
We waited and waited; eventually, we gave up.
No progress was evident; nevertheless, they persevered.
Note that such an adverb can carry the exact same meaning as a conjunction:
The argument was going nowhere, so we decided to drop it. [conjunction preceded
by comma]
The argument was going nowhere; hence, we decided to drop it. [adverb preceded
by semicolon]
The apartment was small and dark, but the price was right. [conjunction preceded
by comma]
The apartment was small and dark; however, the price was right. [adverb preceded
by semicolon]
Semicolon 103
There is essentially no difference in meaning between these pairs of sentences. The
ones with commas tend to look a bit more casual; the ones with semicolons, a bit
more formal. When either way would do, your choice should depend on the tone of
your writing. No single style will be the most appropriate for every situation.
Use semicolons to separate elements that are themselves
subdivided by commas
Normally, elements in a series are separated by commas (see page 93). If, however, some or all of these elements are themselves divided into subelements, commas wouldn’t clearly indicate where one main element ends and the next begins,
because they would be indistinguishable from the commas separating the subelements. In such a case, use semicolons instead:
The toolbox contained 16-gauge, 18-gauge, and 20-gauge nails; quarter-inch, half-inch
and three-eighths-inch drill bits; and an assortment of hammers and screwdrivers.
There are many types of white blood cells, each with a specialized role. Some attack
viruses, some bacteria, and some parasites; some destroy invaders directly and some
get other parts of the immune system to do so; some have the job of sending out an
alarm when a harmful substance enters the body, and others have the job of mopping
up the mess after a different set of cells has taken care of the problem.
With disturbing regularity, the end of the work day found us at the old Monkey
Bar, the Dorset Bar, the Warwick Bar, all attached to serviceable and somewhat
down-at-heels hotels. Midtown Manhattan used to be full of just such comfortably
shabby establishments where career waiters with brilliantined comb-overs and shinyelbowed jackets might serve marvelously cheap albeit watery drinks, along with free
snacks: withered celery sticks; pretzel nuggets accompanying a cheese spread of a
color that in nature usually signals “I am an alluring yet highly poisonous tree frog,
beware!”; chicken wings kept barely, salmonella-friendly warm in a chafing dish over
a Sterno lamp; and a bounty of unironic, faux Asian, pupu platter dough cylinders,
pocket, and triangles that were—oh glory!—fried. Dinner and forgetfulness all for
ten dollars.
—David Rakoff, Fraud
If only one main element in a series is subdivided into subelements and the remainder are not, you must still put semicolons between all the main elements in the sentence. That is, be consistent: don’t use a semicolon in just the one place where it is
needed, and commas elsewhere.
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Punctuation
No: The competition drew contestants from Georgia and Alabama in the south, New
York, New Hampshire, and Connecticut in the northeast; and Oregon in the northwest.
Yes: The competition drew contestants from Georgia and Alabama in the south; New
York, New Hampshire, and Connecticut in the northeast; and Oregon in the northwest.
Use semicolons to separate elements in a series if commas
might cause a sentence to be misread or otherwise difficult
to follow
Even when elements are not subdivided into subelements, commas sometimes
would not suffice to mark the divisions between them. For example, consider the
following assembly instruction:
Part A attaches to B, C and D attach to E, and F attaches to G.
It would be very easy for a reader to mistake B, C and D for a series: that is, to start
processing the sentence as Part A attaches to B, C and D. (This would be particularly
likely if the style does not call for a serial comma.) The rest of the sentence then
falls apart: attach to E, and F attaches to G (?). A second pass would clear things up, but
no sentence should have to be read twice to be understood. Semicolons would prevent any confusion, ensuring that each clause is kept distinct from the others.
Part A attaches to B; C and D attach to E; and F attaches to G.
Optionally use a semicolon instead of a comma to separate
independent clauses joined by a conjunction if a comma might
not be strong enough
The general rule is that independent clauses linked by a coordinating conjunction
are separated with a comma (see page 79). However, if an independent clause contains any internal commas, you may sometimes choose to use a semicolon as the
separator instead. As with a series that contains subelements, the purpose is to
make it immediately clear to the reader where one main element ends and the next
begins. For example:
It is often useful to discuss your research ideas with others before you begin to write,
as the questions that arise from the discussion may help clarify things in your own
mind. Your consultants may be experts in your field, or they may know nothing of its
methods and assumptions; they may be familiar with your particular research project,
or they may be completely unacquainted with it; and they may be seasoned investigators or just starting out their own careers.
Semicolon 105
Similarly, at times you may decide to use a semicolon simply because the elements
in a series are long. Given that commas perform so many functions, it may not
always be immediately apparent what purpose a given comma is serving. Is it separating one main element from the next, separating subunits within a main element,
or separating grammatical units within an element, such as an independent clause
from a concluding phrase? Divisions that are obvious when sentences are short
may become fuzzy with longer constructions, and the reader may sometimes have
to pause or backtrack to stay on top. Using the stronger separator of the semicolon
makes the divisions stand out better. For example:
Recruiting participants for the study included screening all subjects to ensure that they
had no contraindicating medical conditions; distributing an information sheet that
described the protocol to those subjects meeting our inclusion criteria; arranging for
eligible subjects to participate in post-treatment discussion groups with the goal of
providing feedback to the researchers; and designating a group leader to attend these
sessions and coordinate the discussions.
All this sentence is ultimately doing is listing four activities, and if its elements
were shorter, commas as separators would work just fine (Recruiting participants
included screening subjects, handing out information, setting up discussion groups, and designating a group leader). However, because there is so much going on, the divisions
between elements are easier to see if semicolons are used instead. Just what constitutes “long” elements will be a matter of judgment; there isn’t some magic
number that decrees when semicolons become necessary. The only guideline that
can be given is to use them if you have reason to think they would make a sentence easier to read.
Finally, even if adjoining elements do not contain any internal commas and
are not that long, you may sometimes decide to separate them with semicolons if
each one deals with a distinct subject, in order to make this distinctiveness stand
out more clearly.
My criteria are that the building must be no higher than three stories; the main rooms
must have lots of light; there must be adequate guest parking; and the neighbors must
not be nosy.
Apply this last use of the semicolon with discretion, however. Just as with long
elements, it’s a judgment call. If commas would work perfectly well, putting semicolons in their place would be inappropriate.
106
Punctuation
Linking Elements
The previous section looked at the uses of the semicolon in promoting clarity. In
that role, it is simply used in places where commas would otherwise go, and no
other change to the sentence is involved.
This section describes a different role of the semicolon: that of forming elegant
alternatives to other sentence constructions. Knowledgeable application of this
punctuation mark can serve to tighten up wording, elucidate or emphasize subtle
relationships, and add polish to your writing style.
Consider using the semicolon in place of a conjunction
The following sentences all consist of two clauses linked by a coordinating or subordinating conjunction:
His offer sounded too good to be true, so I didn’t believe it.
[two independent clauses linked by so]
I was starting to worry, for he was now two hours late.
[two independent clauses linked by for]
We didn’t have the heart to continue, as it all seemed so futile.
[independent clause followed by a dependent clause starting with as]
My favorite plague is hail, whereas my husband’s is frogs.
[independent clause followed by a dependent clause starting with whereas]
There is nothing wrong with any of these constructions, and they certainly contain
no ambiguity. In each case, however, it would be possible to omit the conjunction,
since it could easily be inferred. If this is done, the comma is no longer the right separator, since putting it between two independent clauses would create a comma splice
(see page 82). The semicolon is the proper mark instead. In this role, it acts as a sort
of stand-in for the missing conjunction, sending a signal to the reader that there is
some implicit and self-evident relationship between the clauses it separates.
His offer sounded too good to be true; I didn’t believe it.
I was starting to worry; he was now two hours late.
We didn’t have the heart to continue; it all seemed so futile.
My favorite plague is hail; my husband’s is frogs.
Semicolon 107
Apart from shaving off a word, an advantage to omitting the conjunction is that an
over-exactitude in spelling everything out can render text a bit ponderous. Writing
may come through as subtler, more sophisticated, if it leaves a few blanks for readers to fill in for themselves. (For other strategies, see the discussions of elliptical
constructions on page 98 and the suspension hyphen on page 146.)
Of course, omitting conjunctions isn’t appropriate in all cases. Sometimes a conjunction couldn’t easily be inferred, and a sentence might look puzzling without it.
She longed to stay till the end of the talk; she had to leave.
The connection between these clauses isn’t immediately obvious, so the sentence
comes through as mildly confusing. It may be a bit of a strain for the reader to
deduce that the missing conjunction must be yet or but.
In other cases, different conjunctions might be possible, so omitting the intended
one might cause a reader to put the wrong interpretation on the sentence.
The task clearly would be difficult; I would have a day to do it.
Is the missing conjunction here and? but? since? so? Is one day plenty of time or not
enough time? In the absence of a conjunction, the intention of the second clause
could be misconstrued. Other parts of the text might provide enough context to clarify the writer’s intentions, but on its own, this sentence is not communicating them.
Consider using the semicolon to unite two sentences
Two adjacent independent clauses can, of course, each stand alone as separate sentences. Often, this is appropriate. However, if the clauses are so closely related in
meaning that they are essentially two halves of a whole—that is, they are not merely
on the same topic, but the second one completes the first—then separating them to
this extent may obscure or downplay their relationship. If your goal is to help the
reader pick up on their connection, this may be better achieved by running them
together in one sentence, either by adding an appropriate conjunction or by using
a semicolon. The semicolon may be the more appropriate choice in cases where the
relationship can’t be neatly captured in just one word, and where the reader should
be able to infer it in any case.
The early bird gets the worm. The early worm gets eaten.
The early bird gets the worm; the early worm gets eaten.
Implication: There’s a flip side to everything.
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Punctuation
Only Leah showed up to help with the move. The others all found excuses to stay away.
Only Leah showed up to help with the move; the others all found excuses to stay away.
Implication: Some friends are more loyal than others.
His old apartment had been a total pigsty. His new one was worse.
His old apartment had been a total pigsty; his new one was worse.
Implication: It’s hopeless to get him to improve.
Aside from helping to elucidate relationships, combining sentences this way
often makes writing smoother, turning a series of short, choppy sentences into
text that flows.
A caution about using the semicolon this way: don’t overdo it. It’s a strong
punctuation mark, and sprinkling it too liberally throughout a document will
cause it to lose its impact. Even if you can justify each individual use, having semicolons show up in sentence after sentence becomes tedious. Don’t make the mistake of trying to make your content look more important by peppering it with
fancy punctuation.
Style Conventions
• The usual convention today is to leave just one space after a semicolon, but
some style guides specify two. If you are free to choose your own approach,
be consistent.
Dogs have owners; cats have staff.
or: Dogs have owners; cats . . .
• When a semicolon follows text enclosed by quotation marks, place it after the
closing quotation mark. (See the style conventions for quotation marks on
page 188.)
• If the text immediately preceding a semicolon is italicized, the semicolon may
either be italicized as well or appear in regular font. Again, ensure consistency.