University of Montana
ScholarWorks at University of Montana
Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers
Graduate School
1975
Fascism the technological rationality and
monopoly capital
Jan Konigsberg
The University of Montana
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FASCISM, THE TECHNOLOGICAL RATIONALITY AND MONOPOLY CAPITAL
By
Jan Konigsberg
B . A . , Reed C o l l e g e ,
Presented
in p a r t i a l
1969
f u l f i l l m e n t o f the r e q u ir e m e n t s
f o r the degree o f
M a s te r o f A r t s
UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA
1975
Approved by:
Exami ners
Cha i rman
Dea^^ Graduate School
________________________ /•9 7S -
Date
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Fascism,
D irecto r:
the T e c h n o l o g i c a l
R atio n ality
P h il os op hy
and Monopoly C a p i t a l
(99 p p .)
Ronald F. P e r r i n
Fascism i s o f t e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d as the t o t a l i t a r i a n v a r i a n t o f the
technological r a t i o n a l i t y .
Th is st udy o f " F a s c i s m , the T e c h n o l o g i ­
c al R a t i o n a l i t y and Monopoly C a p i t a l " is concerned to dem onstrate
t h a t fa s c i s m as i t emerged in Germany and I t a l y was a r e a c t i o n
a g a i n s t the t e c h n o l o g i c a l r a t i o n a l i t y o f monopoly c a p i t a l .
Fascism
o c c u r r e d in the c o n t e x t o f European c a p i t a l i s t development and t h i s
suggests t h a t f a s c i s m be i n v e s t i g a t e d in the l i g h t o f the uneven
development o f th e European n a t i o n s t a t e s .
T h is s t u d y contends t h a t
due to the r e l a t i v e l y slow t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the two economies o f
Germany and I t a l y as w e l l as t o t h e d i f f e r e n t r a t e s o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n
o f the s e c t o r s w i t h i n these c o u n t r i e s f a s c i s m was a consequence o f
the f a i l u r e o f th e l i b e r a l s t a t e to m i t i g a t e the e f f e c t s o f the
emergence o f the monopoly c a p i t a l s e c t o r .
R at h er than r e s u r r e c t
l a i s s e z - f a i r e economic and p o l i t i c a l b e h a v i o r as was i t s i n t e n t i o n ,
f a s c i s m f a c i l i t a t e d the hegemony o f the t e c h n o l o g i c a l r a t i o n a l i t y
o f monopoly c a p i t a l .
In o r d e r to j u s t i f y t h i s j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f th e t e c h n o l o g i c a l r a t i o ­
n a l i t y and monopoly c a p i t a l , the t h e s i s t u r n s t o a st udy o f the
dynamic o f monopoly c a p i t a l development in th e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
More
than any o t h e r c o u n t r y th e U n it e d S t a t e s p r o v i d e d the c o n d i t i o n s f o r
r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n and i n t e g r a t i o n o f a l l s e c t o r s o f s o c i e t y .
The
primacy o f the t e c h n o l o g i c a l r a t i o n a l i t y is no t the r e s u l t o f t e c h ­
n o l o g i c a l f o r c e s o p e r a t i n g i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f s o c i a l c l a s s b u t the
consequence o f the s o c i a l p r a c t i c e o f the b o u r g e o i s i e in r e l a t i o n
to t h e ad v e nt o f the consumer s o c i e t y .
I t Is o n l y in the c o n t e x t
o f the consummate development o f monopoly c a p i t a l in America t h a t
a v i a b l e e x p l a n a t i o n may be d i s c o v e r e d f o r the absence o f fa s c i s m
in America as w e l l as f o r f a i l u r e o f the modern w o r k in g c la s s to
overcome a l i e n a t i o n .
I I
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT...........................................................................................................................................
ii
P R E F A C E ...........................................................................................................................................
iv
Cha pte r
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
FASCISM AND TECHNOLOGICAL REALITY:
DOES FASCISM MANIFEST
THE TECHNOLOGICAL RATIONALITY OF ADVANCED CAPITALISM?
. . .
I
THE GENESIS AND ESSENCE OF CAPITALIST PRODUCTION .........................
THE FAILURE OF THE LIBERAL STATE AND THE EMERGENCE OF
F A S C I S M ..............................................................................................................
THE COMPATIBILITY OF FASCISM AND MONOPOLY CAPITAL
11
22
.....................
34
THE SINGULAR CHARACTER OF AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT ..............................
4l
V I.
THE RATIONALIZATION OF THE WORK P R O C E S S ...................................
46
V II.
THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE WORKER IN ADVANCED INDUSTRIAL
PRODUCTION.........................................................................................................
57
V III.
THE DISACCUMULATION PHASE--GETTING BEYOND TAYLORISM
. . . .
61
IX .
UNIONS AND THE CAPITULATION OF L A B O R ............................................ ....
.
70
X.
THE EMERGENCE OF A CLASS-CONSCIOUS POLITICAL DIRECTORATE .
.
78
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION:
THE HEGEMONY OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL
RATIONALITY AND THE DISSOLUTION OF CONSCIOUSNESS ........................
84
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................
98
X I.
I I I
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PREFACE
Alt hough th e emergence o f s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s
R u s s ia ,
C h in a ,
Cuba,
In d o c h i n a and o t h e r T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s can be r e ­
garded as t h e germ o f a new w o r l d o r d e r ,
f a c ed w i t h
tarian
th e t o t a l i t a r i a n
n o n e t h e le s s humanity
i m p l i c a t i o n s o f monopoly c a p i t a l .
r e v o l u t i o n does n o t seem a t a l l
c o u n t r i e s and t h e r e
in E a s t e r n Europe,
is no c e r t a i n t y
is s t i l l
A prole­
imminent in the advanced i n d u s t r i a l
t h a t the p r e s e n t economic c r i s i s w i l l
weaken th e b o u r g e o i s i e and s t r e n g t h e n
the p r o l e t a r i a t .
a l s o no g u a r a n t e e t h a t th e axe o f f a s c i s m w i l l
Moreover,
there
is
no t a g a in be r a i s e d on b e h a l f
o f th e c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s .
The p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n ,
a t the v e ry l e a s t ,
demands u n d e r s t a n d i n g — an
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e dynamics o f c a p i t a l i s t i c de ve lop me nt, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h
r e s p e c t to the emergence o f monopoly c a p i t a l
upon e v er y d a y l i f e .
and i t s
p o litic a l
The works o f the F r a n k f u r t School
ram ifications
and A ntonio Gramsci
p r o v i d e an i n v a l u a b l e f o u n d a t i o n f o r such an i n q u i r y w i t h i n a M a r x i s t fr am e ­
wo rk.
The F r a n k f u r t School
and e s p e c i a l l y Marcuse have demonstrated the
r e l a t i o n s h i p between advanced c a p i t a l i s m and a on e- d im e n s i o n a l
ra tio n a lity
in f a s c i s t s o c i e t y .
work in which t h a t
re la tio n s h ip
Gramsci
has i l l u s t r a t e d
technological
the p o l i t i c a l
fr am e ­
is n u r t u r e d .
However in c o m p le te the a n a ly s e s o f Gramsci
and the F r a n k f u r t School
may be f o r the p r o j e c t o f dra wi n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the emergence
o f monopoly c a p i t a l
and the emergence o f fa s c i s m in Germany and I t a l y ,
studies are e s s e n tia l
to such a t a s k .
The v e r y
in a d e q u a c ie s o f t h e i r un der­
s t a n d i n g o f th e n a t u r e o f f a s c i s m can be overcome,
t h e i r various p e rsp ectives.
Although
th e ir
in p a r t ,
I have no i n t e n t i o n
by i n t e g r a t i n g
to p r e s e n t a
i V
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comprehensive p i c t u r e o f European f a s c i s m ,
seems t o be i n s t r u c t i v e
in th e f a s c i s t e x p e r i e n c e
respect to the t o t a l i t a r i a n
st ud y p r o v i d e s f u r t h e r
a fascist
regime
I have a t t e m p t e d to d i s t i l l
in Germany and I t a l y w i t h
i m p l i c a t i o n s o f modern de ve lop me nt.
insight
Such a
i n t o the reasons f o r the absence thus f a r o f
In the U n i t e d S t a t e s .
What I hope to make c l e a r
t h i s absence o f fa s c i s m in th e w o r l d ' s most t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y
b e l i e s a more f u n d a m e n t a l ,
what
to ta lita ria n
Is
that
r e p le t e country
dimension o f monopoly c a p i t a l .
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CHAPTER I
FASCISM AND TECHNOLOGICAL REALITY:
DOES FASCISM MANIFEST
THE TECHNOLOGICAL RATIONALITY OF ADVANCED CAPITALISM?
M arc use 's One-Dimensional
by advanced i n d u s t r i a l
Man c h a r a c t e r i z e s
s o c i e t y as one which
th e r e p r e s s i o n g e n e r a t e d
is
so d i f f e r e n t from t h a t which c h a r a c t e r i z e d the p r e c e d i n g , le ss
dev eloped st age s o f o u r s o c i e t y , o p e r a t e s today n o t from a po­
s i t i o n o f n a t u r a l and t e c h n i c a l i m m a t u r i t y b u t r a t h e r from a
position o f strength.
The c a p a b i l i t i e s ( i n t e l l e c t u a l and m a t e r ­
i a l ) o f contemporary s o c i e t y a r e immeasurably g r e a t e r than e v e r
before.
Our s o c i e t y d i s t i n g u i s h e s i t s e l f by c o n q u e r i n g the
c e n t r i f u g a l s o c i a l f o r c e s w i t h Technology r a t h e r than T e r r o r ,
on th e dual b a s is o f an ove rwh elm ing e f f i c i e n c y and an i n c r e a s ­
ing s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g . 1
The s o p h i s t i c a t e d and d e t a i l e d c r i t i q u e p r o v i d e d by One-Dime ns iona l
Man is
ro ot e d in the e a r l y work o f Marcuse and o t h e r s o f the F r a n k f u r t School
un der ta ke n d u r i n g the
r i s e o f f a s c i s m in Germany.
The s t u d i e s o f P o l l a c k ,
Newmann, H o r k h e im e r , K i r c h h e i m e r and Marcuse o f f e r d i v e r g e n t and o f t e n con­
flic tin g
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a bo u t t h e n a t u r e o f f a s c i s m and y e t
t h a t f a s c i s m ushered i n t o b e in g a new type o f do m in a t io n o f
Whereas the e a r l y
form o f d o m i n a t i o n ,
com petitive c a p i t a l i s t
a lis tic
dualis ms o f the
stage,
t o wh at they
the s o c i a l
refer
had been med iat ed and b u f f e r e d by the
individual
and m o r a l s , economy and p o l i t i c s ,
t h e ' p s y c h i c com pliance o f
in trin s ic
they a l l
and s o c i e t y , p r i v a t e
and p u b l i c
a gre e
order.
t o as the
lib e rlife ,
law
f a s c i s m a c h i e v e d d o m i n a t io n n o t o n l y by
the a u t h o r i t a r i a n
c o n s t a n t and u n r e m i t t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n o f
p erso n ality,
t e r r o r and
^ H e r b e r t Marcuse, One-Dime ns iona l
b u t a l s o by the
c o e r c i o n .
Man, Boston:
Beacon P r e s s ,
19 64,
p . xi i .
^ M a r t i n J a y , The D i a l e c t i c a l
Brown & Company, 1973, p . 157.
I m a g i n a t i o n , Boston and To ro n t o :
1
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L ittle ,
2
The c r i t i c a l
to i d e n t i f y
school's
the s o c i a l
i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f f a s c i s m began w i t h a concern
a ge nc ie s
responsible
form o f d o m i na tio n under f a s c i s m .
some s t u d i e s
id en tifie d
w h ile o ther studies
ensued w i t h i n
to rical
f o r the
As the v a r i o u s
th e s t a t e as the s e c t o r
in s titu tio n o f
in v e s t ig a t i o n s proceeded,
responsible
i m p l i c a t e d the monopoly c a p i t a l
the School
the new
sector.
for
fascism,
A controversy
as t o w h e t h e r o r not f a s c i s m ushered i n a new h i s ­
development o f th e " p r im a c y o f p o l i t i c s "
in which economic c o n d i t i o n s
were no l o n g e r the d e t e r m i n i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f s o c i a l
praxis.
The c o n t r o v e r s y
seems t o have been r e s o l v e d by s u g g e s t i n g t h a t the t r a d i t i o n a l
M a r x i s t con­
cepts were inad eq ua te
posed by Nazi
to a t r u e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the s i t u a t i o n
Germany in which the p r o l e t a r i a t n o t o n l y had f a i l e d
b u t a l s o had c a s t a s u b s t a n t i a l
number o f v o te s
ism.
R at h er than conclude t h a t e i t h e r
sib le
f o r the i n s t i t u t i o n o f
c ritic a l
school
revo lu tio n ,
in support o f N ational
the s t a t e o r the economy were
to ta lita ria n
control,
S o cial­
respon­
the t h e o r i s t s o f the
argued t h a t w h a t e v e r the s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l
a c c o u n t i n g f o r the emergence o f f a s c i s m ,
circumstances
the a c t i v i t y o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and
d o mi nat ion had assumed an importance and l i f e
relatio n
to make the
ind ep en de nt o f any p a r t i c u l a r
to c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n , and ind ep en de nt o f any c l a s s .
Th is c o n c lu s io n t h a t th e a c t i v i t y o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and d o m i n a t io n
a c h ie v e s a d e f i n i t e autonomy under f a s c i s m d i d not le a d the members o f
F r a n k f u r t School
to r e p u d i a t e Ma rxi sm.
T h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the h i s t o r i c a l
process t h a t c u l m i n a te d in European f a s c i s m was f u n d a m e n t a l l y M a r x i s t .
concern f o r the h i s t o r i c i t y o f a l l
In Capi t a l , Marx s t r e s s e s
cess .
Moreover,
productive
there are
f o r c e s as w e l l
the
phenomena is c e n t r a l
the deve lopm enta l
The
to M a r x i s t t h o u g h t .
c h a r a c t e r o f the h i s t o r i c a l
pro­
laws o f development f o r any g i v e n o r g a n i z a t i o n o f
as l e v e l s o f development w i t h i n an epoch.
ism de v e lo p ed o u t o f f e u d a l i s m and c a p i t a l i s m proceeds
C ap ita l­
through v a r i o u s s ta ge s
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3
o f development which can be s c h e m a t iz e d by the move from c o m p e t i t i v e cap­
ita lis m
to monopoly c a p i t a l i s m .
The M a r x i s t c o n c e p t io n o f h i s t o r y p r o v i d e d
the framework in which the F r a n k f u r t School
emergence o f f a s c i s m .
and a u t h o r i t y
a study o f
M a r x i s t p r e o c c u p a t i o n and lends
During th e e a r l i e r mode o f
was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by many small
and a d m i n i s t e r the spheres o f s o c i a l
the s t a t e ,
a c tiv ity
the e d u c a t i o n a l
were products o f the b o ur ge oi s e r a ,
However,
tiv e capitalism
th e F r a n k f u r t School
to monopoly c a p i t a l
estab lished
s t r u c t u r e such as
the f a m i l y ,
the a r t s , e t c . ,
in dep end ent o f one
t h a t the s h i f t
from c o m p e t i ­
the n e c e ss a r y c o n d i t i o n s
r e l a t i o n s were t r a n s f o r m e d
for
into
the F r a n k f u r t S c h o o l , such a t r a n s f o r m a ­
r e l a t i o n s was t h e consequence o f th e t e c h n o l o g i c a l
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g advanced c a p i t a l i s m
tutions
believed
t h e i r own
re la tio n s .^
A cco rdi ng to the members o f
tio n o f social
system,
social
to dominate
beyond the domain o f
they wer e r e l a t i v e l y
the emergence o f f a s c i s m in which a l l
au th o ritarian
to
p r o d u c t i o n which
or m aterial)
Althou gh the v a r i o u s components o f the s o c i a l
the economy,
another.
in d u s tria l
i t s e l f w ell
f i r m s engaged in a hi g h degree o f c o m p e t i t i o n ,
c a p i t a l i s t s were w i t h o u t th e means ( i n t e l l e c t u a l
facto ries.
the
T h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n upon th e phenomenon o f d o m i n a t io n
is a t y p i c a l l y
f a s ci sm .
a t t e m p t e d to acco unt f o r
fo r social
control .
example o f a gene ra l
t r e n d towards i r r a t i o n a l
ra tio n a lity
in stitu tio n s
became i n s t i ­
Horkh eim er saw Nazism as the "most e x t re m e
emergence o f Nazism r e p r e s e n t s
the t e c h n o l o g i c a l
in which s o c i a l
ra tio n a lity
th e
in ev ita b le
do m i n a t io n
in the W e s t . "
If
The
tendency o f c a p i t a l i s m t o impose
upon th e whole o f s o c i e t y ;
thereby d e s tro y in g
3T h is is a c o n c l u s i o n I draw from a r e a d i n g o f the c h a p t e r e n t i t l e d
"The I n s t i t u t e ' s A n a l y s i s o f Nazism" in the D i a l e c t i c a l I m a g i n a t i o n .
T h is
c o n c l u s i o n r e f l e c t s n o t h i n g more than the S c h o o l ' s d e s i r e to approach fa s c i s m
w i t h i n a M a r x i s t framework.
^ I b i d . , p . 166
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4
a ll
lib e ra l
dualis ms and n e g a t i n g w h a t e v e r r e l a t i v e
among the v a r i o u s spheres o f s o c i a l
p ra c tic e .
independence e x i s t e d
The t r a n s i t i o n
s o c i a l o r d e r to a t o t a l i t a r i a n one can be l i n k e d
from a l i b e r a l
to the e s s e n t i a l
character
o f c a p i t a l i s m t o dominate and a d m i n i s t e r th e r e l a t i o n s between c a p i t a l
labor
in a l l
st a ge s o f dev e lo p m e nt .
In so f a r as th e d o m i n a t io n by c a p i t a l
is c o n s id e r e d t o be a law o f c a p i t a l i s t d e v e lo p m e n t ,
o f human w i l l .
The F r a n k f u r t School
th a t c a p ita lis m creates
p l a y o f the human w i l l
the m a t e r i a l
in a l l
and
ta kes
this
i t operates
independently
law o f development t o mean
c o n d i t i o n s which e f f e c t i v e l y
the aren as o f human a c t i v i t y
to c a p i t a l i s m the p r o g r e s s i v e u n f o l d i n g o f
the
irra tio n a l
and ,
destroy the
thus
imputes
in human a f f a i r s
a t the ve ry moment in h i s t o r y when p r o d u c t i o n becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y
ra tio n a l-
ize d .5
One-Dimensional
t h a t the use o f
f o r the
the same a n a l y s i s
i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t w o r l d view o f advanced c a p i t a l i s m .
a c tiv ity
incorporation
o f a m onolithic,
lo s e t h e i r
in d ic a te
homogenous s o c i e t y which
th o u gh t;
it
As the v a r i o u s
l i b e r a l i s t i c d i v e r s i t y by v i r t u e o f
in the t e c h n o l o g i c a l
o f any b a s i s upon which c r i t i c a l
is s u b v e r s i v e
to
t e r r o r and f o r c e under f a s c i s m se cur es a p o s i t i o n o f s t r e n g t h
spheres o f s o c i a l
th e ir
Man goes f u r t h e r w i t h
ethos,
the y f a c i l i t a t e
in c r e a s in g ly deprives
tho u gh t can be n u r t u r e d .
is n o t e n c lo s e d " w i t h i n
the c r e a t i o n
in divid uals
C ritic a l
thou ght
the e s t a b l i s h e d u n i v e r s e
o f d i s c o u r s e and be ha vio i— t h e r e b y p r e c l u d i n g a p r i o r i
a rational
evaluation
6
o f the a l t e r n a t i v e s . "
In t u r n ,
this
absence o f c r i t i c a l
thou ght e l i m i n a t e s
5 a 1though Ho rkh eim er was the one to e x p l i c i t l y a s s o c i a t e f a s c i s m
w i t h i r r a t i o n a l d o m i n a t i o n , I b e l i e v e t h a t i t is an a s s o c i a t i o n i m p l i c i t
even in the a n a ly s e s o f those members o f the school who sought a more m a t e r ­
i a l i s t explanation.
^ H e r b e r t Marcuse, " R e p r e s s i v e T o l e r a n c e , " W o l f f , Moore, Marcuse, ^
Cri t i q u e o f Pure T o l e r a n c e , Boston:
Beacon P r e s s , 1 9 69 , p. 101.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
5
the need f o r
reliance
upon e x t e r n a l
t i o n o f s o c i e t y as a w h o l e .
f o r e , a one-dimensional
force
to achieve
The h i s t o r i c a l
society
tio nal
outcome o f c a p i t a l i s m
i n which the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
b o u r g e o i s i e has been tr an s ce n d ed by s o c i a l
w i t h o u t conscious d i r e c t i o n .
the e f f e c t i v e a d m i n i s t r a ­
is ,
role o f
there­
the
mechanisms which a p p a r e n t l y o p e r a t e
Th is c l a r i f i e s
H o r k h e i m e r ' s c o nc e pt o f
irra ­
d o m i n a t io n as the d o m i n a ti o n o f both th e p r o l e t a r i a t and th e b o u r g e o i s i e
by a disembodied t e c h n o l o g i c a l
r e v o l u t i o n becomes v i r t u a l l y
ra tio n a lity .
As a r e s u l t ,
the p o s s i b i l i t y o f
n o n - e x i s t e n t s i n c e the c l a s s s t r u g g l e has been
defused by the development o f monopoly c a p i t a l .
One-Dimensional
as c a p i t a l
develops i t
Man t u r n s M a r x i s m - L e n i n is m on i t s h e a d, den y in g t h a t
promotes a r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o l e t a r i a t c o n s c io u s n e s s ,
a r g u i n g i n s t e a d t h a t advanced c a p i t a l i s m has c r e a t e d
t h a t p r e c l u d e the f o r m a t i o n o f c r i t i c a l
bourgeoisie
resu lts
reason which s e t s
conditions
The v e ry success o f
in r e s p e c t to o r g a n i z i n g and c o n t i n u a l l y
o f production
t h a t c la s s
thought.
the m a t e r i a l
revo lu tio n izin g
in the hegemony o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l ,
the
th e mode
in strum entalist
the s t a g e f o r th e t r a n s i t i o n o f reason as an i n s t r u m e n t o f
to a f o r c e
independent o f c l a s s .
The c a t e g o r i e s o f d o m i n a ti o n and
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n no l o n g e r proceed from human b e h a v i o r b u t r a t h e r compel a l l
b e h a v i o r and t h o u g h t .
In the c o n t e x t o f M a rc u s e 's a n a l y s i s ,
these c a t e g o r i e s
a r e deigned to have a l i f e o f t h e i r own o v e r which the b o u r g e o i s i e has no
real
control.
the c a p i t a l i s t s
Even w i t h
do no t make the e s s e n t i a l
c r a t i c m ana ger ia l
technical
r e s p e c t t o t h e o p e r a t i o n o f th e means o f p r o d u c t i o n
class
p r o c e s se s .
is c a p a b le o f
respo ndi ng to the
M a rc u se 's p o s i t i o n
in which the t e c h n o l o g i c a l
d ecisio ns since only the techno­
i m p e r a t i v e s o f the
is one o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l
m atrix d ic ta te s
determinism
the form and c o n t e n t o f s o c i a l
construction .
I t would a ppe ar as i f Marcuse has e f f e c t i v e l y and i r r e v o c a b l y
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
i n t e r w o v e n the two s t r a n d s o f f a s c i s m and modern t e c h n o l o g i c a l
modern man is e n t w i n e d .
The e nd e a v o r begun by the F r a n k f u r t School
have been consummated in the r e c e n t work o f H e r b e r t Marcuse.
o rig in a l
e nd ea vor to i n t e r r e l a t e
f l a w which t h i s st udy s h a l l
However,
the
a t t e m p t to overcome.
(e .g .,
the American response)
the response o f some n a t i o n t o the
is
e v id e n c e
F r a n k f u r t S c h o o l.
in terp re ta tio n
as comprehen­
must be u n d e r t a k e n .
Thus,
the S c h o o l ' s
id e n tific a tio n
fascism but
ec onomic, s o c i o l o g i c a l
which a r e m a n i f e s t
in the s o c i a l
the p r a x i s o f f a s c i s m ,
its
and i d e o l o g i c a l
The i n t e n t o f
is n o t a
c h a rac te ris tic s
organization o f
the masses,
remains v e ry much open
t h i s pa pe r is n o t to ta k e
commonly a s c r i b e d to f a s c i s m in p o l i t i c a l
t e x t b o o k s , b u t to uncover the process
that
le d to a t o t a l i t a r i a n
order.
To b e g in w i t h ,
o f monopoly c a p i t a l
order.
It
r a t h e r what may be a t t r i b u t e d
u n d e r l y i n g mode o f b e i n g ,
issue w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
th e
the
f o r any e r r o r s
the e q u a t i o n .
and p s y c h o l o g i c a l
to d i s c u s s i o n and i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
social
of
In o t h e r w o rd s , w h i l e no one can deny t h a t f a s c i s m in Europe had
certain p o l i t i c a l ,
s c ie n c e
then
o f f a s c i s m w i t h an un­
r a t i o n a l i t y must a l s o be s c r u t i n i z e d
t h e n , o f wh at c o n s t i t u t e s
to f a s ci sm .
f a s c i s m is not
emergence o f monopoly c a p i t a l i s m ,
t h a t might be c on ce ale d by th e a p p a r e n t l o g i c o f
question,
If
t h a t goes a g a i n s t the g r a i n o f the v a r i o u s s t u d i e s
fo ld in g technological
for
seems to
some c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f o t h e r responses t o the emergence o f monopoly
capital
this
in which
f a s c i s m w i t h advanced c a p i t a l i s m c o n t a i n s a
B e f o re a c c e p t i n g t h e F r a n k f u r t S c h o o l ' s
sive,
so ciety
the
in itia l
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f fascism w ith
tends to be a h i s t o r i c a l
in so f a r as i t
does n o t a c c o u n t
emergence o f f a s c i s m as an o p p o s i t i o n a l movement w i t h i n
Fascism d e r i v e d s u p p o r t on th e b a s is o f i t s
Furthermore,
the id e o lo g y and p r a c t i c e o f
th e growth
the c a p i t a l i s t
a n ti-c a p ita lis t
posture.
f a s c i s m d i d n o t proceed from a
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
7
technological
r a t i o n a l i t y embodied in a t e c h n o c r a t i c s o c i a l
which the i m a g i n a t i o n and w i l l
to command th e w i l l
his w illin g n e s s
no l o n g e r d e t e r m i n e b e h a v i o r .
and to punish o r
to obey a u t h o r i t y .
reward the
real
depends u l t i m a t e l y
individual
c ho ice s
r e co g n iz e s t h e supremacy o f the w i l l .
i n d i v i d u a l on the b a s i s o f
to i n i t i a t e
a c t i o n and,
therefore,
The i d e o l o g y and p r a c t i c e o f f a s c i s m
In t h i s
the r a t i o n a l i t y o f th e e a r l y p e r i o d o f
ual s were f r e e
Fascism e x i s t s
the f a s c i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s o c i e t y
p r e s e r v e s the b o ur ge oi s concept o f f r e e w i l l .
reflects
punished as a consequence o f t h e i r c h o i c e .
respect,
lib eralism
to dis p os e o f themselves as they w i l l ,
At i t s
fascism
in which
in d iv id ­
t o be rewarded o r
core,
the t o t a l i t a r i a n
v i s i o n o f Germany and I t a l y was n o t t h a t o f a b r a v e new w o r l d b u t the
r e c t i o n o f Hobbesian s o c i e t y .
a n tith etica l
C erta in ly
technological
To t h i s e x t e n t ,
to the t e c h n o l o g i c a l
have ga in ed a s i n g u l a r
mode o f p r o d u c t i o n .
of a c ritic a l
f a s c i s m c e r t a i n l y appea rs
th e c a t e g o r i e s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and d o m i n a t io n as modes o f
ra tio n a lity
outcome o f t h i s
type o f
impo rtance w i t h t h e ad v e nt
upon h i g h l y complex te c h n iq u e s
Marcuse is e s p e c i a l l y c o r r e c t to i n s i s t
ra tio n a lity
is to e f f e c t i v e l y
consciousness by d e p r i v i n g many o f
s t r u c t u r e s and language f o r
suppress th e f o r m a t i o n
th e development o f e f f e c t i v e o p p o s i t i o n .
the i n e v i t a b l e
i r r a t i o n a l i t y o f c a p i t a l i s m no r t h a t advanced c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y
I n s t e a d th e emergence o f f a s c i s m and the
mode o f p r o d u c t i o n
However,
form o f the
is
in h e re n tly
ro ot s o f the t e c h n o l o g i c a l
r a t i o n a l i t y o f modern s o c i e t y may b e s t be examined by an a n a l y s i s o f
g e ne s is o f th e monopoly c a p i t a l
t h a t th e
the ne ce ssa ry t r a i n i n g ,
these i n s i g h t s do no t de m o n s t r a t e t h a t f a s c i s m is
fascist.
resur­
r a t i o n a l i t y o f advanced c a p i t a l i s m .
o f modern, advanced c a p i t a l i s m , which r e l i e s
in i t s
in
Whereas the t e c h n o c r a t i c s o c i e t y d e s t r o y s
the c o n d i t i o n s which p e r m i t
upon the
stru ctu re
the
in the c o n t e x t o f the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
n ation s t a t e . ^
Much o f the a n a l y s i s o f f a s c i s m p r o f f e r e d by the c r i t i c a l
is
insightful
and canno t be c a s t a s i d e .
draw t o e n c a p s u l a t e
t h e ir analysis
nature o f fascism are
in a d d i t i o n ,
s a lize
the concept o f f a s c i s m .
cal
ra tio n a lity
there
it
is
is
in tern a l
t h a t the y
statem ent o f
the
c o n t r a d i c t i o n s and vague­
in any a t t e m p t t o u n i v e r ­
To conclude t h a t f a s c i s m is the " p r im a c y o f
i n s t e a d the i r r a t i o n a l
embodiment o f the t e c h n o l o g i ­
to argue t h a t f a s c i s m can be posed as a law o f s o c i a l
epoch t h a t
is n e i t h e r c a p i t a l i s t i c n o r s o c i ­
Any a t t e m p t to g e n e r a t e a concept o f f a s c i s m w i t h a s u f f i c i e n t
level o f g e n e ra lity s u ita b le
social
the c o n c lu s io n s
at a d e fin itiv e
is an i n h e r e n t weakness
d e v e l o p m e n t - - a unique h i s t o r i c a l
a lis tic .
to a r r i v e
i n v a l i d a t e d by t h e i r
ness-
p o litic s " or that
However,
th eo rists
f o r m e th o d o lo g i c a l
development must f i n d e v i d e n c e o f
a p p l i c a t i o n as a law o f
the u n i v e r s a l i t y
supposedly i n h e r e n t
in f a s c i s t s o c i e t y .
The tendency o f many r e s e a r c h e r s
i n t o the n a t u r e o f
f a s c i s m is th e
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a model o f f a s c i s m t h a t can i d e n t i f y and e x p l a i n modern
f a s c i s t movements and re gim es.
f a s c i s t does no t y i e l d
nations.
There
Y e t to c a l l
much knowledge o f the a c t u a l
is the a d d i t i o n a l
c o n s t r u c t e d from th e German o r
p e r c e p t i o n o f modern s o c i a l
those
I t a l i a n e x p e r i e n c e can r e a d i l y d i s t o r t o u r
it
f o r model b u i l d i n g .
Although t h e F r a n k f u r t School was not
c o n c e p t u a l i z e d f a s c i s m as the type o f s o c i ­
e t y g e n e r a t e d by advanced c a p i t a l i s m ,
t h e r e b y p r o v i d i n g the t h e o r e t i c a l
A t the same t i m e ,
among members o f th e F r a n k f u r t School
I t is a t t h i s j u n c t u r e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the h i s t o r i c a l
o f monopoly c a p i t a l .
conditions o f
danger t h a t a model o f f a s c i s t s o c i e t y
processes.
concerned w i t h model b u i l d i n g ,
ju s tific a tio n
S p a i n , C h i l e , o r South A f r i c a
to i d e n t i f y
t h e r e was a w i l l i n g n e s s
f a s c i s m as a p a r t i c u l a r
t h a t G r a m sc i's p e r s p e c t i v e is i m p o r t a n t to an
r e l a t i o n o f n a t i o n s t a t e t o the development
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
9
regime which has s e i z e d power in a c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y w i t h o u t t r a n s f o r m i n g
the mode o f p r o d u c t i o n .
To a v o i d the problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
S c h o o l,
it
may be more f r u i t f u l
this
p o s t u r e o f the F r a n k f u r t
f o r an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f f a s c i s m t o r e g a rd
p r i n c i p a l l y as a p a r t i c u l a r development w i t h i n c a p i t a l i s m .
does n o t e n v i s i o n
to e x p l a i n a l l
its
re gi m e s.
c a p i t a l i s m de ni es
s t a t u s o f a law o f s o c i a l
with
This pa pe r then
purpose as p r o v i d i n g a concept o f f a s c i s m t h a t promises
types o f f a s c i s t
structure w ith in
it
To Judge f a s c i s m to be a p a r t i c u l a r
the v a l i d i t y o f g r a n t i n g fa s c i s m the
dev elop men t.
S in ce t h i s pap er w i l l
be concerned
l o c a t i n g th e emergence o f f a s c i s m in th e framework o f c a p i t a l i s t d e v e l ­
opment,
the e n s u in g i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f European f a s c i s m w i l l
ism is m o n o l i t h i c .
deny t h a t c a p i t a l ­
The process o f c a p i t a l i s t development has meant uneven
development among n a t i o n s .
These uneven developments have to do w i t h p a r t i c u ­
l a r c o n d i t i o n s o f a g e o g ra p h ic r e g i o n s u b j e c t to the c a p i t a l i s t mode o f
p r o d u c t io n which r e s u l t
ita lis t
progress.
It
in d i v e r g e n t and even c o n f l i c t i n g
is
responses to ca p­
in the c o n t e x t o f an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f uneven d e v e l ­
opment t h a t the emergence o f f a s c i s m may be b e s t u n d e rs t o o d .
f a s c i s m in t h i s c o n t e x t means to c o n c e p t u a l i z e
To s i t u a t e
f a s c i s m as a p a r t i c u l a r
by a n a t i o n to i t s own development w i t h i n a c a p i t a l i s t w o r l d system.
paper w i l l
treat
fa s c i s m w i t h
r e s p e c t to
the f a s c i s m o f Germany and I t a l y
development o f monopoly c a p i t a l
its
those c o u n t r i e s .
fetters
Only in t h i s
work which emphasizes the s i n g u l a r i t y o f f a s c i s m r a t h e r than i t s
and makes th e m a t t e r o f uneven development c e n t r a l
America d i d n o t have a f a s c i s t
upon the
frame­
u n iversality
can the q u e s t i o n o f why
regime d u r i n g the Depres sion and Wo rl d War I I
e r a be posed in a way which w i l l
The argument w i l l
Th is
p a r t i c u l a r i t y by f o c u s i n g on
as response to the i n t e r n a l
w ith in
response
bear f r u i t .
be made t h a t the German and I t a l i a n
states
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
retarded
to
the development o f monopoly c a p i t a l ,
a r e a c t i o n to c a p i t a l i s m
Th is s i t u a t i o n stands
in g e n e r a l
l e a d i n g to th e emergence o f f a s c i s m as
and to the
lib eral
state
in p a r t i c u l a r .
in marked c o n t r a s t to th e American n a t i o n s t a t e which
has te ned r a t h e r than impeded the f o r m a t i o n o f monopoly c a p i t a l .
w ith in
Ita ly
and Germany which f e t t e r e d
The c o n d i t i o n s
the development o f monopoly c a p i t a l
m i t i g a t e d a g a i n s t th e c r e a t i o n o f a c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s consciousness a n d , y e t ,
f o s t e r e d a p r o l e t a r i a t c l a s s c o n s c io us ne ss .
The c o n d i t i o n s which le d
r a p i d and consummate development o f advanced c a p i t a l i s m
engendered a c l a s s conscious c a p i t a l i s t
spheres o f s o c i a l
a c tiv ity
r e q u i r e d by advanced i n d u s t r i a l
ra tio n a lity
The te c h n iq u e s
production w i t h i n
were m o d i f i e d and e x te n de d by the b o u r g e o i s i e
a ll
in the U n i t e d S t a t e s
c l a s s and m i t i g a t e d a g a i n s t the
development o f a c l a s s conscious p r o l e t a r i a t .
developed to i n t e g r a t e and r a t i o n a l i z e
so c ie ty .
t h a t were
the U .S . economy
to a d m i n i s t e r and r a t i o n a l i z e
in o r d e r to p r o v i d e
In t h i s
the n e c e ss a r y s t a b i l i t y
lig h t,
technological
comprises a s e t o f te c h n iq u e s under the d i r e c t i o n and in the
s e r v i c e o f the c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s which
ness o f t h a t c la s s w i t h
the s t a t e
p o litic a l
Hence,
d irectorate.
i n c r e a s i n g l y promotes the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s ­
i n c r e a s i n g l y f u n c t i o n i n g as a c l a s s - c o n s c i o u s
the o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l
s o c i e t y which Marcuse
d e s c r i b e s was f i r s t born in th e U n i t e d S t a t e s and no t under f a s c i s m .
War I I
estab lished
resu lting
ita lis t
structed
to the
the U n i t e d S t a t e s as th e l e a d i n g w o r l d economic power,
in the hegemony o f
system.
World
the t e c h n o l o g i c a l
ra tio n a lity
in the w o r l d ca p­
This hegemony no t o n l y pu t an end to f a s c i s m b u t re co n­
the German and I t a l i a n
nations w ith in
th e framework o f monopoly
capi t a l .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER I I
THE GENESIS AND ESSENCE OF CAPITALIST PRODUCTION
It
is
i m p o r t a n t to b e g in w i t h
phenomenon o f which H i t l e r ' s
th e f a c t
Germany, M u s s o l i n i ' s
a r e the e a r l i e s t and most c l a s s i c ex am pl es.
France to have been a f a s c i s t s o c i e t y .
a lib e ra l
so ciety.
control
re b ellio n .
support.
B ritain
over society
Fascism is
No one c o n s i d e r s N a p o le o n ' s
Even under N a p ol e on ,
frig h ten in g
France remained
than
to c o n t e m p la t e because
is the f a c t t h a t f a s c i s t
Why d i d Germany and I t a l y
regimes r e c e i v e p o p u l a r
become f a s c i s t w h i l e c o u n t r i e s
and the U n it e d S t a t e s d i d not?
Any argument
lik e
to t h e e f f e c t t h a t the
pe op le were a u t h o r i t a r i a n , whereas t h e American and
B r i t i s h peo p le were l i b e r t a r i a n
fa s c i s m and I t a l i a n
and F r a n c o ' s Spain
is so complete t h a t t h e r e seems t o be no space f o r
E q u a l l y ominous
German and I t a l i a n
Ita ly ,
Fascism seems much more monstrous and d i a b o l i c a l
the a n c i e n t d i c t a t o r s h i p s .
its
t h a t f a s c i s m is a modern
begs t h e q u e s t i o n .
Nonetheless,
both German
f a s c i s m had the s u p p o r t o f a g r e a t number o f p e o p l e .
The a t t r a c t i o n o f fa s c i s m must be examined and the process uncovered t h a t
makes such a r e p r e s s i v e s o c i e t y a t t r a c t i v e .
I t may have been the case t h a t
the Germans and I t a l i a n s
l i b e r a t i o n because they despei—
a t e l y wished f o r s o c i a l
mis too k f a s c i s m f o r
change
in th e m id s t o f
Rath er than c l a i m t h a t th e German and I t a l i a n
from the American p e r s o n a l i t y ,
ferences
in each n a t i o n ' s
structures
it
in to le r a b le conditions.
p e rso n ality d if fe r s
may i n s t e a d be w i s e
d ra s tic a lly
to c o n s i d e r the d i f ­
response to t h e c r i s i s o f d e p r e s s i o n and the
through which the responses were m e d ia t e d .
T h a t th e U n i t e d S t a t e s ,
Germany and I t a l y were d i s r u p t e d by a
11
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12
worldwide depression a t t e s t s
t o t h e i r e x i s t e n c e as c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s
re cip ro c a lly affected
in tern atio n al
in the
each c o u n t r y was c a r r i e d on by p o l i t i c a l
d iffered
in fundamental ways.
and economic i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s
developments
p o litic a l
I f d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s as w e l l
the
i n t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode o f
r e f l e c t changes i n the mode o f p r o d u c t i o n
differences
that
they can be compared to one a n o t h e r .
are h i s t o r i c a l
ences between a n a t i o n ' s
from s u b s t a n t i a l
production w it h in
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s can be examined w i t h i n
framework o f c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n ,
p r o d u c t i o n , which
Yet,
These d i f f e r e n c e s must be s p e c i f i e d and
i d e n t i f i e d and in so f a r as the
These i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s
market.
its e lf.
D iffe r­
and economic s t r u c t u r e s would then a r i s e
in c a p i t a l i s t development w i t h i n
as s i m i l a r i t i e s
th e c o u n t r i e s .
between i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s a r e
to be
p i n p o i n t e d and compared in o r d e r to ac co un t f o r the emergence o f f a s c i s m in
some c o u n t r i e s and n o t
in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s ,
i s t development must f i r s t be e x p l a i n e d .
then the b a s i s o f uneven c a p i t a l ­
The l o g i c a l
b e g i n n i n g o f such an
e x p l a n a t i o n would be an account o f th e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f f e u d a l i s m i n t o
capi t a l i s m .
Throughout Volume I o f Capi t a l , Marx u n d e r l i n e s
production
to o c c u r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s must be met.
that for c a p ita lis t
He groups the s e c o n d i ­
t i o n s under the heading o f p r i m i t i v e a c c u m u l a t i o n .
The c a p i t a l i s t system presupposes t h e complete s e p a r a t i o n o f the
l a b o u r e r s from a l l p r o p e r t y in the means by which they can r e a l i s e
t h e i r l a b o u r . . . . The p r o c e s s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t c l e a r s th e way
f o r the c a p i t a l i s t syste m, can be none o t h e r than t h e process
which t ak es away from th e l a b o u r e r the possession o f h i s means o f
p r o d u c t i o n ; a process t h a t t r a n s f o r m s on the one hand, the s o c i a l
means o f s u b s i s t e n c e and o f p r o d u c t i o n i n t o c a p i t a l , on the o t h e r ,
the immediate pr od uce rs i n t o wage l a b o u r e r s .
The so c a l l e d p r i m ­
i t i v e a c c u m u l a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , is n o t h i n g e l s e than the h i s t o r i c a l
process o f d i v o r c i n g the p r o d u c e r from the means o f p r o d u c t i o n . ?
I Karl
19 67. p . 714.
Marx,
Capi t a l , V o l .
I,
New Y o r k :
In ternatio nal
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P ub lishers,
13
Marx employs th e concept o f p r i m i t i v e a c c u m u la t io n t o e x p l a i n
tio n o f feudalism in to c a p ita lis m .
that u n til
the t r a n s f o r m a ­
Many M a r x i s t s have t a k e n Marx to mean
a c o u n t r y has t r a n s f o r m e d a l l
l a b o r i n t o wage l a b o r i t is p r e 2
c a p i t a l i s t — in between f e u d a l i s m and c a p i t a l i s m .
Th is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
suggests t h a t an economy can c o n t a i n f e u d a l
s e c t o r s and c a p i t a l i s t s e c t o r s
depending on the absence o r the presence o f w a g e - l a b o r in a g i v e n s e c t o r .
Although Marx is u n u s u a l l y vague on t h e m a t t e r ,
it
does n o t seem a t a l l
p r o p r i a t e t o suppose t h a t h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f the move from p r i m i t i v e
tion
to c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n
implies
o f p r o d u c t i o n must be di sposed o f
labor.
R ath er what is
required
its
and p r o d u c t i o n )
e x ists
p r o p e r t y and t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o wage
in th e move from p r i m i t i v e a c c u m u l a t i o n ,
(i.e .,
to c a p i t a l i s t i c
free
labor r e s u lt in g
i n an a b s o l u t e
laborers
increase
the s t e a d y p r o l e ­
in the volume o f
production not o n ly m aintains
from the means o f p r o d u c t i o n , " b u t
In a c o n t i n u a l l y e x t e n d i n g s c a l e . M a r x
la tio n
subsistence
in th e r a t e o f p r o d u c t i o n o f s u r p l u s v a l u e .
a c cu m u la t io n which beg in s w i t h c a p i t a l
the s e p a r a t i o n o f the
it
is
c o a le s c e w i t h a s u f f i c i e n t number o f f r e e , wage l a b o r e r s .
l a b o r - p o w e r and an i n c r e a s e
Capital
production
the t r a n s f o r m e d means o f s o c i a l
The f u r t h e r development o f c a p i t a l i s m would t hen e n t a i l
ta ria n iza tio n o f
accumula­
t h a t a l 1 l a b o r w i t h i n a g i v e n system
which is a process c a t a l y z e d under f e u d a l i s m ,
t h a t what c a p i t a l
ap ­
is a r g u i n g t h a t c a p i t a l
speeds the process o f p r i m i t i v e a c c u m u l a t i o n .
a c c u m u la t io n precedes c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n ,
reproduces
it
accumu­
Although p c i m i t i v e
does n o t end w i t h
the b e g i n ­
n i n g o f c a p i t a l i s m even though th e means by which l a b o r is p r o l e t a r i a n i z e d
^A more complete d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and i t s
a p p l i c a t i o n can be found in W a l l e n s t e i n (see no te 5 ) , pp. 3 8 8 - 3 9 9 .
3 M a r x , op . c i t . , p . 4 1 7 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
practical
14
changes w i t h c a p i t a l i s t dev elop men t.
C a p i t a l i s t production
becomes wage l a b o r and a l l
is the process whereby a l l
means o f p r o d u c t i o n becomes c a p i t a l .
th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n which m a i n t a i n s
u n til
a ll
the s e p a r a t i o n o f
labor e v e n tu a lly
t h a t a country
remains " p r e - c a p i t a l i s t * '
l a b o r from the means o f p r o d u c t i o n
s e c t o r s o f the economy is
in e r r o r .
is com plete
but th is
In
Such an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n would have
to deny t h a t the process which a c h ie v e s such a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
tic ;
Therefore,
is c a p i t a l i s ­
is the c l a i m t h a t must be made, o t h e r w i s e c a p i t a l i s m c o u l d not
be judged t o have overcome the f e t t e r s o f f e u d a l i s m .
The process by which the s e p a r a t i o n o f
p r o d u c t i o n and the a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l
the p r o f i t t h a t can a c c r u e .
in a m a r k e t .
from th e means o f
t a k es p l a c e on an e x p a n d in g s c a l e
is the p r o d u c t i o n o f commodities f o r p r o f i t .
the s a l e o f thes e commodities
laborers
P r o f i t can be made o n l y from
The l a r g e r the m arket th e g r e a t e r
The e x pan sio n o f c a p i t a l
is a d i r e c t
the ex panding do m i n a t io n o f th e b o u r g e o i s i e t h r o u g h o u t the w o r l d .
re su lt o f
In the
Mani f e s t o , Marx remarks t h a t the
b o u r g e o i s i e has s u b j e c t e d the c o u n t r y to the r u l e o f the towns.
. . . The b o u r g e o i s i e keeps more and more do ing away w i t h the
s c a t t e r e d s t a t e o f the p o p u l a t i o n , o f the means o f p r o d u c t i o n ,
and o f p r o p e r t y . . . . The b o u r g e o i s i e has through i t s e x p l o i t a ­
t i o n o f the w o r l d mark et g i v e n a c o s m o p o l it a n c h a r a c t e r to pr od uc­
t i o n and consumption in e v e r y c o u n t r y . . . . The need f o r a
c o n s t a n t l y ex panding m arket f o r i t s pr o d u c t s chases th e b o u r g e o i s i e
o v e r the whole s u r f a c e o f the g l o b e .
I t must g e t a f o o t i n g e v e r y ­
w h er e , s e t t l e e v e r y w h e r e , e s t a b l i s h c o n n ec t io n s e v e r y w h e r e . 4
I f c a p i t a l i s m is a mode o f p r o d u c t i o n , p r o d u c t i o n f o r p r o f i t in a
m ark et then we o u g h t , I should have t h o u g h t , to look to w h e t h e r o r
n o t such p r o d u c t i o n was o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g the so c a l l e d p e r i o d o f
t r a n s i t i o n [f ro m f e d u a l i s m to c a p i t a l i s m ] from th e l 6 t h to l 8 t h
century.
What was happening in Europe from the s i x t e e n t h to the
e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y is t h a t o v e r a l a r g e g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a going
from Poland in the n o r t h e a s t westwards and southwards t h ro ug ho u t
rnes t Mande 1 , The Formation o f the Economi c Thought o f Karl
New York and London:
Monthly Review P r e s s , 1971, PP. 5 6 - 5 7 *
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Marx,
15
Europe and i n c l u d i n g l a r g e p a r t s o f the We stern Hemisphere t h e r e
grew up a w o r l d economy w i t h a s i n g l e d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r w i t h i n
which t h e r e was a w o r l d m a r k e t , f o r which men produced l a r g e l y
a g r i c u l t u r a l p r od uc ts f o r s a l e and p r o f i t .
I would t h i n k the
s i m p l e s t t h i n g to do would be to c a l l t h i s a g r i c u l t u r a l c a p i t a l ­
ism .5
The e x i s t e n c e o f a w o r l d m arket meant t h a t a l l
passed by t h i s mark et pr o d u c in g goods f o r s a l e
c o n s id e r e d c a p i t a l i s t i c .
the r e gi on s encom­
in t h a t m arket a r e
t o be
These c o u n t r i e s a r e engaged in c a p i t a l i s t p r od uc ­
t i o n even though they d i f f e r d r a s t i c a l l y
t i o n due to the d i f f e r e n c e s
i n the
in the s c a l e o f c a p i t a l i s t p r od uc ­
le v e l o f p r i m i t i v e accumulation.
b i r t h o f c a p i t a l i s m was n o t a r e g i o n a l
a f f a i r but a world a f f a i r .
The
From the
s t a r t c a p i t a l i s m has been c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the uneven development between
one r e gi on and a n o t h e r .
Those c o u n t r i e s which began w i t h a minimum o f
p r i m i t i v e a c c u m u la t io n were to e n c o u n t e r s u b s t a n t i a l
the r a t e o f c a p i t a l
accumulation.
Indeed the
in itia l
d iffic u lty
d iffic u lty
in creasing
some coun­
t r i e s e n c o u n t er e d in t h e i r p r i m i t i v e a c c u m u la t io n c o n t i n u e d to f e t t e r
internal
economic de ve lop me nt.
It
is a p p a r e n t t h a t the process o f p r i m i t i v e
a c cu m u la tio n which Marx d e s c r i b e s was u n de rt a k e n
in d i f f e r e n t
d i f f e r e n t ways d u r i n g d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s which ac co unt s f o r
between n a t i o n s '
r e gi on s
in
the d i f f e r e n c e s
dev elo pme nts .
Given t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r p o s i t i o n w i t h i n a w o r l d a g r i c u l t u r a l
various
th e ir
re g io n s came t o s p e c i a l i z e
stein distingu ishes
this
in c e r t a i n a g r i c u l t u r a l
s p e c ia liza tio n
market,
products.
W aller-
in the f o l l o w i n g way:
By a s e r i e s o f a c c i d e n t s - - h i s t o r i c a l , e c o l o g i c a l , g e o g r a p h i c —
n o r t h w e s t Europe was b e t t e r s i t u a t e d in the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y to
d i v e r s i f y i t s a g r i c u l t u r a l s p e c i a l i z a t i o n and add to i t c e r t a i n
i n d u s t r i e s (such as t e x t i l e s , s h i p b u i l d i n g , and metal wares) than
were o t h e r p a r t s o f Eu ro p e.
N or th w e s t Europe emerged as the core
^Immanuel W a l l e r s t e i n , "The Rise and F u tu re Demise o f the World
C a p i t a l i s t System:
Concepts f o r Comparative A n a l y s i s , " Comparative S t u d i e s
in S o c i e t y and H i s t o r y , V o l . 16, No. 4 , Sept em ber , 1974, p . 399.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
16
a r e a o f t h i s world-econonry, s p e c i a l i z i n g in a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n
o f h i g h e r s k i l l l e v e l s , which f a v o r e d ( a g a i n f o r reasons too complex
t o d e v e lo p ) tenancy and wage l a b o r as th e modes o f l a b o r c o n t r o l .
E a s t e r n Europe and th e Western Hemisphere became p e r i p h e r a l a r e a s
s p e c i a l i z i n g in the e x p o r t o f g r a i n s , b o u i l l o n , wood, c o t t o n , sugai—
a l l o f which f a v o r e d th e use o f s l a v e r y and coe rce d c a s h - c r o p l a b o r
as the modes o f l a b o r c o n t r o l .
M e d i t e r r a n e a n Europe emerged as the
s e m i - p e r i p h e r a l a r e a o f the world-economy s p e c i a l i z i n g in h i g h - c o s t
i n d u s t r i a l pro d uc ts ( f o r e x am pl e , s i l k s ) and c r e d i t and s p e c i e
t r a n s a c t i o n s , which had as a consequence in the a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e n a
s h a r e - c r o p p i n g as th e mode o f l a b o r c o n t r o l and l i t t l e e x p o r t t o
o ther areas.
The t h r e e s t r u c t u r a l p o s i t i o n s in a wo rld -e co no m y — c o r e , p e r i p h e r y ,
and s e m i - p e r i p h e r y - - h a d become s t a b i l i z e d by abo ut 1640.
How c e r t a i n
a re a s became one and n o t the o t h e r is a long s t o r y .
The key f a c t
is t h a t g iv e n s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t s t a r t i n g p o i n t s , th e i n t e r e s t o f
v a r i o u s l o c a l groups converged in n o r t h w e s t E ur op e, l e a d i n g t o th e
development o f s t r o n g s t a t e mechanisms, and d i v e r g e d s h a r p l y in the
p e r i p h e r a l a r e a s , l e a d i n g t o v e r y weak ones.
Once we g e t a d i f f e r e n c e
in th e s t r e n g t h o f th e s t a t e - m a c h i n e r i e s , we g e t the o p e r a t i o n o f
"unequal exchange" which is e n f o r c e d by s t r o n g s t a t e s on weak o n e s ,
by core s t a t e s on p e r i p h e r a l a r e a s .
Thus c a p i t a l i s m i n v o l v e s no t o n l y
the a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f s u r p l u s v a l u e by an owner from a l a b o r e r , b u t an
a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f s u r p l u s o f th e whole world-economy by c o r e a r e a s .
And t h i s was as t r u e in th e s t a g e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l c a p i t a l i s m as i t is
in the s t a g e o f i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l i s m . . . . C a p i t a l i s m was from th e
b e g i n n i n g an a f f a i r o f the world-economy and no t o f n a t i o n s t a t e s . &
National
bo un da rie s were n o t the n a t u r a l
bo u n d a r ie s o f c a p i t a l i s t
exchange, as has o f t e n been supposed, b u t p o l i t i c a l
control
in tern a tio n a l
exchange.
a rtifa c ts
designed to
The e x i s t e n c e o f the c a p i t a l i s t mode o f
p r o d u c t i o n was a p r e - c o n d i t i o n f o r th e emergence o f n a t i o n s t a t e s and not
vice versa.
As r egi on s produced pr od uc ts
the o v e r r i d i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
f o r a w o r l d m a r k e t , p r o f i t became
At f i r s t a g r i c u l t u r a l
p r o d u c t i o n became i n ­
c r e a s i n g l y s p e c i a l i z e d as the pr o d u c er s a t t e m p t e d to a v o id th e normal
a t i o n s o f the m a rk e t.
G radually,
the
local
c a p ita l i t
oper­
classes throughout
E u r o p e - - c a s h crop landowners and m e r c h a n t s - - t u r n e d t o t h e s t a t e no t o n l y
free
themselves
to
from the n o n- m a rk e t c o n s t r a i n t s b u t a l s o to " c r e a t e new con­
s t r a i n t s on t h e new m a r k e t ,
the market o f the European
w o rld -e c o n o m y ."?
6 | b i d . , p . 401,
7 | b i d . , p. 400.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
The n a t i o n
17
s t a t e s d i d n o t s p r i n g i n t o e x i s t e n c e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y b u t were e r e c t e d when
v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s a r r i v e d a t a p o i n t j u s t below the hi gh p o i n t o f s t r e n g t h
the w o r l d economy.
The c r e a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l
bo u n d a r ie s s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e i r
position
by a c c e l e r a t i n g
However,
th e s t r e n g t h o f the s t a t e m a c h i n e r i e s o f the v a r i o u s n a t i o n s
the development o f t h e i r economic i n f r a s t r u c t u r e .
a c c o r d in g to t h e i r p o s i t i o n
in the w o r l d economy.
the core c o u n t r i e s was b o l s t e r e d
owning c l a s s who f a v o r e d f r e e
r e s t r i c t i o n s on the
compete.
t r a d e and the commercial
the
land­
b o u r g e o i s i e who f a v o r e d
im po rt o f m anu fa ct ure d goods a g a i n s t which they c o u l d not
W it h the more dynamic s t a t e b u r e a u c r a c i e s ,
economies o f th e p e r i p h e r a l
I t was n o t u n t i l
the cor e c o u n t r i e s were
the development o f the
and s e m i - p e r i p h e r a l
th e sy ste m -wi de
r e c e s s io n o f
countries.
16 50 -1 7 30 t h a t mei—
c a n t i l i s m became the dominant mode o f p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c b e h a v i o r .
to W a l l e r s t e i n ,
the r e c e s s i o n f o r c e d the e x i s t i n g n a t i o n s
ar ea s from w o r l d t r a d e and t o engage
F r a n c e 's a t t e m p t s
in a b a t t l e o f a t t r i t i o n .
o f in d u s tria liza tio n a fte r
to c a t c h up.
England suc­
power and
England has te ned i t s
1760 c o n t i n u i n g to m a i n t a i n
its
A cc o rd in g
to w i t h d r a w l a r g e
ceeded in d i s p o s i n g o f the Ned erl an ds as the p r im a r y commercial
then r e s i s t e d
varied
The s t a t e m achinery in
t o meet th e co n g ru en t needs o f
thus a b l e to expand t h e i r w o r l d m ark et and s t i f l e
national
in
process
hegemony i n the
European w o r l d market d e s p i t e N a p o le o n 's a t t e m p t t o d e s t r o y t h i s hegemony
d u r i n g the C o n t i n e n t a l
blockade.
Q
From t h i s p o i n t onward i n d u s t r i a l
prod uc­
t i o n becomes the p r i m a r y mode o f c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n a n d , a t t h i s
p o i n t as
w e ll,
impetus
the European economic system becomes w o r l d - w i d e .
f o r the g e o g r a p h ic a l
e x pan sio n o f
The i n i t i a l
the c a p i t a l i s t system d i d not stem from
th e need f o r new markets n e a r l y as much as from th e need f o r raw m a t e r i a l s .
8Ib id .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
18
Th is d r i v e
f o r new sources o f
peripheral
and s e m i - p e r i p h e r a l
form erly perip h eral
raw m a t e r i a l s
areas.
came i n t o b e in g )
dominance.
Th is development made i t p o s s i b l e
and s e m i - p e r i p h e r a l
c o u n t r i e s as market demand expanded.
l e d to th e c r e a t i o n o f new
r e gi on s
to a t t e m p t to become core
The U n i t e d S t a t e s and Germany (as
adop ted m e r c a n t i l i s t p o l i c i e s
o f success p r i o r to World War ! - - t o t a l l y
only p a r t i a l l y
successful
it
in t h e i r q u e s t f o r economic
In each c o u n t r y the m a n u f a c t u r i n g s e c t o r ga in ed p o l i t i c a l
dancy, b u t the s t r u g g l e o f these c o u n t r i e s
for
to i n d u s t r i a l i z e v a rie d
successful
a sce n­
in degree
in the U n it e d S t a t e s and
in Germany.9
At f i r s t under i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l i s m , the core exchanged manufac­
t u r e d pr od uc ts a g a i n s t the p e r i p h e r y ' s a g r i c u l t u r a l pr oducts —
hence , B r i t a i n from l 8 l 5 to 1873 as the "workshop o f the w o r l d . "
Even t o those s e m i - p e r i p h e r a l c o u n t r i e s t h a t had some m anu fa ct ur e
( F r a n c e , Germany, B el g iu m , the U . S . ) , B r i t a i n in t h i s p e r i o d sup­
p l i e d abo ut h a l f t h e i r needs i n m anu fa ct ur ed goods.
As, howe ver ,
the m e r c a n t i l i s t p r a c t i c e s o f t h i s l a t t e r group bo th c u t B r i t a i n
o f f from o u t l e t s and even c r e a t e d c o m p e t i t i o n f o r B r i t a i n in s a l e s
to p e r i p h e r a l a r e a s , a c o m p e t i t i o n which le d to the l a t e n i n e t e e n t h
c e n t u r y " s c r a m b le f o r A f r i c a , " the w o r l d d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r was r e ­
a l l o c a t e d to ens ure a new s p e c i a l r o l e f o r the c o r e :
le ss the
p r o v i s i o n o f th e m a n u f a c t u r e s , more the p r o v i s i o n o f the machines
to make the manuf ac tur es as w e l l as the p r o v i s i o n o f i n f r a - s t r u c ­
t u r e ( e s p e c i a l l y , in t h i s p e r i o d , r a i l r o a d s ) . 10
It
should be amply c l e a r t h a t the s p e c i a l i z e d
r o l e s o f the c o u n t r i e s
o f th e w o r l d c a p i t a l i s t system in the p r o d u c t i o n o f goods f o r p r o f i t
w o r l d m a rk e t m a n if e s t s
th e c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e between r e gi on s w i t h
s pe c t t o the development o f t h e i r
in tern a l
economies.
process o f p r i m i t i v e a c c u m u la t io n between c o u n t r i e s
tran s itio n
from a g r i c u l t u r a l
to i n d u s t r i a l
c o m p e t i t i v e to monopoly c a p i t a l i s m
been focused upon the e x t e r n a l
c u ltu ral
in a
factors
c a p i t a l i s m to i n d u s t r i a l
in general
and from
Thus f a r a t t e n t i o n has
t h a t speed the t r a n s i t i o n
capitalism
in the
is e v id e nc e d by the
cap italism
in p a r t i c u l a r .
The d i f f e r e n c e
re­
from a g r i ­
in some re g io n s and h i n d e r
9 | b i d . , p. 40 9.
l O l b i d . , p . 41 0.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
it
19
in o t h e r s .
The uneven development o f
the European c o u n t r i e s was in s u r e d by
th e o p e r a t i o n o f the w o r l d marke t and the c r e a t i o n o f
c o n s t r a i n t on the o p e r a t i o n o f the m a r k e t .
only
the n a t i o n s t a t e as a
The p l a y o f the w o r l d m ark et n o t
i n f l u e n c e d the n a t u r e o f a c o u n t r y ' s economic s t r u c t u r e b u t a l s o the
re la tiv e
strength o f
If
its
the unequal
the r e g i o n a l
p o litic a l
s t r u c tu r e vis a vis o th e r natio ns.
exchange between n a t i o n s
differences
is a t t r i b u t e d
in the process o f p r i m i t i v e
in itia lly
to
a c c u m u la t io n which
imposes pa ra me te rs on the type o f goods produced f o r the w o r l d m a r k e t , what
is the r e l a t i o n o f the i n t e r a c t i o n s between a c o u n t r y ' s
in frastru ctu re
to changes
p o litic a l
and economic
in the c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n w i t h i n
country?
Alt hou gh " t h e b o u r g e o i s i e cannot e x i s t w i t h o u t c o n s t a n t l y
tio n izin g
the
s o ciety,"
t h e r e b y l e a d i n g to the " u n i n t e r r u p t e d d i s t u r b a n c e o f a l l
conditions,
in s t r u m e n t s o f p r o d u c t i o n and w i t h
the
revolu­
them th e whole r e l a t i o n s o f
[and] e v e r l a s t i n g u n c e r t a i n t y and a g i t a t i o n ; " * *
social
the changes in
the mode o f p r o d u c t i o n o c c u r a t d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s and a f t e r d i f f e r e n t s t r u g ­
g le s
in d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s .
T h is suggests t h a t the
lo n g e r the t r a n s i t i o n
from one mode o f c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n t o a n o t h e r is d e l a y e d th e more the
p o litic a l
and economic i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s
the more r a p i d the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
more f l e x i b l e
It
the
conditions
t h e r e f o r e seems a p p r o p r i a t e
the
be.
to examine the r o l e o f the s t a t e
in
development w i t h i n a c o u n t r y to d e t e r m i n e under what
th e t r a n s i t i o n
from a g r i c u l t u r a l
c o m p e t i t i v e t o monopoly c a p i t a l i s m
to i n d u s t r i a l
D ur in g any p e r i o d , each cap­
c o u n t r y can be a n a l y z e d to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r i t
* * Mande 1, o p . c i t . ,
c a p i t a l i s m and from
is h i n d e r e d o r has te ned when compared to
the economic development o f o t h e r c o u n t r i e s .
ita lis t
Conversely,
i n the c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n
In frastructures w ill
the pr og res s o f c a p i t a l
r e s i s t such a t r a n s i t i o n .
is engaged p r i m a r i l y
p. 5 6 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
20
in a g r i c u l t u r a l
t i o n always
i t e n ta ils
production o r
in i n d u s t r i a l
production.
r e p r e s e n t s a more advanced l e v e l
a g r e a t e r degree o f
pondents o f p r o d u c t i o n .
It
o f the components o f p r o d u c t i o n t h a t
o f c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n , because
this
i n t e g r a t i o n and r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n
the p o l i t i c a l
r e s i s t o r encourage.
a n a t i o n ' s economy— the a g r i c u l t u r a l ,
the
and economic i n f r a s t r u c ­
M o r e o v e r, each s e c t o r o f
in d u s tria l,
th e m a n u f a c t u r i n g and
the s e r v i c e s e c t o r s - - m a y m a n i f e s t d i f f e r e n t degrees o f
ratio n alizatio n of
pr od uc­
i n t e g r a t i o n and r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f th e com-
is p r e c i s e l y
t u r e s o f a n a t i o n may e i t h e r
In d u s tria l
the p r o d u c t i o n p r oc e s s-
i n t e g r a t i o n and
Thus, one s e c t o r may be c o m p e t i ­
t i v e and a n o t h e r may be m o n o p o l i s t i c , a lt h o u g h c o m p e t i t i v e c a p i t a l i s m always
precedes monopoly c a p i t a l i s m and is a p r e c o n d i t i o n
c apital
for
its
genesis.
is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a h i g h l y complex and i n t e r c o n n e c t e d
t u r e which p r o g r e s s i v e l y e l i m i n a t e s
p r o d u c t io n and s o c i a l
Monopoly c a p i t a l
relatio n s
transforms
th e a n a r c h i c a l
Monopoly
in frastru c­
c h a r a c t e r o f economic
c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f com petitive c a p ita lis m .
the f u n c t i o n s o f
r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n and i n t e g r a t i o n
o f the p r o d u c t i o n process which had o p e r a t e d h a p h a z a r d l y and in d e p e n d e n t l y
o f th e w i l l
ita lis m
of
in divid ual
c a p ita lis ts
d u r i n g the p e r i o d o f c o m p e t i t i v e cap­
i n t o a s c ie n c e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
o f the c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s .
Monopoly c a p i t a l
s e c t o r o f the economy because
a c cu m u la t io n o f c a p i t a l ,
it
is
f i r s t emerges
in t h i s s e c to r th a t
under the c o n t r o l
in the i n d u s t r i a l
the c o n d i t i o n s o f
p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n o f l a b o r and th e c u m u l a t i v e
in te ­
g r a t i o n and r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n a r e most c o n c e n t r a t e d .
The r a p i d i t y w i t h which the monopoly mode o f c a p i t a l
in d u strial
emerges
In th e
s e c t o r and the r a t e a t which the o t h e r s e c t o r s o f the economy
follow s u i t ,
seems to be m ediated by the
e x i s t i n g economic system.
r e l a t i o n between the s t a t e and the
As a law o f development w i t h i n
emergence o f monopoly c a p i t a l
canno t be p r e v e n t e d ;
it
c a p italism ,
can be d e l a y e d ,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
the
howe ver.
21
Those c o u n t r i e s
in which the t r a n s i t i o n
from a g r i c u l t u r a l
to i n d u s t r i a l
cap­
i t a l i s m and from c o m p e t i t i v e to monopoly c a p i t a l i s m was pro lo ng ed and which
were,
w ill
therefore,
slow to accomplish the process o f p r i m i t i v e a c c u m u la t io n
incur a d i f f e r e n t social
tran sition s
and p o l i t i c a l
from one mode o f p r o d u c t i o n
o r d e r than those i n which the
to a n o t h e r were more r a p i d .
uneven development o f c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s would then impose c e r t a i n
structural
l i m i t a t i o n s which would r e s u l t
in d i v e r s e n a t i o n a l
The
in te rn a l,
responses to
the w o r l d economic c r i s i s o f the 1 9 3 0 *s.
The above c o n s i d e r a t i o n s sugg est the h y p o t h e s i s
o f fa s c i s m in Germany and I t a l y may be a t t r i b u t e d
m a rk e t ,
t h a t th e emergence
to t h e i r
roles
in the w o r l d
t h e i r c o m p a r a t i v e economic underdevelopment and , most d e c i s i v e l y ,
to the r e l a t i o n between t h e i r p o l i t i c a l
the development o f monopoly c a p i t a l .
and economic systems which f e t t e r e d
In t h i s c o n t e x t f a s c i s m can be seen as
an a p p r o p r i a t e
response to the d i f f i c u l t i e s o f th e w o r l d d e p r e s s i o n by Ger­
many and I t a l y
vis a vis
was no t an a p p r o p r i a t e
the o t h e r c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s
response.
means t h a t the l i m i t a t i o n s
To c a l l
f a s c i s m an a p p r o p r i a t e
i tryosed by the unequal
and t h e i r uneven development a l s o c r e a t e d s p e c i f i c
in clin a tio n s
t h a t made f a s c i s m a t t r a c t i v e
peop le e n d u r i n g the c o n d i t i o n s o f
f o r which f a s c i s m
response
exchange between c o u n t r i e s
social
and p s y c h o l o g i c a l
to the masses o f German and I t a l i a n
these c o u n t r i e s .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER I I I
THE FAILURE OF THE LIBERAL STATE AND THE EMERGENCE
OF FASCISM
In the h i s t o r y o f p r i m i t i v e a c c u m u l a t i o n , a l l r e v o l u t i o n s
a r e epoch-making t h a t a c t as l e v e r s f o r th e c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s in
the course o f i t s f o r m a t i o n ; b u t , above a l l , those moments when
g r e a t masses o f men a r e suddenly and f o r c i b l y t o r n from t h e i r
means o f s u b s i s t e n c e , and h u r l e d as f r e e and " u n a t t a c h e d " p r o ­
l e t a r i a n s on the l a b o u r - m a r k e t .
The e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f the a g r i ­
c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e r , o f the p e a s a n t , from th e s o i l , is the b a s is
o f the whole p r o c e s s .
The h i s t o r y o f t h i s e x p r o p r i a t i o n , in
d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s , assumes d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s , and runs
through i t s v a r i o u s phases in d i f f e r e n t o r d e r s o f s u c c e s s i o n ,
and a t d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s .
In England a lo n e . . , has i t the
c l a s s i c form.^
The s h i f t
to i n d u s t r i a l
in the c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n from a g r i c u l t u r a l
c a p i t a l i s m in th e cor e c o u n t r i e s meant t h a t the m e r c a n t i l i s t
p o l i c i e s o f th e n a t i o n s t a t e , which had in s u r e d the dominance o f these
countries
in the
in tern a tio n a l
the f u r t h e r development o f
it
c a p i t a l i s t syste m, had become a f e t t e r on
in d u strial
production.
is t o proceed as r a p i d l y as p o s s i b l e ,
duction
in i t s own image.
P o litic a lly
must t r a n s f o r m a g r i c u l t u r a l
this
had s u s t a i n e d the primacy o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
it.
For such s t a t e
cultu ral
in tervention
In d u s tria liza tio n ,
to o c c u r,
im plies
T h is
represents
p r o d u c t i o n , must come to m in im iz e
th e p o l i t i c a l
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f th e s t a t e o c c u r r e d
firs t
power o f
Capi t a l , V o l .
I , op.
c it.,
p.
th e a g r i ­
in d u strial
capi­
in England and
th e emergence o f l i b e r a l i s m .
*M ar x ,
pro­
t h a t the s t a t e , which
pr oducers must be ov e r t h r o w n and assumed by the
ta lis ts .
if
716.
22
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
23
The trium ph o f l i b e r a l i s m and b o ur ge oi s democracy i n a u g u r a t e d new bud­
getary p r in c ip le s :
The o r d i n a r y o p e r a t i n g expenses o f the s t a t e were k e p t to
an a b o l u t e minimum t o p r e v e n t th e s t a t e
sway o v e r th e economy as w e l l
i t o r s — th e b o u r g e o i s i e .
in s t a t e c o n t r o l
to w a r f a r e .
measure.
of
in vestig atio n
m e rc a n tilis t
i n d i r e c t t o conceal
cred­
tax e x p l o i t a ­
i n t o p e r s on a l w e a l t h which coul d
that w ealth.
The s t a t e was a u t h o r i z e d
F in a lly ,
its
i n s u r e t h a t the s t a t e coul d pay i t s
T a x a t i o n was k e p t
t i o n and t o p r e v e n t s t a t e
resu lt
as t o
from r e - e x t e n d i n g
Loan f i n a n c e was r e s t r i c t e d m a in ly
to c r e a t e money o n l y as a temporary
under these new bu d g e ta ry p o l i c i e s ,
the s t a t e had to main­
t a i n a ba lan ce d budget to r e s t r i c t s t a t e economic a c t i v i t y
t h a t coul d be f i n a n c e d by t a x r e ven ues .
2
to expenditu res
These new b u d g e t a r y p r i n c i p l e s
meant t h a t the o p e r a t i o n o f the s t a t e would no l o n g e r be f i n a n c e d by the cap­
i t a l i s t c la s s as i t
W ithin
had been d u r i n g m e r c a n t i l i s m .
the framework o f the s e b u d g e ta ry p r i n c i p l e s ,
f i n a n c e d through the t a x a t i o n o f
g e o i s i e to c ove r any d e f i c i t s .
the s t a t e was
the w o r k in g c l a s s and by loans from the b o u r ­
The s t a t e was thus p r e v e n t e d not o n l y
from
s ip h o n i n g the w e a l t h o f the c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s t o pay s t a t e debts and o p e r a t i n g
expenses bu t a l s o
with
in dustrial
the p o l i t i c a l
i t was p r e v e n t e d from becoming e c o n o m i c a l l y c o m p e t i t i v e
cap ita l.
power o f the
The f i n a n c i a l
r e q u ir e m e n t s o f the s t a t e coupled w i t h
in d u s tria lis ts
p r o d u c t i o n and the growth o f
in d u strial
duced as a r e s u l t o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
has te ne d the d e c l i n e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
p r o d u c t i o n , because the c a p i t a l
p r o d u c t i o n was t r a n s f e r r e d
to t h e
pro­
in d u strial
s e c t o r as a consequence o f t a x a t i o n .
D ur ing t h i s p e r i o d
lu tio n ize d with
in which E n g l a n d ' s s t a t e machinery had been
t h e i n c e p t i o n o f the new b u d g e t a ry p r i n c i p l e s ,
Germany's p r o d u c t i v e a c t i v i t y was p r e d o m i n a n t l y a g r i c u l t u r a l
tin 's
^James O 'C on n or , The F i s c a l
P r e s s , 19 73, p p - 7 1 - 7 2 .
Ita ly 's
revo­
and
w i t h some s m a l l -
C r i s i s o f the S t a t e , New Y o r k :
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
St.
Mar­
24
scale m anufacturing.
countries gradually
Although the success o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
resulted
production
in t h e s e
in the ex pa ns io n o f the m a n u f a c t u r i n g s e c t o r ,
economic development had not reached the p o i n t a t which th e c a p i t a l i s t manu­
fa c tu re rs perceived
th e dominance o f
the a g r i c u l t u r a l
mode o f p r o d u c t i o n as
a f e t t e r upon t h e i r own develop men t.
Manufacturing s t i l l
flow o f c a p it a l
sector
erated c a p it a l.
from the a g r i c u l t u r a l
in c r e a s e
r a t h e r than from i n t e r n a l l y
gen­
Althou gh t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y d e m o c r a t i c movements sought
to i n c r e a s e th e p o l i t i c a l
the
depended upon the
power o f th e urban c a p i t a l i s t s
in t h e i r economic a c t i v i t y ,
the c a p i t a l i s t m a n u f a c t u r e r s c o n t i n ­
ued to d e s i r e the ma intenance o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
The n a t i o n s t a t e s o f
m e r c a n t i l i s t fashion
Ita ly
long a f t e r
commensurate w i t h
production.
and Germany o p e r a t e d
in an e s s e n t i a l l y
th e E n g l i s h s t a t e had ceased to do so.
(O f
course t h i s m e r c a n t i l i s t o r i e n t a t i o n was l a r g e l y a p r o d u c t o f Germany's and
Ita ly 's
only
position
restricted
a portion o f
in th e w o r l d economic s y s t e m . )
the f l o w o f c a p i t a l
in d u strial
ca p ita l
t o th e
In te rn a lly ,
in d u strial
to t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l
the s t a t e not
s e c t o r b u t a l s o siphoned
s e c t o r and to t h e s t a t e
bu re a uc ra c y which employed o n e - t e n t h o f the l a b o r f o r c e
in
s e r v i c e jo bs o r w i t h p e n s io n s .
mode o f c i r c u l a t i o n
o f ca p ita l
in
Gramsci
I t a l y when he w r i t e s
deprecates
this
t h a t th e p a s t h i s t o r y o f
Ita ly
in c i v i l
Ita ly
. . . has l e f t behind a heap o f p a s s i v e s e d i m e n t a t i o n s reduced by
the phenomenon o f the s a t u r a t i o n and f o s s i l i s a t i o n o f c i v i l s e r ­
v i c e personnel and i n t e l l e c t u a l s , o f c l e r g y and la nd ow ne r, p i r a t i ­
cal commerce and the p r o f e s s i o n a l [ a r m y ] . . . . T h is means enormous
b u lk o f p e t t y and m id d le b o u r g e o i s i e l i v i n g on " p e n s i o n s " and
" r e n t s , " which has c r e a t e d . . .
an e c o n o m i c a l l y u n p r o d u c t iv e
s t r a t u m which not o n l y e x t r a c t s i t s own sus tenance from th e p r i m i ­
t i v e l a b o u r o f a s p e c i f i c number o f p e a s a n t s , b u t a l s o manages to
s a v e .3
The economic and p o l i t i c a l
1ishers,
organization o f
Ita ly
and Germany h i n d e r e d the
^ An to ni o Gra msci, P r i s o n N o t e bo ok s , New Y o r k :
1 9 7 1 , PP- 2 8 1 - 2 8 3 .
In tern a tio n a l
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Pub-
25
a c c u m u la t io n and c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f c a p i t a l
The German and I t a l i a n
the
in d u strial
mode, b u t
o f th e c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s
in dustrial
it
state
w ith in
in Germany and I t a l y .
t o r meant t h a t elemen ts o f t h e commercial
independent o f c a p i t a l
generated
it.
l a b o r and the i n e x o r a b l e
increases
by the p r o g r e s s i v e e le m en ts w i t h i n
i z a t i o n bu t a l s o p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y
and p o l i t i c a l l y
e lite s .5
sec­
b o u r g e o i s i e became i n c r e a s i n g l y
production.
I t a l i a n economies had deve lope d t o th e p o i n t where
m o d e r n iz a t io n no t o n l y e c o n o m i c a l l y
mode o f p r o d u c t i o n ,
The growth o f the i n d u s t r i a l
in a g r i c u l t u r a l
a g ric u ltu ra l
the d e s i r e s
in the n i n e t e e n t h and e a r l y
ni n g o f the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y the modern i n d u s t r i a l
a t the expense o f the r u r a l ,
sector.^
Indepe nden t o f
th e a g r i c u l t u r a l
p r o d u c t i o n c o n t i n u e d to i n c r e a s e
tw entieth centuries
in d u s tria l
slowed the t r a n s i t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s m to
co ul d not p r e v e n t
to s t a b i l i z e
the
areas.
i n terms o f
By the b e g i n ­
s e c t o r o f the German and
its
f u r t h e r e x p a n s io n was
The r u r a l
areas paid f o r
lo ss o f manpower to wage
in t a x es and t a r i f f
re stric tio n s
the s t a t e b u r e a u c r a c y )
(in itia te d
to promote c a p i t a l ­
in terms o f new and t h r e a t e n i n g a t t i t u d e s
in terms o f lo ss o f power and p r e s t i g e o f the t r a d i t i o n a l
Gramsci quotes from those who responded to the growing d i s j u n c t u r e
between c i t y
and town by p r o c l a i m i n g the s u p e r i o r i t y o f
the c o u n t r y w i t h
its
" o l d " ways and t r a d i t i o n s :
A ll c i t i e s are s t e r i l e .
P r o p o r t i o n a t e l y few c h i l d r e n a r e born
t h e r e , and genius a lm o s t n e v e r .
In the c i t y t h e r e is enjoyment
bu t no c r e a t i o n ; t h e r e i s l o v e b u t no g e n e r a t i o n , consumption
^Throughout my p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the c o n d i t i o n s l e a d i n g to f a s c i s m I
have e x t r a c t e d what seems to be g e n e r a l and s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s o f development in
Germany and I t a l y , r e a l i z i n g t h a t t h e r e a r e s p e c i f i c d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e i r na­
tional experiences.
In g e n e r a l , howe ver, 1 w i l l use Germany r a t h e r than I t a l y
as th e s p e c i f i c concern o f my s t u d y , b r i n g i n g G ra m s c i 's i n s i g h t s i n t o the
p o l i t i c a l make-up o f I t a l y to b e a r on the German e x p e r i e n c e as w e l l .
5 A . F . K . O r g a n s k i , " F a sc is m and M o d e r n i z a t i o n , " in S . J . W o o l f ,
The N a t u r e o f Fascism, New Y o r k :
Random House, 19 69, pp. 2 4 - 2 5 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
ed. ,
26
b u t no p r o d u c t i o n . . . [ t h e r e is an a n t i t h e s i s ] between v o l u n t a r i s m ,
pragmatism and a c t i v i s m , i d e n t i f i a b l e i n S u p e r c i t y , e n l i g h t e n m e n t ,
r a t i o n a l i s m , and h i s t o r i c i s m i d e n t i f i a b l e in S u p e r c o u n t r y .6
In a s e n s e ,
peasants
these p r o c l a m a t i o n s were a l s o moral
to the mass o f
to s t a y pu t and not to abandon the c o u n t r y f o r the c i t y .
these e x h o r t a t i o n s had l i t t l e
the c i t y
exhortations
rapidly
the s o c i a l
life of
Saddled w i t h a s t i l l
in d u s tria l
from the c o u n t r y
the
rural
peasantry.
pervasive m e r c a n t ilis t o r ie n t a t io n ,
c l a s s po we rfu l
enough t o t r a n s f o r m the s t a t e
in Germany and I t a l y
became the major b u t t o t a l l y
between the two w o rl d s o f town and c o u n t r y .
c a n t i l i s t functions,
to s e r v e
the s t a t e b u re a u c r a c y
harmony and p r e v e n t s o c i a l
m obilizatio n o f
p o licy,
the p a r l i a m e n t a r i a n s t r u c t u r e o f the s t a t e was g e n e r a l l y a b l e
services
large
to expand the system from an
t o a mass s t a t e .
Althou gh the s t a t e c l u n g to i t s
c o n flic t w ithin
dis­
the c a p i t a l i s t
e litis t
tain p o l i t i c a l
mei—
p r o d u c e r s , b u t c o n f l i c t was
and p o l i t i c a l
s e c t o r s o f the p o p u l a t i o n c r e a t e d p r e s s u r e
lin k
i n th e s e c o u n t r i e s was i n c r e a s i n g l y
and i n d u s t r i a l
a l s o g e n e r a te d as the economic, s o c i a l
in te re s t
The n a t i o n
in s u ffic ie n t
Not o n l y was t h e r e a growing c o n f l i c t w i t h i n
c l a s s between the a g r i c u l t u r a l
its
U n w i l l i n g to t r a n s f o r m i t s
occupied w i t h t h e a t t e m p t to m a i n t a i n s o c i a l
in teg ra tio n .
the s t a t e
to abandon the c o u n t r y to the town nor was the c o m p e t i t i v e
by imp lementing new, a n t i - m e r c a n t i l i s t b u d g e t a r y p r i n c i p l e s .
state
to
i n c r e a s e d the s i z e o f th e urban p r o l e t a r i a t and d i s r u p t e d
and p o l i t i c a l
was n o t w i l l i n g
impact and the m i g r a t i o n
Of course
backward economic
to con­
l e g i t i m a t e d channels by i n c r e a s i n g s o c i a l
to the masses.
The d i s r u p t i v e
process o f s o c i a l
m o b i l i z a t i o n was f u r t h e r s p u r r e d as
a r e s u l t o f World War I .
^ G r am s c i, 0 £^. c i t . ,
pp. 2 8 8 - 2 8 9 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
27
U n i o n i z a t i o n in the (CGL) jumped from the a p p r o x im a t e l e v e l o f
2 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 ( i n the p e r i o d 1 9 11 - 1 9 17 ) t o 1 , 1 5 9 , 0 0 0 in 1919
and 2 , 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 in 1920.
A no th e r l a r g e mass ( 1 , 1 2 5 , 0 0 0 ) was con­
c e n t r a t e d in the C a t h o l i c t r a d e union f e d e r a t i o n .
I t a l y had
passed from a regime o f " l i m i t e d " to one o f " e n l a r g e d " p a r t i c i p a ­
t i o n in 1 9 1 3 .
From some 1 , 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 v o t e r s i n 1908 I t passed to
o v e r 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 in 1 9 1 3 . 7
The r a p i d growth o f the
in d u strial
and I t a l y m i r r o r e d a growth
in
p r o l e t a r i a t a f t e r World War I
in d u strial
production.
was due to the m o n o p o l i z a t i o n o f the key i n d u s t r i e s ,
in tern a tio n a l
c a rte ls .
growth
in d u s tria liza tio n ,
i n c r e a s e d and h e lp e d t o de fu s e the
f u e l e d by the f i r e s o f s o c i a l
dislocation.
W i l h e l m D i t t m a n , one o f the l e a d e r s o f the German S o c i a l
Party
this
and th e c r e a t i o n o f
As a consequence o f the process o f
the pu rc h a s in g power o f the p r o l e t a r i a t
c la s s s t r u g g l e
In t u r n ,
in Germany
Dem oc ra tic
(SPD) , s a i d a t th e Magedeburg Congress i n 1920 t h a t
W h il e we had an a u t o c r a t i c s t a t e we c h a r a c t e r i z e d the government
as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the r u l i n g c l a s s e s :
. . . t o d a y , in the
d e m o c r a t i c r e p u b l i c , the fxjwer comes from the grass r o o t s , from
the p e o p l e . . . . Th is is why today we can p r e v e n t the s t a t e from
r e p r e s e n t i n g s o l e l y the i n t e r e s t s o f the po ss e s s in g c l a s s e s , as
was the case b e f o r e the w a r .
T h is c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r the w o r k e r s '
i n t e r e s t must i n c r e a s e to the e x t e n t t h a t t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on the
government becomes s t r o n g e r .
Through s o c i a l s e c u r i t y , h e a l t h
s e r v i c e s , and s c h o o l s , the w o rk e r s a r e on the p o i n t o f t r a n s f o r m ­
ing the bo ur ge oi s c l a s s s t a t e i n t o a d e m o c r a t i c " s o c i a l s t a t e . "
The p a r t y has an o b l i g a t i o n t o pursue t h i s de ve lop me nt. . . .8
The SPD pursued i t s
goal o f a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i a l
workers shou ld a v o id s t r i k e s
in r e t u r n ,
a part
The p a r t y
s t a t e by a d v o c a t i n g t h a t
as much as p o s s i b l e and t h a t they should demand,
in th e management o f the b i g companies.
traced
the t r a n s i t i o n w i t h i n
the h e a l t h y economic l i f e
th e key i n d u s t r i a l
to monopoly c a p i t a l i s m .
sector
The P a r t y b e l i e v e d
c a p i t a l i s m meant the end o f f r e q u e n t c r i s e s
7q. Germani , "F a sc is m and C l a s s , "
o f th e German p e o p le to
from l a i s s e z - f a i r e
c ap italism
t h a t the development o f monopoly
t h a t were endemic to th e epoch
in W o o l f , op_. c i t . ,
p. 8 7 .
^ E r n e s t Mande 1 , F i f t y Years o f World R e v o l u t i o n , New Y o r k :
f i n d e r P r e s s , 1 9 6 8 , pp. 118- 1 1 9 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Path­
28
o f com petitive c a p ita lis m .
w ritten
As the SPD e c o n o m i c R u d o l f H i l f e r d i n g , who had
Fi nance Capi t a l , e x p l a i n e d , " I n
then t h a t
r e a l i t y , o r g a n i z e d c a p i t a l i s m means
th e c a p i t a l i s t p r i n c i p l e o f f r e e c o m p e t i t i o n
s o c i a l i s t p r i n c i p l e o f plan ned p r o d u c t i o n . " ^
but r a th e r a n a tu ra l
However r e f o r m i s t
tio n .
Monopoly c a p i t a l
through r e v o l u t i o n a r y
consequence o f monopoly c a p i t a l .
the S o c ia l
re c o g n iz e d the p r o g r e s s i v e
Democratic P a r t y might have been i t
f u n c t i o n o f th e monopoly c a p i t a l
a c h ie v e d f a r h i g h e r
and i n t e g r a t i o n o f the components o f p r o d u c t i o n .
d e m o c r at ic movement a t t e s t s
Gramsci w r i t e s
inherent
t h a t the
its
than
ra tio n a liza tio n
The s t r e n g t h o f th e s o c i a l -
t o the r e c o g n i t i o n by the
i t s e l f o f the e x t r e m e l y p o s i t i v e e le m en t s
mode o f prod uc­
le v e ls o f production
c o n c e i v a b l e under a h i g h l y c o m p e t i t i v e mode because o f
monopoly c a p i t a l .
r e p l a c e d by th e
S o c i a l i s m would no t be the
r e s u l t o f the c a t a s t r o p h i c c o l l a p s e o f c a p i t a l i s m
struggle,
is
Ita lia n
in d u strial
p ro le ta ria t
i n the t r a n s i t i o n
in dustrial
to
working class
ne ve r as
i n d i v i d u a l s o r through union o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a c t i v e l y o r p a s s i v e l y
opposed i n n o v a t i o n l e a d i n g toward the l o w e r i n g o f c o s t s , r a t i o n a l ­
i s a t i o n o f work o r the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f more p e r f e c t forms o f
aut o m a t io n and more p e r f e c t t e c h n i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the complex
o f the e n t e r p r i s e . . . .
A careful analysis o f I t a l i a n h is to ry
b e f o r e 1922, o r even up t o 1926 . . . must o b j e c t i v e l y come to the
c o n c lu s io n t h a t i t was p r e c i s e l y the w ork er s who b ro u gh t i n t o b e in g
newer and more modern i n d u s t r i a l re q u ir e m e n t s and in t h e i r own way
upheld these s t r e n u o u s l y . 10
During the po st World War I p e r i o d monopoly c a p i t a l
hegemony o n l y
Ita ly .
in the p r o d u c t i o n o f b a s i c
in d u s tria l
goods
The d u r a b l e goods m a n u f a c t u r i n g s e c t o r , as w e l l
and r e t a i l i n g s e c t o r s o f th e economy,
^ M an de l, ojp_. c i t . ,
p.
^^Gramsci, o p . c i t . ,
had e s t a b l i s h e d
in Germany and
as the d i s t r i b u t i n g
remained h i g h l y competi t i t v e .
118.
p . 2 9 2.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
The SPD
29-
program sought to e s t a b l i s h
of
the hegemony o f monopoly c a p i t a l o v e r th e whole
the economy in o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h a w e l l - p l a n n e d , w e l l - o r g a n i z e d and
e f f i c i e n t productive apparatus.
V a r io u s ele m en ts
in
I t a l y a l s o urged the
same course o f a c t i o n as w e l l ,
Gramsci
refers
to the t h e s i s o f F o v e l , an I t a l i a n
t h a t the c o r p o r a t i o n , as an i n d u s t r i a l
bloc,
is
in te lle c tu a l,
the o n l y mode o f o r g a n i z a t i o n
c a pa bl e to r e s o l v i n g the problem o f th e f u r t h e r development o f t h e
economy.
capital
To accomplish such a r e s o l u t i o n would mean a l t e r i n g
to the a g r i c u l t u r a l
in dustrial
sector.
Ita lia n
the f l o w o f
s e c t o r through massive in v e s t m e n t w i t h i n
As Gramsci
the
notes.
The p r o d u c t i o n o f s a vi ng s shou ld become an i n t e r n a l (more economi­
c a l ) f u n c t i o n o f the p r o d u c t i v e b l o c i t s e l f , w i t h the h e l p o f a
development o f p r o d u c t i o n a t d i m i n i s h i n g cos ts which would a l l o w ,
in a d d i t i o n to an i n c r e a s e o f s u r p l u s v a l u e h i g h e r s a l a r i e s as
w e ll.
The r e s u l t o f t h i s would be a l a r g e r i n t e r n a l m a r k e t , a
c e r t a i n l e v e l o f w o r k in g c l a s s s a v i n g s and h i g h e r p r o f i t s .
In
t h i s way one should g e t a more r a p i d rhythm o f c a p i t a l accumula­
t i o n w i t h i n the e n t e r p r i s e r a t h e r than through the i n t e r m e d i a r y
o f the "p r o d u c e r s o f s a v i n g s " who a r e r e a l l y n o t h i n g o t h e r than
predators o f surplus v a lu e .
W i t h i n the i n d u s t r i a l - p r o d u c t i v e
b l o c , th e t e c h n i c a l e l e m e n t , management and w o r k e r s , should be
more i m p o r t a n t than th e " c a p i t a l i s t i c " e le m e n t in the p e t t y sense
o f the word.
The a l l i a n c e o f c a p t a i n s o f i n d u s t r y and p e t i t bourg eois savers shou ld be r e p l a c e d by a b l o c c o n s i s t i n g o f a l l
the e le m en t s which a r e d i r e c t l y o p e r a t i v e i n p r o d u c t i o n and which
a r e the o n l y ones c a p a b le o f combining in a union and thus c o n s t i ­
t u t i n g th e p r o d u c t i v e c o r p o r a t i o n .
The o n l y agency Gramsci
ation
in the f l o w o f c a p i t a l
national
debt,
b e l i e v e d cou ld a c h i e v e
was the s t a t e by " ,
,
the nec essary a l t e r ­
, the a m o r t i s a t i o n o f
the
compulsory r e g i s t r a t i o n o f s h a r e s , and by g i v i n g a g r e a t e r
weight to d i r e c t
r a t h e r than i n d i r e c t
taxation
in the governmental
b u d g e t ,
Of course thes e changes in the budget t h a t Gramsci a dv oc a te s a r e n o t the
same as those in a u g u r a t e d w i t h
Ib id .,
p. 291,
12 I b i d . .
p. 2 9 3 .
the trium ph o f l i b e r a l i s m
i n England a t
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
the
"^2
30
beginning o f
the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,
ne c e ss a ry f o r the development o f
the
c o m p e t i t i v e mode o f c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n , b u t r a t h e r those ne c e ss a ry f o r
t h e dev elopment o f th e monopoly mode.
in a l l
and,
th e European c o u n t r i e s had r e s u l t e d
in d u strial
social
brings
service
development
in some form o f s t a t e w e l f a r i s m
t h u s , had caused an expa nsio n o f the s t a t e b u r e a u c r a c y ,
monopoly c a p i t a l
its
Althou gh t h e
the coming o f
f a r g r e a t e r p r e s s u r e to b e a r on the s t a t e
t o expand
ro le.
As Horkheimer had noted i n h i s
in v e s tig a tio n o f fascism.
The growth o f the monopoly s e c t o r Is i r r a t i o n a l in the sense
t h a t i t is accompanied by unemployment, p o v e r t y , economic s t a g n a ­
t i o n and so on.
To in s u r e mass l o y a l t y and m a i n t a i n i t s l e g i t i m a c y ,
the s t a t e must meet th e v a r i o u s demands o f those who s u f f e r the
' c o s t s ' o f economic g r ow th .
The growth o f monopoly c a p i t a l g e n e r ­
a t e s in c r e a s e d expa nsio n o f s o c i a l expen se s.
In sum, the g r e a t e r
the growth o f s o c i a l c a p i t a l the g r e a t e r th e growth o f the monopoly
s e c t o r and the g r e a t e r the s t a t e ' s e x p e n d i t u r e s on s o c i a l expenses
o f production. ' 3
Although the emergence o f a monopoly c a p i t a l
in cr e a s ed s o c i a l
expenses and s o c i a l
monopoly s e c t o r as w e l l
as i t s
is d e t e r m in e d by the s t a t e ' s
expenditures
c a p ita l,
sector
the r a t e o f growth o f the
r a t e o f e x pa nsi on
fiscal
p o licy
required f o r p r o f i t a b l e
private
Ita lia n
i n t o non-monopoly i n d u s t r i e s
i n terms o f s o c i a l
c a p i t a l — th e
a c c u m u l a t i o n — and s o c i a l
p e n s e s - - p r o j e c t s and s e r v i c e s which a r e r e q u i r e d
Gramsci advoc at es t r a n s f o r m i n g the
i n e v i t a b l y generates
to m a i n t a i n s o c i a l
s ta te 's
fiscal
capital
c a p ita l,
thereby
harmony.
policy p re c is e ly
because the e x i s t i n g p o l i c y p r o v i d e s o n l y the minimum o f s o c i a l
ge n e r a t e s no s o c i a l
ex-
impeding th e development o f
expenses and
the monopoly
mode o f p r o d u c t i o n .
The I t a l i a n
s t a t e d i d not t a k e G r a m sc i's measures t o h e a r t .
response to the problems o f the day was to f o r m u l a t e a n e g a t i v i s t i c
o f economic p o l i c i n g
rather
than i n i t i a t e
^3q 'C o nn or , o p . c i t . ,
a ra d ic a lly
Its
policy
new economic p o l i c y .
pp. 8 - 9 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
31
Such a course o f a c t i o n was to be e x p e c te d from a n a t i o n s t a t e where p o l i t i ­
cal
power r e s t e d m a in ly
in the hands o f the t r a d i t i o n a l
e lite s .
o f economic p o l i c i n g was the o n l y o p t i o n open to these e l i t e s
p r e v e n t the
The p o l i c y
in o r d e r to
i n t e g r a t i o n and r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f the e n t i r e economy by monopoly
c a p i t a l , which would then undermine t h e i r p o l i t i c a l
The s i t u a t i o n
power.
in Germany was much the same as t h a t
b a s i c c o n t r a d i c t i o n had come to be i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d
in
Ita ly .
A
in the s t r u c t u r e o f th e
Weimar R ep u b li c where the w o r k in g c la s s e s had the p o s s i b i l i t y o f g a i n i n g
p o litic a l
power, b u t no s o c i a l
sessed s o c i a l
g u a r a n t e e s , and the p r o p e r t i e d c la s s e s pos­
power bu t no p o l i t i c a l
guarantees.*^
Of g r e a t e s t p o l i t i c a l
s i g n i f i c a n c e was th e f a c t t h a t the p r o p e r t i e d c l a s s e s were not u n i t e d among
themselves and became even le s s so d u r i n g the second decade o f
The p o l i t i c a l
power o f
the t r a d i t i o n a l
democrat, b r o u g h t the German P e o p l e ' s
the p a r t y o f the b i g i n d u s t r i a l i s t s ,
same t i m e ,
in r e a l
unemployment, and to i n f l a t i o n
Unable to go beyond the
d itio n al
e lite s
than s t r u c t u r a l
*5
At th e
risin g p ro le ta ria n
b r o u g h t on by the growth o f monopoly c a p i t a l .
lib e ra l
respond by i n i t i a t i n g
p o litic a l
tra d itio n ,
the t r a ­
s top gap measures r a t h e r
change.
the w o r l d - w i d e economic c r i s i s o f
i m p l i c a t e d monopoly c a p i t a l
National
g o v e r n m e n t .
economic power and w e a l t h due t o r i s i n g
lim its o f th e ir
could o n l y
The o n s l a u g h t o f
in te n s ifie d
in t o the
the p e t i t b o u r g e o i s i e was t h r e a t e n e d by the
e g a l i t a r i a n i s m and by a loss
century.
e l i t e s was e s p e c i a l l y c h a l l e n g e d when
the government o f Herman M u l l e r , a s o c i a l
Party,
this
as a d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e .
1929 f u r t h e r
The d e pr e s si on
the f e a r s o f the urban mid d le c l a s s and the r u r a l
l ^ T . W. Mason, "The Primacy o f P o l i t i c s :
S o c i a l i s t Germany," in W o o l f , o £ . c i t . ,
I S M a n d el , og^- c i t . ,
p.
further
p e a s a n t r y , both
P o l i t i c s and Economics in
pp. 1 6 8 - 1 6 9 -
119-
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
32
o f whom f e a r e d the m o b i l i z a t i o n o f a r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o l e t a r i a t movement.
mid d le c l a s s and p e a s a n t r y were the f i r s t
movements in
I t a l y and Germany.
t o be a t t r a c t e d
The
to the f a s c i s t
Du ring the r a p i d d e c l i n e o f
the German e c o n ­
omy between 1 9 29- 19 32 the votes going to the N a t i o n a l i s t S o c i a l i s t P a r t y
jumped from 8 0 0 , 0 0 0
in 1928 to 6 , 4 0 0 , 0 0 0
o f 1932 and 1 7 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0
in 19 30,
in January o f 1 9 3 3 * ^
to 1 3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0
Du ring t h i s
period,
government was r u l i n g by d e c r e e s , c u t t i n g employment b e n e f i t s ,
taxes and t a r i f f s
social
and a b o l i s h i n g freedom o f
democrats t o l e r a t e d
this
these dec ree s and saw to i t
Social
democracy f e a r e d
f a sci sm e q u a l l y and s u r r e n d e r e d
in c o n t r o l
The Nazi
Abel
increasing
"The
t h a t the unions bowed
10 to 15 p e r c e n t .
They j u s ­
t o l e r a t i o n by e x p l a i n i n g t h a t the R e p u b l ic had t o be defended
against fa s cism ."*^
to remain
th e German
the press and asse mbl y.
t o December 1931 dec rees o r d e r i n g wage c u t s o f
tifie d
i n the summer
to b o u r g e o is
r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i v i t y and
r e a c t i o n as a l a s t d i t c h e f f o r t
o f th e s i t u a t i o n .
P a r t y had a m i l l i o n
members by 19 33.
A st ud y by Theodor
to assess the m o t i v a t i o n s o f p a r t y members r e v e a l e d t h a t
was a t t r a c t e d
to the n a t i o n a l
c h a u v in is m o f
were p a r t i c u l a r l y b i t t e r abo ut the c o u n t r i e s
the P a r t y .
membership
The German peo ple
t h a t had managed to s e cu re
c o l o n i e s and w e r e ,
therefore,
The f a s c i s t s '
to power in both Germany and I t a l y
rise
its
not so a f f e c t e d by the p r e s e n t economic c r i s i s . 1 &
depended upon t h e i r
a n t i - c a p i t a l i s t st a nc e which made them a p p e a l i n g t o the p e a s a n t r y ,
m idd le c l a s s c o n s t i t u t i n g
the p e t l t - b o u r g e o i s i e , the t r a d i t i o n a l
members o f the w o r k i n g c l a s s .
e lite s
^®Woo1f , 0£ .
p.
and
Even the ma jor i n d u s t r i a l i s t s , who r e a l i z e d
' ^ W i l h e l m R e i c h , The Mass Psychology o f F a s c is m , New York:
S t r a u s s S G i r o u x , 1970 , p. 13.
^^Mandel, o p . c i t . ,
the urban
121.
c i t . , p . 112.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Farrar,
33
t h a t th e y were too weak to m a i n t a i n any p o s i t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l
d e t e r io r a t in g social o rd e r,
Despite
its
power in the
b e l i e v e d t h a t f a s c i s m would f u l f i l l
a n t i - c a p i t a l i s t posture,
f a s c i s m and the s u p p o r t i t
th e ir
needs,
received
from the i n d u s t r i a l i s t s was in e f f e c t a c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r y movement to
smash th e
revolutionary p ro le ta ria n
i m p l i c a t i o n s o f th e economic c r i s i s .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER IV
THE COMPATIBILITY OF FASCISM AND MONOPOLY CAPITAL
On the one hand,
mass s u p p o r t ,
f a s c i s m was s u f f i c i e n t l y
c a t e r in g to o fte n c o n tr a d ic to r y
the o t h e r hand,
f e a r s and hopes and, on
fascism a r t i c u l a t e d a p a r t i c u l a r l y
primacy o f p o l i t i c s
o m n ip r es e n t s o c i a l
prob lem s.
Of a l l
the o r g a n i z e d p o l i t i c a l
P a r t i c u l a r l y during th is period o f
the n a t i o n a l
p o litic a l
redressing social
l u c i d v i s i o n o f the
in which t h e s t a t e was o f f e r e d as the s o l u t i o n
f a s c i s t s were the ones to emphasize the c r u c i a l
play.
ambiguous t o a t t r a c t
system o f f e r e d
gr ou ps ,
the
the s t a t e ou gh t to
in tern atio n al
economic c r i s i s
the o n l y a p p a r e n t mechanism f o r
i n j u s t i c e and s t a b i l i z i n g
democrats and the communists f a i l e d
role
to
the economy.
to r e c o g n iz e
The s o c i a l
the o b j e c t i v e
o f the n a t i o n s t a t e d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d o f c hao s, b e l i e v i n g
importance
t h a t the s t a t e ,
as a mere appendage o f the c a p i t a l i s t o r d e r , c o u ld n o t be a source o f
fundamental
change.
They d i d no t r e c o g n iz e
o u t o f the hands o f the r u l i n g c l a s s ,
o f c a p i t a l i s t s was in a p o s i t i o n
t h a t th e s t a t e was no t o n l y
but a l s o t h a t no p a r t i c u l a r group
t o s e i z e s t a t e power.
i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t v i s i o n o f th e s t a t e a t t r a c t e d
to t h e i r p r o f o u n d l y f e l t
need f o r p o l i t i c a l
The f a s c i s t s '
the masses by a p p e a l i n g
p a rtic ip a tio n
in the s o c i a l
order.
Essential
t o th e c r e a t i o n o f the f a s c i s t ,
communal
s o c i e t y was a
s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t n a t i o n a l economy no l o n g e r s u b j e c t t o th e v a g a r i e s o f a
w o r l d c a p i t a l i s t m a rk e t .
meant t h a t s o c i a l
A lth ou gh the
id e o lo g y o f
the "pr imac y o f p o l i t i c s "
r e l a t i o n s were to be d e t e r m i n e d by W i l l
and not by
34
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35
m aterial
economic c o n d i t i o n s ,
were t h e r e f o r e
b e lie f
t h i s cannot be t a k en to mean t h a t the f a s c i s t s
unconcerned w i t h economic p r o d u c t i o n .
in the p r i o r i t y o f W i l l ,
the mode o f s o c i a l
Under f a s c i s m ,
However, g i v e n the
th e p a r t i c u l a r mode o f p r o d u c t i o n as w e l l
as
r e l a t i o n s were s im p l y to be commanded i n t o e x i s t e n c e .
the essence o f p o l i t i c a l
evoke o r d e r o u t o f chaos.
The f a s c i s t s
power is th e power to command, to
proceeded to c r e a t e a s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t
n a t i o n a l economy by i n s t i t u t i n g a t o t a l i t a r i a n o r d e r .
A lth ou gh t h e f a s c i s t program was o v e r t l y h o s t i l e
s t a t e d i d no t move to n a t i o n a l i z e
the M a r x i s t s o l u t i o n and t h u s ,
throw th e i n d u s t r i a l
areas
th e
the key i n d u s t r i e s , which was reg a rd ed as
t o be a v o i d e d .
Nor d i d f a s c i s m seek to o v e r ­
mode o f p r o d u c t i o n ; on the c o n t r a r y , one o f the f i r s t
concerns o f the German and I t a l i a n
p ro d u ctivity.
to c a p i t a l i s m ,
f a s c i s t p a r t i e s was t o s t i m u l a t e
In b o th Germany and I t a l y
the s t a t e p r o v i d e d c a p i t a l
in d u strial
i n those
in which the l a r g e c o r p o r a t i o n s were u n w i l l i n g o r unable to t a k e the
fin an cial
risks.
S t a t e sub sid y o f the i n d u s t r i a l
p o litic a l
response t o meet the needs o f
s e c t o r was c o n s i d e r e d to be a r a t i o n a l
th e p e o p l e .
T h is
is p r e c i s e l y
the
type o f response Gramsci b e l i e v e d was n e c e ss a r y to r a t i o n a l i z e and i n t e g r a t e
the e n t i r e economic system t o b e s t meet th e needs o f
Gramsci advoc ated s t a t e su bs id y o f
the masses.
the monopoly c a p i t a l
However,
s e c t o r to d e s t r o y
the r e t r o g r a d e s o c i a l o r d e r n u r t u r e d by a m e r c a n t i l e economy which s t r e s s e d
ag ricu ltu ral
tio n.
p r o d u c t i o n and a h i g h l y c o m p e t i t i v e mode o f
M or e o v e r,
the measure o f s t a t e
Gramsci a d v o c a t e d .
in d u strial
pr od uc­
sub sid y was o n l y one in a program
Concerning t h i s p o l i t i c a l
program he w r o t e t h a t f o r the
state
. . .
to impose an economic d i r e c t i o n by which p r o d u c t i o n o f s a v ­
ings ceased to be a " f u n c t i o n " o f a p a r a s i t i c c l a s s and became a
f u n c t i o n o f the p r o d u c t i v e o r g a n i s m i t s e l f , such a h y p o t h e t i c a l
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
36
development would be p r o g r e s s i v e , and cou ld have I t s p a r t In a
v a s t de s ig n o f i n t e g r a l r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n .
But f o r t h a t i t would
be n e c e ss a r y to promote both a g r a r i a n r e fo r m ( i n v o l v i n g the a b o l i ­
t i o n o f landed income o f a n o n- w or k in g c l a s s , and i t s i n c o r p o r a t i o n
i n t o the p r o d u c t i v e o r ga ni sm In t h e form o f c o l l e c t i v e savi ngs to
be d e d i c a t e d to r e c o n s t r u c t i o n and f u r t h e r p r o g r e s s ) , and an i n ­
d u s t r i a l reform.
One cou ld thus reduce a l l income to the s t a t u s
o f t e c h n I c - l n d u s t r i a l f u n c t i o n a l n e c e s s i t i e s and no l o n g e r keep
them as the j u r i d i c i a l consequence o f pure p r o p e r t y r i g h t s . *
The f a s c i s t
s a ry a g r a r i a n
r e g im e s , however, were opposed to i n s t i t u t i n g
reforms
in o r d e r t o channel
l a b o r t o th e i n d u s t r i a l
o f protectionism fo r
industry,
and m a r g i n a l l y p r o d u c t i v e
The regimes chose i n s t e a d to ad op t a p o l i c y
the pro d uc ts most e a s i l y produced w i t h i n
system o f a g r i c u l t u r e .
of
sector.
ca p ita l
S in ce a g r i c u l t u r a l
cap ital
in v e s t m e n t c a p i t a l w i t h i n
th e
emphasis on the p r o d u c t i o n o f key i n d u s t r i a l
for
the
the c o s t o f development o f
the economy.
Industry
fe ll
The
In a de cr eas e
in
came under s t a t e con­
Internal
from l e a v i n g jo b s because o f
work in the more p r o d u c t i v e s e c t o r o f
sector.
goods r e s u l t e d
The f a s c i s t s were a l s o f o r c e d to c o n t r o l
l a b o r to p r e v e n t w o rk e r s
the urban w o r k in g
in d u strial
the ma nufacture o f consumer goods whose d i s t r i b u t i o n
tro l.
the t r a d i t i o n a l
was n o t p u t t o th e s e r v i c e
the f a s c i s t s were f o r c e d to c u t the wages o f
class to generate
th e neces­
m igration o f
low wages to look f o r
Consequently the burden
upon the w o r k in g c l a s s and the
peti t-b o u rg e o is ie .
As I n d u s t r i a l
p rod uctivity
Increased,
the f lo w o f e s s e n t i a l
goods was I n c r e a s i n g l y d i v e r t e d t o the monopoly c a p i t a l
creased demand f o r these goods, p a r t i c u l a r l y
the axe o f h i g h e r p r i c e s ,
many small
The I n ­
drove up p r i c e s .
w ithin
the monopoly s e c t o r .
spread w i d e r and w i d e r between monopoly s e c t o r w o r k e r s .
* Gramsci, ojp. c i t . ,
p.
Under
f i r m s c o l l a p s e d c o n t r i b u t i n g to the
c o n s o l i d a t i o n and a c c u m u la t io n o f c a p i t a l
d iffe re n tia ls
imports,
sector.
economic
315.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Wage
37
c o m p e t i t i v e s e c t o r worke rs and a g r i c u l t u r a l
in c r e a s e d
fascist
s e c t o r w o rk e r s as p r o d u c t i v i t y
in the monopoly s e c t o r and decreased
regimes were un able t o r e v e r s e t h i s
c r e a s i n g c o n t r o l o v e r th e w o r k in g c l a s s ,
in a l l
trend
other sectors.
in wages which meant
and economic power o f th e b i g
increased.
c a p ita lis ts
to adopt p o l i c i e s ,
and more upon expanding the
the expa nsio n o f
Im p e r i a l
a p p l i e d p r e s s u r e upon the government
industry.
in d u s tria l
sector.
It
to
soon became a p p a r e n t t h a t
i n d u s t r y cou ld no t be s u s t a i n e d w i t h o u t
expansion meant guns b e f o r e b u t t e r .
in te n s ify
most e s s e n t i a l
to the p r o d u c t i o n o f m i l i t a r y
itrperial
The consequence o f
conquest.
rearmament
the process o f m o n o p o l i z a t i o n s i n c e those i n d u s t r i e s
s u p p l i e s o f necess ar y p r o d u c t i o n f a c t o r s .
goods were g i v e n p r i o r i t y
t o the
Once Germany and I t a l y had e n t e r e d
i n t o the war the r e q u ir e m e n t s o f monopoly c a p i t a l
production t o t a l l y o v e r ­
shadowed the needs o f th e o t h e r p r o d u c t i v e s e c t o r s .
to de v e lo p a s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t n a t i o n a l
o f monopoly c a p i t a l
po licy,
Government economic p o l i c y focused more
was to f u r t h e r
fascists
in d u s tria lis ts
such as wage c u t s and a p r o t e c t i o n i s t f o r e i g n
s t r e n g t h e n the p o s i t i o n o f
in­
the p e t i t - b o u r g e o i s i e and the
p e a s a n t r y as t h e p o l i t i c a l
The i n d u s t r i a l
The
The d e s i r e o f the
economy serv ed the i n t e r e s t s
in s p i t e o f the f a s c i s t commitment t o a new a n t i - c a p i t a l -
iS t social o r d e r .
The f a s c i s t s had promised t o f o r g e
a n v i l o f the n a t i o n s t a t e .
In itia lly ,
the new f o l k community on the
t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m was a human response
to the breakdown o f o l d p a r l i a m e n t a r y p o l i t i c a l
o r d e r and to th e chaos o f an
a p p a r e n t l y de ca yin g w o r l d c a p i t a l i s t economic o r d e r .
Fascism sought to
r e s t o r e o r d e r by c r e a t i n g a s t a t e a p p a r a t u s which would be the locus o f con­
trol
over s o c ie ty ,
praxis
i n t e g r a t i n g and r a t i o n a l i z i n g
i n t o a c oh e s iv e w h o l e .
th e v a r i o u s spheres o f
To th e degree t h a t f a s c i s m p o r t r a y e d
s t a t e as th e embodiment o f w i l l ,
the
i t a p p e a le d to the masses who were s t r u g g l i n g
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
38
f o r m e an in gf u l
p o litic a l
p articip atio n
the i l l u s i o n o f such p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
p e o p l e , o n l y th e s t a t e
The b e l i e f
Nonetheless,
seemed to o f f e r s a l v a t i o n
the b e l i e f
structure
from t h e i r common p l i g h t .
is a p r o g r e s s i v e o n e .
in th e s h a pi n g o f h i s t o r y
at
prom­
than the
f o r c e s o f the m a rk e t .
However the r e a l i t y o f the new s o c i a l o r d e r w i t h
antagonism in s u re d t h a t the prima cy o f p o l i t i c s ,
s u s t a i n e d by f o r c e and t e r r o r .
o f the w i l l , "
th e f a s c i s t s
them on command.
responded t o s i t u a t i o n s as i f
re la tio n s .
in an e v e r upward s p i r a l
f a n t a s t i c hopes o f the f u t u r e .
on t e r r o r and c o e r c i o n ,
f e a r and t e r r o r ,
coul d o n l y be
th e y co ul d change
in which th e u t t e r ­
th e subsequent use o f f o r c e and in which a l l
in m a i n t a i n i n g a u t h o r i t a r i a n
the d i a l e c t i c a l
the s t a t e ,
in h e rited
Backed up by the c o n v i c t i o n o f the " p r im ac y
were c o n v e r t e d t o a u t h o r i t a r i a n
upon i t s e l f
its
F a s c i s t s o c i e t y became a command s o c i e t y
ance o f words j u s t i f i e d
s u c c es s fu l
S u p e rfic ia lly ,
i n t h e " p r im a c y o f p o l i t i c s " and the " p r im ac y o f w i l l "
ised to make reason more i n s t r u m e n t a l
impersonal
f o r th e German and I t a l i a n
in th e s t a t e as t h e agency through which peo p le coul d e x e r c i s e
control o v e r the s o c ia l
least,
and who were s u b s e q u e n tl y c o n t e n t w i t h
of
To the e x t e n t
relatio n s
t h a t f a s c i s m was
th r o u g h o u t s o c i e t y ,
it
fed
r e p r e s s i v e measures t r a n s f i x e d by
A lth ou gh the s t a t e
i t was unable to a c h i e v e
impact o f f a s c i s m upon s o c i a l
the d i a l e c t i c a l
relatio n s
coul d m a i n t a i n i t s
i t s avowed g o a l s .
monopoly
W h il e
r e l a t i o n s was to i n t e n s i f y
impact upon the economy was to weaken the
very mode o f m e r c a n t i l e p r o d u c t i o n
the f a s c i s t s
sought t o r e s t o r e and to
s t r e n g t h e n the monopoly c a p i t a l i s t mode i t sought t o d e s t r o y .
Fascism was s im p l y unab le to escape the pa ra me te rs o f c a p i t a l i s t
development.
M or e o v e r, s in c e
th e t o t a l i t a r i a n o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s o c i e t y by
the f a s c i s t p a r t y d e n i e d the e x i s t e n c e o f
r e la tio n s o f production,
i t was a l t o g e t h e r
lim its
imposed by the f o r c e s and
i m p o s s i b l e f o r the s t a t e
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
to p l o t
39
a rational
to ric a l
course f o r economic w e l l - b e i n g .
R a t h e r than s e i z e upon the h i s ­
moment in which th e s t a t e co ul d o v e r s e e p r o d u c t i o n
o f the p e o p l e ,
f a s c i s m was i n c r e a s i n g l y a t
The f a s c i s t emphasis upon i n d u s t r i a l
s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t national
key i n d u s t r i e s ,
declining
the mercy o f monopoly c a p i t a l .
p r o d u c t i o n and rearmament t o c r e a t e a
economy promoted the c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f f i r m s
i n the
the d e c l i n i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y o f th e c o m p e t i t i v e s e c t o r ,
importance o f the a g r i c u l t u r a l
wo rki n g c l a s s .
to meet the needs
Fascism,
In ad ve rte n tly ,
the
s e c t o r and the e m a s c u l a t i o n o f the
f r e e d monopoly c a p i t a l
from the f e t ­
t e r s o f the o l d o r d e r .
Fascism emerged in two c o u n t r i e s which had y e t t o complete th e t r a n s ­
formation
from a g r i c u l t u r a l
to i n d u s t r i a l
wide economic d e p r e s s i o n o f the
period o f tran s fo rm a tio n
c apital
1930's.
c a p i t a l i s m by t h e time o f the w o r l d
The economic impact o f t h i s prol ong ed
in the mode o f p r o d u c t i o n c u r t a i l e d
a c c u m u la ti o n s lo w in g the e x pan sio n o f c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n and l e a v ­
ing the process o f p r i m i t i v e a c c u m u la t io n u n f i n i s h e d .
system had a s t a k e
economy.
in m a i n t a i n i n g
the
s ociety.
To meet t h i s
the p o l i t i c a l
in the
to monopoly c a p i t a l .
le g itim izin g
s e c t o r by d e p r i v i n g
Iro n ic a lly ,
were unprepared to cope w i t h pro fou nd s o c i a l
the
sector
and economic r e l a t i o n s
to th e i n d u s t r i a l
revenue necessary f o r e x p a n s i o n .
services,
in d u strial
th ro u g h o u t
t h r e a t t h e n a t i o n s t a t e s o f Germany and I t a l y
to c o n f i n e monopoly c a p i t a l
tran sitio n
Moreover the p o l i t i c a l
r e l a t i v e backwardness o f the c o u n t r y ' s
The emergence o f monopoly c a p i t a l
t h r e a t e n e d to r e v o l u t i o n i z e
social
the r a t e o f
U ltim ately
moved
i t o f the
the s t a t e and the economy
disrup tion
c a t a l y z e d by the
u n ab le t o p r o v i d e the necessary
I t a l i a n and German s t a t e s
co ul d no l o n g e r govern de -
l i b e r a l i s m and op eni ng th e door t o f a s c i s m .
R a t h e r than a g e n e r a l
a p a rtic u la r h isto ric
trend
in a l l
c a p i t a l i s t countries,
response to d e t e r i o r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s
f a s c i s m was
in I t a l y
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
and
40
Germany which had been s u b j e c t to an e x t r e m e l y uneven economic development
both e x t e r n a l l y w i t h
with
r e s p e c t to o t h e r c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s and i n t e r n a l l y
r e s p e c t to the c o m p e t i t i v e c a p i t a l i s m o f the a g r i c u l t u r a l
the one hand, and to the monopoly c a p i t a l i s m o f
the o t h e r .
U nw ittingly,
f a s ci sm a c t u a l l y
in d u strial
in dustrial
s e c t o r , on
p e r h a p s , and as a consequence o f World War I I ,
fa c ilita te d
c ap italism ,
the
s e c t o r , on
th e f i n a l
v irtu a lly
transform ation
from a g r i c u l t u r a l
c o m p l e t i n g the process o f p r i m i t i v e accumu­
l a t i o n and removed the o b s t a c l e s which had p r e v e n t e d monopoly c a p i t a l
extending i t s
hegemony beyond the key i n d u s t r i e s
ing the t r a n s i t i o n
the whole o f Europe under the
M ars hal l
U.S.
i n t e g r a t e and r a t i o n a l i z e
to monopoly c a p i t a l i s m
leadership o f a v ic to r io u s
tec hn ol og y and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
t h a t system by speed­
and t h r ou g ho u t
U n it e d S t a t e s .
The
t o the U n i t e d S t a t e s a t t r a c t i n g
knowledge.
The presence o f U.S.
t i o n s and e x e c u t i v e management in Europe d i r e c t l y
t i o n o f the p o l i t i c a l
upon the w o r l d cap­
in Germany and I t a l y
Plan broadened th e m ark et a v a i l a b l e
from
to th e r e s t o f the economy.
The ma jor impact o f f a s c i s m and o f World War I I
i t a l i s t system was t o f u r t h e r
to
corpora­
c o n t r i b u t e d t o the c o n s t r u c ­
and economic i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a p p r o p r i a t e t o and nec essary
f o r the maintenance and f u r t h e r development o f c a p i t a l i s m w i t h i n those
countries.
of
The s o c i a l
o r d e r which emerged from f a s c i s m in the post war p e r i o d
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n was n o t the r e s u l t o f t h e
bu t r a t h e r the r e s u l t o f th e t e c h n o l o g i c a l
which f i r s t b r i n g s about the
im p l e m e n t a ti o n o f f a s c i s t
r a t i o n a l i t y o f monopoly c a p i t a l
i n t e g r a t i o n and r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f a l l
p r o d u c t io n and in th e process c r e a t e s a s o c i a l
adm inisters a l l
social
re la tio n s .
no t stem from a t e c h n o l o g i c a l
economic
s t r u c t u r e which dominates and
The hegemony o f monopoly c a p i t a l i s m does
d e t e r m i n i s m b u t r a t h e r from the c r e a t i o n o f a
c l a s s conscious c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s
a stable p o lit i c a l
id e o lo g y
that
is a b l e
to c re a te
t ec hni qu es to secure
order.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER V
THE SINGULAR CHARACTER OF AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT
Where the c o n d i t i o n s o f uneven development h o ld w i t h i n an economy in
which th e p o l i t i c a l
tural
system s t r i v e s
to m aintain
the c o m p e t i t i v e and a g r i c u l ­
s e c t o r s a t the expense o f the development o f monopoly c a p i t a l ,
is a l i k e l y
response t o any m a jo r s o c i a l
p re cip itate a fa scist
ia lize
The c o n d i t i o n s
regime have n e v e r been p r e s e n t
absence o f such c o n d i t i o n s
o f f e r s an e x p l a n a t i o n
c ris is .
fascism
t h a t might
in Ame rica .
It
is the
t h a t un derscores th e American e x p e r i e n c e and
f o r th e f a i l u r e o f a s t r o n g f a s c i s t movement t o m a t e r ­
in th e U n i t e d S t a t e s d u r i n g the G r e a t D e p r e s s io n .
In s p i t e o f the
c o n f l i c t and s t r u g g l e which marked the development o f c a p i t a l i s m
in Am er ica ,
these c o n f l i c t s were n e i t h e r as pr o l o n g e d n o r as i n t e n s e as those which
marked the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s
in the mode o f c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n
R e v o l u t i o n a r y America l i k e
the European c o u n t r i e s was an a g r i c u l t u r a l
but the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a g r i c u l t u r e
in Europe.
in the form o f fa rm imp lement s.
A fter
that
in d u strial
P r i o r to the C i v i l War, a g r i c u l t u r e consumed the l i o n ' s
o f ir o n p r o d u c t i o n
natio n,
and i n d u s t r y was q u i t e u n l i k e
American a g r i c u l t u r e ha s te ne d r a t h e r than h i n d e r e d
development.
in Europe.
share
i 8 6 0 " t h e cash
crops o f tobacco and c o t t o n and t h e tremendous wheat p r o d u c t i o n o f the cen­
tral
plains
r e g io n c o n s t i t u t e d
th e base o f th e
wheat was both a v a l u a b l e e x p o r t c r op as w e l l
in dustrial
Conpany,
force."'
Th is growing i n d u s t r i a l
' Stanley Aronow itz,
1973» p. 145.
in d u s tria liza tio n
pr o c e s s ;
as a cheap food f o r a growing
work f o r c e was r e c r u i t e d from
F a ls e P r o m i s e s , New Yo r k :
McG ra w- Hil l
41
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Book
42
the ranks o f
immigrants who had a l r e a d y been e x p r o p r i a t e d
production.
America d i d n o t have to endure the
from the means o f
long process o f e x p r o p r i a t i o n
o f the land from th e a g r i c u l t u r a l w o rk e r s which marked the course o f European
dev elopment.
I t was A m e r i c a ' s good f o r t u n e
pean p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n o f the p e a s a n t r y .
to reap the f r u i t s o f the Eur o­
W it h th e
in flu x o f
because o f th e absence o f an American f e u d a l e x p e r i e n c e ,
p r i m i t i v e a c c u m u la t io n
anywhere e l s e
bureaucracy.
in terests o f
t h i s process
the f a r m e r s ,
M or e ov e r,
i n o r d e r to e x t r a c t c a p i t a l
Although the f e d e r a l
private p r o f i t . ^
the process o f
in America was a c co mp lis hed w i t h a r a p i d i t y
in the c a p i t a l i s t w o r l d system.
in te rfe re w ith
budget i n i t i a l l y
p l a n t e r s , and m e rc h a n ts ,
the s t a t e
to a p a r t i c u l a r c l a s s o f c a p i t a l i s t s .
Thus,
to prolonged s t r u g g l e s between c a p i t a l i s t s
the economy in Europe were a b s e n t
p o litic a l
stru ctu re
d i d no t
ex pr es s e d the p a r t i c u l a r
i t was always a source o f
the c o n d i t i o n s
fo r control
in Amer ica -
unknown
to m a i n t a i n a l a r g e
The n a t i o n s t a t e was committed to c a p i t a l
in sur ed a f l e x i b l e
immigrants and
accumulation,
not
t h a t gave r i s e
o f the s t a t e and o f
The absence o f such s t r u g g l e s
re s p o n s iv e
to new economic d e v e l o p ­
ments .
Mor eov er, American economic development d i d not f o l l o w
in Europe to e l i m i n a t e
industry.
the b u l k o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
The westward e x p a n s io n o f
a gricultu ral
production
the American n a t i o n
p r o d u c t io n would n o t t a k e p l a c e a t
the r o u t e
taken
to make room f o r
gu ar a nt e e d t h a t
the expense o f
in d u strial
p r o d u c t i o n , and i m m ig r a t io n g u a r a n t e e d t h a t
the e x pa nd in g economy would have
a supply o f l a b o r .
from the American farm to the
What l a b o r d i d e m i g r a t e
f a c t o r y was the r e s u l t o f
than e l i m i n a t i n g
it.
in d u s tria liz in g a g ric u ltu ra l
production
rather
Favored by such c o n d i t i o n s and m ediated by the
^O'Connor, o£^. ci t . , p.
72.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
ideology
43
o f M a n i f e s t D e s t i n y , American
and then a n a t i o n a l
federal
of
capital
rapidly
took on a r e g i o n a l
character.
The ascendancy o f n a t i o n a l
ca p ita l
government.
a c t i v i t y o f bu sin es s b e f o r e
larg e regional
During t h i s
The p o l i t i c a l
and n a t i o n a l
period,
enterprises
th e f e d e r a l
t e r e s t s so much as i g n o r e d .
state
in d u s tria l
to respond r e a d i l y
c a p ita l."
3
then,
The l a t t e r
fin a lly
W i t h i n such a p l u r a l i s t i c
c ap ital
was t o d r i v e a wedge be ­
i n t e r e s t s and the l e g i s l a t i v e and
became t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f n a t i o n a l
fram ewo rk, c o n f l i c t could be p e a c e f u l l y
s t r u c t u r e was t h e r e f o r e more r e s i l i e n t
European c o u n t r y .
Local
c a p i t a l was n e v e r powe rfu l
i n t e r e s t upon the l a r g e r c a p i t a l
enterprises.
fa v o r e d the development o f n a t i o n a l
s t a t e accommodated the growth o f n a t i o n a l
n i n g and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n a t i o n a l
governments,
than t h a t o f any
The r e s o l u t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l
c a p ita l.
ca p ita l
in fra s tru c tu re
The American n a t i o n
by a s s i s t i n g
(railro a d s ,
in the p l a n ­
forts,
te rri­
the p o l i t i c a l
economy o f the key i n d u s t r i e s
relegated
function w ith in
Not o n l y d i d the s e key i n d u s t r i e s
the
impose business
upon the c o m p e t i t i v e m a n u f a c t u r i n g s e c t o r by c o n t r o l l i n g th e
supply o f raw goods and by s e t t i n g
made a v a i l a b l e ,
3 |b id .,
th e terms upon which thes e good were
they e v e n t u a l l y came t o c o n t r o l
p.
The
enough t o impose I t s
to a secondary and even t e r t i a r y
system o f p r o d u c t i o n .
restraints
industry.
re g u la to ry agencies, e t c . ) .
Increasingly,
com petitive c a p ita l
in ­
to th e r e q u ir e m e n t s o f the new economic developments
American p o l i t i c a l
to ria l
level,
f o r the f e d e r a l
a d m i n i s t e r e d w i t h o u t p o si ng s e r i o u s o b s t a c l e s t o t h e growth o f
co n flicts
the f o r m a t i o n
took p l a c e m a in ly a t a l o c a l
I t was no t so d i f f i c u l t ,
local o r p a r t i c u l a r
e x e c u t i v e bra nc he s .
importance o f the
government was n o t hamstrung by busine ss
The impact o f the development o f n a t i o n a l
tween " t h e power o f
i n c r e a s e d the
t h e ve ry a c t i v i t i e s
72.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
of
44
m a n u f a c t u r i n g and r e t a i l i n g ,
a phenomenon Gramsci
called
Fordism.
Thors t e in Vebien was a l s o v e r y much aware o f t h i s development when he
wrote th a t
In c o a l , o i l , s t e e l and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n e . g . , the busine ss concerns
i n t e r e s t e d have been r e a c h i n g o u t among the m a n u f a c t u r i n g in d u s ­
t r i e s which draw on them f o r s e r v i c e and m a t e r i a l s , and have been
a c q u i r i n g an i n t e r e s t a l s o in the busine ss o f d i s t r i b u t i o n . 4
This tendency o f the l a r g e
w ell
as h o r i z o n t a l
firms
to extend t h e i r control
manner a l s o a p p l i e s
in a v e r t i c a l
as
t o those
i n d u s t r i a l bu sin es s concerns t h a t have to do w i t h m a n u f a c t u r i n g
and t h a t would have to be c l a s s e d as m a n u f a c t u r e r s i n the t e c h n o ­
l o g i c a l r e s p e c t , . . . such a r e e . g . , th e meat packers and the
f l o u r - m i 1 l e r s ; and t h e r e a r e o t h e r concerns i n t e r e s t e d in s u g a r ,
gas, e l e c t r i c i t y , t e l e p h o n e s , t r o l l e y la n e s and the l i k e , t h a t
f a l l more o r less p a t e n t l y in the same d o u b t f u l o r ambiguous c l a s s . ^
The r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n
and i n t e g r a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n a r e
ing p r i n c i p l e s be hi nd the e v e n t u a l
The essence o f m o n o p o l i z a t i o n
is
f u n c t i o n o f t r a n s p o r t and t r a d e
i t y o f production.
itie s
indeed i t
hegemony o f these v a r i o u s b u s i n e s s e s .
the " c o n t i n u a l
to the l e v e l
r e d u c t i o n o f the economic
o f a genuinely s u b a lte rn a c t i v ­
has le d to th e a t t e m p t to absorb the se a c t i v ­
in to productive a c t i v i t y . " ^
The e x pan sio n o f monopoly c a p i t a l
r e s u l t o f the "hegemony born i n the f a c t o r y and r e q u i r e s
o n l y a minute q u a n t i t y o f p r o f e s s i o n a l
p o litic a l
for
Not o n l y does the e xpa nsi on o f monopoly c a p i t a l
p o litic a l
system from an a r c h a i c ,
it
u ltim ate ly
in which the " ' s t r u c t u r e '
is a
its exercise
and i d e o l o g i c a l
a r i e s . "7
is tra tio n ,
the two g u i d ­
in term edi­
t r a n s f o r m the
immense b u re a u c r a c y to a s t r e a m l i n e d adm in­
reduces a l l
ar ea s o f a c t i v i t y
to s e t s o f
t e c h n iq u e s
dominates th e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e s more im m e d i a t e l y and
^ T h o r s t e l n V e b i e n , Absentee O w n e rs h ip , Boston:
Beacon P r e s s ,
p. 239.
5 Ib id .
6Qramsci, o p . c i t . ,
p. 2 8 5 -
7|bi d .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 9 67 ,
45
in wh ich t h e l a t t e r a r e a l s o ' r a t i o n a l i z e d '
( s i m p l i f i e d and reduced i n num­
ber) ."8
® lbid.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER VI
THE RATIONALIZATION OF THE WORK PROCESS
The r e v o l u t i o n
in the system o f p r o d u c t i o n br ou gh t on by th e form a­
t i o n o f the t r u s t s as i n s t i t u t i o n s o f
s i m p l i f i e d and i n t e g r a t e d
ratio n alized
regional
the t e c h n i c a l
and n a t i o n a l
capital
not o nly
c om po s iti on o f p r o d u c t i o n , b u t
the r e l a t i o n s between the e m ploy er and th e employee as w e l l .
The r e v o l u t i o n
in the means o f p r o d u c t i o n proceeds
to th e degree t h a t the
i n t e g r a t i o n and s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f the p r o d u c t i o n process becomes a f u n c t i o n
o f consciou sne ss.
d u stries,
As the degree o f c o m p e t i t i o n
the i n d u s t r i a l i s t s
o f impersonal
fin d
is m in im iz e d in the key i n ­
the y a r e no l o n g e r the u n w i t t i n g " v i c t i m s "
market f o r c e s , b u t the p e r p e t r a t o r s .
t h e i r sway o v e r the n a t i o n a l
economy, o v e r p o w e r in g the c o m p e t i t i o n ,
o f the m a r k e t p la c e a r e d e c r e a s e d .
in the i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
o f advanced i n d u s t r i a l
As monopolies ex ten ded
Fewer r i s k s encourage l a r g e r
to meet the t e c h n i c a l
production.
and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
r e q u ir e m e n t s
As the system o f p r o d u c t i o n becomes h i g h l y
and i n t e r d e p e n d e n t ,
the more s e v e r e
is l e f t
I f chance
the d i s r u p t i o n
is t o be overcome,
the c a p i t a l ­
the r i s k s a t t e n d a n t upon
economic a c t i v i t y .
to chance.
in ves tm en ts
To p r o t e c t such i n v e s t m e n t s ,
i s t s become I n c r e a s i n g l y concerned to e l i m i n a t e
th e r i s k s
it
in terre la ted
i f any s u b a l t e r n a c t i v i t y
must be c o n s c i o u s l y
organized out o f e x is te n c e .
Although c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n has always depended upon the a b i l i t y
and the c a p a c i t y o f the b o u r g e o i s i e
ing, d i s t r i b u t i n g ,
o f chance p r i o r
to g e n e r a t e
and m a r k e t i n g goods,
i n n o v a t i v e methods o f pr od uc­
such i n n o v a t i o n was i t s e l f a m a t t e r
to the a d v e n t o f monopoly c a p i t a l - - t h e
resu lt o f
46
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independent
47
"m e c h a n i c s , a r t i s a n s ,
p la c e .M o re o v e r,
and salesmen who drew from t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e
these
i n n o v a t i o n s were a lm o s t always
machine process and not i n n o v a t i o n s
However, w i t h
elim in ate
cess,
s tip u la tin g
and the c on c om ita nt need to
to chanc e.
I n n o v a t i o n becomes a b s o l u t e l y
t h a t consciousness p l a y a c e n t r a l
role
in th e p l a n n i n g
and design o f an i n t e g r a t e d and r a t i o n a l i z e d system o f p r o d u c t i o n .
d u s tria lis ts
must concern themselves w i t h
t ec hniq ues o f o r g a n i z a t i o n and c o n t r o l
cal economic a c t i v i t y
the i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
in g e n e r a l
the need to m a i n t a i n the o r d e r
The need to decrea se
ris k
to the
to a complex i n d u s t r i a l
individual
the f a c t o r y w h i l e
l a r g e monopolies
labor force w i t h i n his
facto ry.
c a p ita lis t.
The fo r m er can sabo­
t h e l a t t e r can sabotage w i t h i n
th e m a r k e t ,
In E u r o p e ,
he cou ld c o n t r o l
the
the
the essense o f such c o n t r o l
l a b o r has been in s u re d no t o n l y
w a g e - c o n t r a c t b u t through a p p r o p r i a t e
le g is la tio n
l a b o r to c a p i t a l was reproduced by th e p o l i t i c a l
increasingly
system is
the f a c t o r y owner c o u ld do p r i o r to the
to control
been p o l i t i c a l — the s u b j e c t i o n o f
c a p ita l.
r i s k and chance and
ra tio n a lity .
Although t h e r e was l i t t l e
emergence o f
to the problem o f a n a r c h i ­
the m a r k e t p l a c e and the l a b o r process have posed the
tage p r o d u c t i o n o u t s i d e
factory.
the development and deployment o f
as s o l u t i o n s
req u isite
a t the r o o t o f the t e c h n o l o g i c a l
h i g h e s t elemen ts o f
The i n ­
and to the problem o f random b e h a v i o r w i t h i n
in p a r t i c u l a r .
H is to ric a lly ,
in the
c h a r a c t e r o f m a r k e t p l a c e and o f the p r o d u c t i o n p r o ­
i n n o v a t i o n canno t be l e f t
es se n tia l,
innovations
in th e c h a r a c t e r o f economic a c t i v i t y .
the emergence o f monopoly c a p i t a l
the a n a r c h i c a l
in the work
as w e l l .
has
through the
The s u b j e c t i o n o f
s t r u g g l e s between l a b o r and
these s t r u g g l e s moved o u t o f
the shop and the s t r e e t s
Aronowitz, o p . c i t . , p. 266.
A r o n o w i t z contends
v a t o r s " . . . soon found themsel ves s a l a r i e d employees o f
p r e n e u r s , those c a pa bl e o f combining c a p i t a l o f many small
the a d d i t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l r e so u r ce s s u p p l i e d by b a n k s . " ( p .
t h a t these in n o ­
the new e n t r e ­
producers w i t h
266)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
48
and i n t o
e ra l,
the h a l l s o f p a r l i a m e n t .
The European t r a d e
succeeded in g i v i n g l a b o r p o l i t i c a l
e v e r , was r e c i p r o c a l :
the l i b e r a l
control.
state.
the
Labor and c a p i t a l
to i t s
that
its
in i t s own
l a b o r in
issue o f
m atter w i t h in a l i b e r a l i s t i c
framework;
change.
For d i f f e r e n t
European l a b o r and c a p i t a l
s t a t e t o be In t h e i r own b e s t
in terests.
fought to m a in ta in
its
p a rtic ip a tio n attested
j u s t i c e and s o c i a l
reasons and from d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s ,
s e n t a t i v e s , by and l a r g e ,
understood the
in c r e a s e d p o l i t i c a l
s u c c e s s fu l q u e s t f o r s o c i a l
the l i b e r a l
i n the s u b j e c t i o n o f
European c a p i t a l i s t s
labor believed
Such l e g i t i m a c y , how­
l a b o r became compl i c i tous
became p a r t n e r s
c o n t r o l o v e r l a b o r t o be a p o l i t i c a l
wher ea s,
legitim acy.
i n gen­
l e g i t i m a c y o f l a b o r r e a f f i r m e d the l e g i t i m a c y o f
U n w i t t i n g l y pe r h a p s ,
s up p or t o f l i b e r a l i s m .
union movement,
believed
Their p o lit ic a l
the l i b e r a l
repre­
c h a r a c t e r o f the
s t a t e up to World War I I .
Such a p o s t u r e , however,
o f monopoly c a p i t a l
which t r e a t s
and l a b o r as a t e c h n i c a l
control
under l i b e r a l i s m
a m ultitude o f w i l l s .
the
to the t e c h n o l o g i c a l
individual
is,
ra tio n a lity
is sue o f the c o n t r o l o f both th e market
m atter.
freedom.
therefo re,
Such a mode o f c o n t r o l
threaten ing to d is s ip a te
p a t io n w i t h i n
inim ical
and no t as a p o l i t i c a l
osophy o f l i b e r a l i s m presupposes
social
is
The p o l i t i c a l
p h il­
The achievement o f
an outcome o f s t r u g g l e s between
is always ten uo us, always
in the f a c e o f a new c o n f l i c t :
the system by the concerned p a r t i e s
t i o n o f c o n f l i c t and the ma intenance o f o r d e r .
P o litic a l
is e s s e n t i a l
p a rtic i­
to the
As a means o f s o c i a l
resolu­
control,
l i b e r a l i s m is sim ply n o t a s u f f i c i e n t means to meet the needs o f monopoly
c a p ita l.
A highly
i n t e g r a t e d and r a t i o n a l i z e d economic system canno t r e l y
upon concerned p a r t i e s choo sing to r e s o l v e
nor can i t
r e l y upon p u r e l y p o l i t i c a l
t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n the system,
solu tion s
to c o n f l i c t s which tend to
take too long to m a t e r i a l i z e and which i n e v i t a b l y
give
rise
to new problems.
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49
Unable to a f f o r d
the r e p e r c u s s i o n s o f c l a s s c o n f l i c t , monopoly c a p i t a l
to p r e v e n t th e o c c u r r e n c e o f c l a s s c o n f l i c t and to t r e a t
does oc c ur as a m a t t e r o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
and so remove c o n f l i c t
technological
seeks
the c o n f l i c t which
to be han d le d by q u a l i f i e d e x p e r t s ,
from the v i c i s s i t u d e s o f
r a t i o n a l i t y o f monopoly c a p i t a l
the p o l i t i c a l
forum.
The
permeates the s t a t e and the
marketplace.
However,
in th e c o n t e x t o f
lib e ra lis m ,
the m a r k e t p la c e and the s t a t e
ar e are n as o f c o m p e t i t i o n between f r e e age nts — the m a r k e t p la c e
is the neces­
sa ry realm o f c o m p e t i t i o n between f i r m s and between w o rke rs f o r the s a l e o f
t h e i r l a b o r power;
the s t a t e
l a b o r and c a p i t a l .
is
the necess ar y
re alm o f c o m p e t i t i o n between
In the t r a d i t i o n o f Adam S m i t h ,
lib e ra lis m
c o m p e t it io n as g u a r a n t e e i n g the b e s t economic and p o l i t i c a l
f o r monopoly c a p i t a l
capital
requires
such c o m p e t i t i o n e n t a i l s
from the
s t r u g g l e s between l a b o r and c a p i t a l
The t e c h n o l o g i c a l
the
o f monopoly c a p i t a l
Monopoly
from the p o i n t o f
for
the r e s o l u t i o n o f
in which the r e l a t i o n s
Both the market and the
com petition, c o n f l i c t ,
r a t i o n a l i t y o f advanced i n d u s t r i a l
the maintenance o f a d i s c i p l i n e d
Europe a f f i r m e d
adm inistered.
to e l i m i n a t e
c o n v e r t the m a r k e t p l a c e and the s t a t e
In g e n e r a l ,
in s titu tio n
to an i n s t i t u t i o n
are s t r i c t l y
s t a t e must be r a t i o n a l i z e d
ity .
However,
t o the p o i n t o f c o l l u s i o n between f i r m s and r e q u i r e s
the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f th e s t a t e
between l a b o r and c a p i t a l
order.
f a r too much r i s k .
th e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f th e m a r k e t p l a c e
c o m p e t i t i o n between f i r m s
regards such
into
and s po n ta n e ­
s o c i e t y aims to
instruments o f social
control
labor fo rc e .
th e h i s t o r y o f the s t r u g g l e between l a b o r and c a p i t a l
lib e ra l
for
tra d itio n
in
and m i t i g a t e d a g a i n s t the development
and the a c ce pt a nc e o f
its
technological
ra tio n a lity .
^The degree t o which monopoly c a p i t a l was h i n d e r e d , o f course v a r i e d
from c o u n t r y to c o u n t r y , depending upon the c o u n t r i e s ' r o l e in the w o r l d
mar k e t .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
50
The p a r t i c u l a r
receptivity o f
the U n i t e d S t a t e s
may be pegged to the unique r e l a t i o n
between American c a p i t a l
which d i d not produce th e s u b j e c t i o n o f
of lib e ra lis m .
Until
classic p r o le t a r ia t .
th e
to monopoly c a p i t a l ,
l a b o r by c a p i t a l
l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , America d i d not possess a
American w o r k in g c l a s s was m a i n l y composed o f a r t i s a n s ,
f a r m e r s , e t c . , who were n e i t h e r p r o p e r t y l e s s
s k ills
t h a t would g i v e
and l a b o r ,
and l a b o r in s u p p o r t
P r i o r to the development o f n a t i o n a l
sess ing n e i t h e r c a p i t a l
c a p ita l,
i n the h i s t o r i c a l
sense o f pos­
o r land nor i n the modern sense o f possessing no
them s t a t u s w i t h i n
land i n t o
o f t h e i r l a b o r power,
the
s k i l l e d craftsmen,
the
in d u strial
system .3
fo r m a t i o n o f the European w o r k i n g c l a s s was the r e s u l t o f d r i v i n g
a n t r y o f f the
however,
the urban a r e a s and l e a v i n g them o n l y
th e f o r m a t i o n o f
W h i l e the
the peas­
in possession
the American w o r k in g c l a s s
in itia lly
depended upon th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f la nd and re so ur ce s t o be a p p r o p r i a t e d by
the i n d i v i d u a l w o r k e r .
A large portion o f
the American w o r k in g c l a s s was
f r e e from the type o f crude e x p l o i t a t i o n and o p p r e s s io n the European w o rk in g
c la s s s u f f e r e d a t the hands o f
no t t h r e a t e n e d on a c o n t i n u a l
i t s e m p lo y e r s .
The American w o rk e r was s im pl y
b a s i s as was the Old World w o rk e r by a l a r g e
r e s e r v e army o f the unemployed which k e p t wages down and jobs s c a r c e .
the European w o rk in g c l a s s was s t e a d i l y b e in g immise r a t e d ,
ing c l a s s c on t in u e d to f a r e w e l l
in comparison.
v i g o r o f th e American economy t h a t was t o f u r t h e r
Iro n ic a lly
W h il e
the American w o rk ­
i t was the v e ry
im m is e ra te th e European
wo rkin g c l a s s and lead to the p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n o f American l a b o r .
The success o f American a g r i c u l t u r e and i n d u s t r y br ou ght p r e s s u r e to
bea r upon the European c a p i t a l i s t s
duction.
The d r i v e
to i n c r e a s e the e f f i c i e n c y o f
to i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i v i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y
drove many more peasants o f f
^ A r o n o w i t z , og^. c i t . ,
the
p.
land and i n t o the c i t i e s .
t h e i r pro­
in a g r i c u l t u r e ,
The c i t i e s were
146
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
51
simply unable to p r o v i d e f o r th e new i n f l u x o f p o p u l a t i o n .
immigrate to the U n i t e d S t a t e s ,
ed the urban w o rk in g c l a s s .
and those who s t a y e d behind f u r t h e r
I t was the
the German, French, S c o t c h - 1 r i s h ,
bu lk o f A m e r ic a ' s
in d u strial
immigrants
E nglish,
and Welsh, who came to form the
tria l
la b o r and c a p i t a l
to c a p i t a l
t o the m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f the se b a s i c
in the l a t e
l 8 8 0 ' s , the
in d u s ­
in the U n i t e d S t a t e s was a c o o p e r a t i v e a f f a i r between
in which the day to day o p e r a t i o n o f the f a c t o r y was in
the hands o f the s k i l l e d
pr oc e s s, bu t they were
labor.
P rio r
o f m onopolization
mode o f p r o d u c t i o n
unskilled
in d u stries p r io r
found the y were n o t s u b j e c t e d t o the same r e l a t i o n
in the course
im m i s e r a t -
w o r k in g c l a s s o f s k i l l e d c r a f t s m e n . ^
as t h e i r European c o u n t e r p a r t s .
industries
craftsmen.
responsible
Not o n l y d i d the y c o n t r o l the
for h irin g
and d i s c i p l i n i n g the
p r o d u c t io n
fa c to ry 's
A lth ou gh the European immigrants had b ro u gh t a s t r o n g t r a d e
union t r a d i t i o n w i t h
them, such a t r a d i t i o n
must have seemed s t r a n g e l y o u t
o f p l a c e in a workshop in which c l a s s c o n f l i c t was a p p a r e n t l y a b s e n t . ^
ever,
i t was the p e c u l i a r ,
cooperative
A m e r ic a ' s key i n d u s t r i e s such as s t e e l ,
r e v o lu tio n a r y m odernization
l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n o f the
n a lity
to cope w i t h
While
th a t created
the c o n d i t i o n s
in
f o r the
i n the mode o f p r o d u c t i o n n e c e s s i t a t i n g the p r o ­
the t e c h n o l o g i c a l
ra tio ­
th e r e p e r c u s s i o n s o f p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n .
in c o n t r o l
the end o f
How­
r e l a t i o n between l a b o r and c a p i t a l
l a b o r f o r c e and th e b i r t h o f
o f production,
t i o n s and methods t o l i g h t e n
to s p e l l
to
from Europe, p a r t i c u l a r l y
These immigrants who came t o work i n A m e r i c a ' s b a s i c
to the l 8 8 0 ' s
Many were a b l e
th e ir
i t s work.
function
s k ille d
l a b o r d e v is e d v a r i o u s
The r e s u l t o f t h e i r
in the f a c t o r y .
inven­
i n g e n u i t y came
The r i s e o f new machine
4 |b id .
^However, t h i s t r a d i t i o n was r e s p o n s i b l e
c r a f t unions in A m e r i c a ' s key i n d u s t r i e s .
f o r the f o r m a t i o n o f s t r o n g
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
52
technology f o r which s k i l l e d
tu ally a ll
w o rk e r s .
l a b o r was l a r g e l y
r e s p o n s i b l e meant t h a t v i r ­
f a c t o r y o p e r a t i o n s c o u ld be ha nd le d by s e m i - s k i l l e d and u n s k i l l e d
For a time the s k i l l e d w o rk e r s were a b l e
w i t h the new machine te c h n o l o g y .
were even s uc c e s s f u l
to l i g h t e n
Backed by t h e i r s t r o n g c r a f t u n io n ,
in p r e s s i n g t h e i r wage demands a t
f o r c e d the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f l a b o r - s a v i n g m a c h in e r y .
"The many i n n o v a t io n s
t h e i r work load
they
the same time they
In the s t e e l
industry,
i n t r o d u c e d between i8 6 0 and 1890 , o f which the most
n o t a b l e was the Bessemer c o n v e r t e r i n c r e a s e d the s i z e and c a p a c i t y o f the
furnaces and m i l l s ,
However,
b u t they g e n e r a l l y d i d not r e p l a c e men w i t h machines.
the s t r o n g p o s i t i o n o f
expanded r a p i d l y
in th e l a t e
l a b o r was t h r e a t e n e d as the markets f o r s t e e l
l 880's .
The ex pa ns io n o f mark ets was due to an i n c r e a s e
in demand f o r s t e e l
by the r a i l w a y s and to th e c o m p e t i t i o n
th e American s t e e l
afford
producers.
to the German and B r i t i s h s t e e l
In
ments in c r e a s e d the c o m p e t i t i o n between U n i t e d S t a t e s
i n d u s t r y began to
t u r n , these d e v e l o p ­
steel firm s.
Each f i r m
was f o r c e d to seek ways t o cu t the c o s t o f p r o d u c t i o n and make p r o d u c t i o n
more e f f i c i e n t .
The p r i c e
fe ll
M e a nw hi le ,
the p r i c e o f b a r i r o n was f a l l i n g d r a s t i c a l l y .
below
the minimum s p e c i f i e d in the u n i o n ' s s l i d i n g s c a l e , even though
the n e g o t i a t e d minimum r a t e s wer e a l s o d e c l i n i n g .
T h is meant
t h a t employers were p a y in g a h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f
t h e i r income
o u t in wages than they would have were the s l i d i n g f e a t u r e o f
the s l i d i n g s c a l e o p e r a t i v e o r had they had the power to reduce
wages u n i l a t e r a l l y i n th e fa c e o f d e c l i n i n g p r i c e s . 7
Moreover,
the owners were unable
s t r u c t u r e d i c t a t e d by the c r a f t s
to i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i v i t y gi ve n the
u n io n s .
''The w o rk e r s c o n t r o l l e d
labor
the p l a n t s
6 K a t h e r i n e S t o n e , "The O r i g i n s o f the Job S t r u c t u r e s in the S t e e l
I n d u s t r y , " Radical A m e r i c a , V o l . 7» No. 6 , Nov-Dee, 1973, P- 2 6 .
Although
Stone c o n c e n t r a t e s h e r a n a l y s i s upon th e s t e e l i n d u s t r y , she c la im s t h a t
s t e e l is p a r a d i g m a t i c o f a l l the key i n d u s t r i e s .
7|bid .,
p. 2 7 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
53
and de c id e d how work was t o be done.
Employers had no way to speed up the
workers,
nor c o u l d th e y I n t r o d u c e new machinery t h a t e l i m i n a t e d o r r e d e f i n e d
jobs."®
Thus, by the l a t e
l8 8 0 's ,
neck to p r o d u c t i o n and " t h e s o c i a l
had t o go i f
c a p it a lis t steel
the l a b o r s t r u c t u r e p r e s e n t e d a b o t t l e ­
r e l a t i o n s o f c o o p e r a t i o n and p a r t n e r s h i p
p r o d u c t i o n was going to p r o g r e s s . "9
C o n s e q u e n t l y , employers demanded t h a t s k i l l e d
l a b o r take paycuts and
for e go some o f the p r o t e c t i o n o f f e r e d by t r a d e union agre eme nts.
the owners
in sis te d
t h a t th e f a c t o r i e s
More ov er,
run t w e n t y - f o u r hours p e r day s e ek in g
to le n g t h e n the work day t o two t w e l v e - h o u r s h i f t s .
In 1889 C a r n e g i e ,
for
example, moved t o b r e a k th e back o f the s t r o n g e s t union the c o u n t ry had e v e r
seen,
th e Amalgamated A s s o c i a t i o n o f
I r o n and S t e e l W o r k e r s, by pro p os in g a
t w e n t y - f i v e per c e n t wage r e d u c t i o n and i n d i v i d u a l
contracts
f o r each w o r k e r ;
thereb y p u t t i n g an end to the c o o p e r a t i v e b a r g a i n i n g t h a t had c h a r a c t e r i z e d
union-owner n e g o t i a t i o n a t
the C ar ne g ie S t e e l
Company.
The workers s t r u c k
and Carneg ie was f o r c e d to e x t e n d the union c o n t r a c t a n o t h e r t h r e e y e a r s ,
expire
to
in 1892.^®
The new c o n t r a c t was m e re ly a t r u c e s i n c e as a Carneg ie p a r t n e r put
it,
" ' T h e Amalgamated p l a c e d a t a x on improvements,
gamated had to g o . ^
By 1892 ,
the C a r n e g ie S t e e l
therefo re,
the Amal­
Company had merged w i t h
the Edgar Thomson, Duquesne, and o t h e r m i l l s where the m a j o r i t y o f workers
were n o n - u n i o n .
"These works,
C arn eg ie t hen d r a f t e d a s t a t e m e n t
therefore, w ill
G |bid. ,
p. 2 6 .
9 |b id .,
p. 2 7 .
^^Jeremy B r e c h e r ,
in May, 1892, s a y i n g t h a t
be n e c e s s a r i l y Non-Union a f t e r
S trik e ,
San F r a n c i s c o ;
the e x p i r a t i o n
S t r a i g h t Arrow Books,
p. 53.
11 I b i d . ,
p. 5 4 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1972,
54
o f the p r e s e n t a gr eem en t.
. .
The r e f u s a l o f the Carn eg ie S t e e l
pany to n e g o t i a t e a new c o n t r a c t r e s u l t e d
I t was a s t r i k e by s k i l l e d
Com­
in the Homestead S t r i k e o f 1892.
l a b o r to p r o t e s t the e n s ui n g changes in t h e mode
o f p r o d u c t i o n which the y p e r c e i v e d as an a s s a u l t by th e owners upon t h e i r
p riv ile g e d positions
nothing less
in t h e workshop.
Car ne g ie and h i s c o h o r t s had demanded
than the p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n o f the c r a f t s . ^3
The end o f the c o o p e r a t i v e a l l i a n c e between l a b o r and c a p i t a l
s h i f t e d c o n t r o l o f p r o d u c t i o n from th e s k i l l e d w o r k e r d i r e c t l y
ita lis t.
So long as p r o d u c t i o n had r e s t e d upon the a b i l i t i e s
o f individ ual
workers,
s k i l l e d workers.
control
to the cap­
and knowledge
o f p r o d u c t i o n was the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f
these
Once p r o d u c t i o n came t o depend upon the machine press
i n s t i t u t e d by the e m pl oy e r and made p o s s i b l e by the i n v e n t i v e n e s s o f s k i l l e d
labor,
the focus o f c o n t r o l
the w o rk e r w i t h
i n the p r o d u c t i o n process was the i n t e g r a t i o n o f
th e new machines.
resp o n sib ility o f
Thus, c o n t r o l
o f p r o d u c t io n became the
the f i r m as a whole to in s u r e the necessary s t a b i l i t y
o r d e r r e q u i r e d by the new t e c h n o l o g i c a l
The im p l e m e n t a t io n o f
Once the c o o p e r a t i v e
re la tio n
and
processes.
t h i s new mode o f c o n t r o l
between l a b o r and c a p i t a l
the o b j e c t i v e s u b j u g a t i o n o f l a b o r by c a p i t a l ,
immediate and p r im a r y problem o f th e f i r m .
was no easy t a s k .
had been negated by
l a b o r d i s c i p l i n e became the
The problem was a t w o - f o l d one,
i n v o l v i n g l a b o r m o t i v a t i o n and th e p r e v e n t i o n o f w o r k i n g c la s s o p p o s i t i o n .
The s o l u t i o n to t h i s
new l a b o r system,
tran sferring
it
pr ob lem o f
l a b o r d i s c i p l i n e was the
intro duction o f a
removing the base o f power from the s k i l l e d worke rs and
to a newly c r e a t e d m a n a g e ri a l
The managerial
bureaucracy.
c l a s s was a p r o f e s s i o n a l
c l a s s composed o f e n g i n e e r s
12| b i d .
11
“' A r o n o w i t z , o£^. c i t . ,
p.
148.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
55
and t e c h n i c i a n s .
s k i l l e d w o rk e r s
Th is c l a s s was i n i t i a l l y
to the
formed by prom otin g some o f the
rank o f s u p e r v i s o r o r t e c h n i c i a n and by making t h e i r
t asks dependent upon th e re q u ir e m e n t s o f the c o r p o r a t e ownership
upon t h e i r outmoded t e c h n i c a l
s k ills .
r a t h e r than
The f o r m a t i o n o f a man age rial
c la s s
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y undermined th e p r i v i l e g e d and autonomous p o s i t i o n o f s k i l l e d
l a b o r and p r o v i d e d a mechanism f o r c o n t r o l
w h o le .
14
To a i d
h ierarch ical
the m ana ger ia l
labor s tr u c tu r e .
gated a g a i n s t o p p o s i t i o n
archical
d ivisio n o f
with d i f f e r e n t i a l
s killed
o v e r the f i r m ' s work f o r c e as a
prog ram, t h e c o r p o r a t i o n chose to r e t a i n a
Such a s t r u c t u r e k e p t l a b o r d i v i d e d and m i t i ­
from a u n i f i e d work f o r c e .
labo r w it h in
wage l e v e l s
the f i rm was the s e n i o r i t y
d iffe re n tia ls
for
the u n s k i l l e d . ' ^
the l a b o r h i e r a r c h y a p p l i e d m a in ly to wage
r a t h e r than t o s k i l l
in the key i n d u s t r i e s .
l i s t coupled
r e i n f o r c e d by union r e p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r the
t r a d e s w i t h o u t such r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
The d i s t i n c t i o n w i t h i n
The essence o f the h i e r ­
d if fe r e n t ia ls w ith in
The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f
the modernized f ir m s
the new t e c h n o l o g i e s had t r i v i ­
a l i z e d work and had narrowed the d i f f e r e n c e s between s k i l l e d ,
and u n s k i l l e d w o r k e r s .
la b e lin g categories
cess i t s e l f .
These d i f f e r e n c e s
t h a t were
in creasingly
The t r i v i a l i z a t i o n o f w o r k ,
sem i-skilled,
r a p i d l y became conceptual o r
le s s
thus,
ro o t e d in the p r o d u c ti o n p r o ­
r e i n f o r c e d management's
c o n tr o l o f the work process as a w h o l e .
Wi th the r e d u c t i o n o f a r t i s a n s k i l l s to r e l a t i v e l y sim ple
tasks no i n d i v i d u a l w o r k e r o r group o f w o rk e r s is a b l e to master
the i n t r i c a c i e s o f e i t h e r the p r o d u c t i o n process o r the m a rk e t,
and the c a p i t a l i s t s ' c e n t r a l i t y t o the process o f p r o d u c t io n
and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f commodities which c o n s i s t s in h i s a b i l i t y to
to c o o r d i n a t e the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the pr oducers and the
i ^ s t o n e , o£_. c i t . , p . 4 3 .
^5A r o n o w i t z , o£^. ci t . , p .
151
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
56
mark et remains s e c u r e . ' ^
The r e v o l u t i o n a r y changes
in th e mode o f p r o d u c t i o n
and p r o f i t a t the same time the y n e c e s s i t a t e d
increased p r o d u c t iv it y
the f o r m a t i o n o f a p r o f e s s i o n a l
c l a s s o f managers who were not engaged in p r o d u c t i v e
t i o n by c a p i t a l i s t s
to d e v i s e t e c h n o l o g i e s
o f management in o r g a n i z e d p r o d u c t i o n
r e s p e c t to the c r u c i a l
.
.
labor.
t h a t m a i n t a i n the c r u c i a l
must,
therefore,
role
be seen w i t h
r o l e o f management to se cu re hi gh l e v e l s o f e f f i c i e n c y
and p r o f i t s w i t h o u t t h r e a t e n i n g l a b o r d i s c i p l i n e and i t s
* * l b i d . , p.
"The r e c o g n i ­
passivity.
155
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER VI I
THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE WORKER IN ADVANCED
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION
The c r e a t i o n o f a m a na ge ri a l
o f labor represents a q u a l i t a t i v e
duction.
century,
c l a s s and the complex t r i v i a l i z a t i o n
jump in the s c i e n t i f i c o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p r o ­
Du rin g the e a r l y p e r i o d o f modern ma nu fa c tu re
increases
but a l s o from the
in p r o d u c t i v i t y had r e s u l t e d no t o n l y
in c r e a s e d e x p l o i t a t i o n o f
women and c h i l d r e n and the p r o g r e s s i v e
day.
in the e i g h t e e n t h
labor w ith
increase
in the
However, once u n i o n i z a t i o n and a p p r o p r i a t e
e x c e s s iv e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f l a b o r ,
increases
from new machinery
the employment o f
le n g th o f the w o rk in g
l e g i s l a t i o n p r e v e n t e d such
in the r a t e o f s u r p lu s v a lu e
depended m a in ly upon th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f new m ach ine ry .
I n n o v a t io n s
in machine t e c h n o l o g y produced the machine t o o l s neces­
sa ry f o r advanced i n d u s t r i a l
production.
Thus,
the problem c o n f r o n t i n g the
modern i n d u s t r i a l i s t was n o t one o f machine t e c h n o lo g y b u t the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
o f the l a b o r s t r u c t u r e
to accommodate th e new machine t e c h n o l o g y .
f o r m a t i o n o f a m ana ger ia l
class
to o v e r s e e
the
With the
l a b o r process as w e l l
as to
c o o r d i n a t e the r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e producers and the market on b e h a l f
o f the owners,
the b o u r g e o i s i e was s t e a d i l y
machine technol ogy to t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f
s h ift
tional
turning
labor
its atten tio n
from
in the modern f i r m .
The
in emphasis from machine te c h n o l o g y to th e development o f new o r g a n i z a ­
structures
would become " .
.
incorp orated
. c o n tin u ally
the r e c o g n i t i o n
that
the new machine processes
f u r t h e r d i f f e r e n t i a t e d and more s p e c i a l i z e d ,
57
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
58
bu t
[that]
few r e a l
improvements seem l i k e l y
o n l y d i d th e new t e c h n i c a l
change in the
to r a i s e p r o d u c t i v i t y . " *
system o f modern p r o d u c t i o n
labor s t r u c tu r e
for
S c i e n t i f i c management ( T a y l o r i s m )
in
labo r.
p r o v i d e d one o f the f i r s t b r e a k ­
throughs t o the problem o f m e ld in g th e work f o r c e
the p r o d u c t i v i t y o f l a b o r .
to the complex machine
The im p o r t a n t con cern o f
s c i e n t i f i c management was w i t h how work is p e r f o r m e d .
gated the work process w i t h
in c r e a s e s
Once a g a i n , c a p i t a l i s t s
would have t o f i n d new ways t o e x p l o i t and d i s c i p l i n e
process t o i n c r e a s e
require a radical
i t s o p e ra tio n , but fu r th e r
p r o d u c t i v i t y would have t o come from l a b o r i t s e l f .
Not
Taylorism i n v e s t i ­
r e s p e c t t o each movement and the manner o f
its
p e r fo r m a n c e .
These must be known to the f r a c t i o n o f a second. . . . Work
should be done e a s i l y and so f a r as p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t f a t i g u e .
But always behind t h i s l i e s th e c o n s t a n t goal t o which the
p e r i o d was m a g i c a l l y d r a w n - - p r o d u c t i o n , g r e a t e r p r o d u c t i o n a t
any p r i c e .
The human body is s t u d i e d to d i s c o v e r how f a r i t
can be tr a n s fo rm e d i n t o a mechanism.2
The p r a c t i c e o f T a y l o r i s m was " t h e b i g g e s t c o l l e c t i v e e f f o r t
to d a t e to
c r e a t e , w i t h unprecedented s pe ed, and w i t h a consciousness o f purpose unmatched
in h i s t o r y ,
a new type o f w o r k e r and o f man."^
T aylor,
thus, expresses w ith
. . . b r u t a l c y n i c i s m th e purpose o f American s o c i e t y — d e v e l ­
o pi ng in the w o rk e r to th e h i g h e s t degree a u t o m a t i c mechanical
a t t i t u d e s , b r e a k i n g up the o l d p s y c h o - p h y s i c a l nexus o f q u a l i f i e d
p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r k , wh ich demands a c e r t a i n a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f
i n t e l l i g e n c e , f a n t a s y and i n i t i a t i v e on the p a r t o f the w o r k e r ,
and r e du c in g p r o d u c t i v e o p e r a t i o n s e x c l u s i v e l y to the m e c h an ic a l,
p h y s ic a l a s p e c t . ^
^ S i e g f r i e d G i e d i o n , M e c h a n i z a t i o n Takes Command, New Yo rk :
Norton & C o ., I n c . , 1969, p. 9 6 .
2 |b id . , p. 98 .
^Gramsci , o£^. c i t . ,
4 |b id .,
p.
303-
p. 3 0 2 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
W- W,
59
The essence o f T a y l o r i s m was t h a t
in itia tiv e ,
machine.
but a u to m a tiz a tio n .
it
demanded o f th e mass o f w o r k e r s , no t
Human movements were to be l e v e r s
To a c h ie v e th e goal o f
l a b o r p r o d u c t i v i t y and d i s c i p l i n e ,
in the
coercion
had to be e x e r c i s e d upon th e r e c a l c i t r a n t work f o r c e .
T a y l o r , however,
rejected
m i l i t a r y mode o f o r g a n i z a t i o n .
the
im p l e m e n t a t io n o f c o e r c i o n through a
To have
re lie d
upon the m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f
the work f o r c e to in s u r e p r o d u c t i v i t y and m a i n t a i n d i s c i p l i n e would have been
s e l f - d e f e a t i n g s i n c e th e m i l i t a r y
individual
in itia tiv e .
c h a i n o f command u l t i m a t e l y depends upon
Of c o u r s e ,
faces ta s ks which demand per s on a l
becomes use les s as soon as t h e r e
d i e r can always de c id e
to shoot
the s o l d i e r must a l s o o b e y , bu t " .
in itia tiv e
is no moral
Modern i n d u s t r y
w ill
impulse b e hi nd i t . " ^
in th e a i r o r not to p u l l
the
cooperative
l8 8 0 's.
The s o l ­
the t r i g g e r a t a l l ,
T a y l o r i s m and m i l i t a r y
un alike.
r e q u i r e d as much as p o s s i b l e
and the r e p r e s s i o n o f
v io u s ,
. he
[and] h i s mechanical weapon
the w o rk e r can n o t be a l l o w e d a s i m i l a r o p t i o n .
scie nce a r e e s s e n t i a l l y
.
in d ivid u al
the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the
i n i t i a t i v e which had marked the p r e ­
r e l a t i o n between l a b o r and c a p i t a l
in America p r i o r
Thus, s c i e n t i f i c management a t t e m p t e d to f a c i l i t a t e
to
the c o e r c i o n
by management o v e r l a b o r i n such a way t h a t the w o r k e r p a r t i c i p a t e d w i l l i n g l y
and u n f a i l i n g l y
in h i s own c o e r c i o n .
inadequate to i t s own t a s k .
T a y l o r i s m a l o n e , however, proved to be
S c i e n t i f i c management had s u c c e s s f u l l y
in v e s ti­
gated work p e r f o r m a n c e , b u t the f u r t h e r and u n re s o lv e d problem t h a t c o n f r o n t e d
T a y l o r and h i s d i s c i p l e s was how to m a i n t a i n
wo rk e r o v e r t i m e .
To m a i n t a i n
the p h y s i c a l
the
i n c r e a s e d e f f i c i e n c y o f the
and mental e f f i c i e n c y o f the
w o rk e r depends upon p r e s e r v i n g
.
.
. o u ts id e o f work, a c e r t a i n psycho-physical
^Giedion, o£.
c it .,
equilib rium
p. 99.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
60
which p r e v e n t s th e p h y s i o l o g i c a l c o l l a p s e o f th e w o r k e r ex hausted
by the new method o f p r o d u c t i o n .
T h is e q u i l i b r i u m can be somet h i ng p u r e l y e x t e r n a l and mechani ca l bu t i t can become i n t e r n a l i sed
i f i t i s proposed by th e wo rke r h i m s e l f and no t i mposed from the
o u t s i d e , i f i t i s propose^ by _a new form o f s o c i e t y wi th a p p r o p r i a t e and o r i g i n a l methods
Although T a y l o r d e s i r e d t o see h i s s c i e n t i f i c management a p p l i e d to
a ll
spheres o f l i f e ,
overall
he d i d no t see t h i s w i t h
i n t e g r a t i o n and r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n
r e s p e c t to the need f o r the
s o c i e t y nor w i t h
r e s p e c t to the
need f o r such a s o c i a l o r d e r i n o r d e r to m a i n t a i n and promote the e f f i c i e n c y
and d i s c i p l i n e o f the
labor fo rc e .
The i d e o l o g i c a l
bias o f s c i e n t i f i c
man­
agement was t o c on c e iv e o f l a b o r d i s c i p l i n e as a m a t t e r c i r c u m s c r i b e d by the
factory.
Such a b i a s
capitalism .
is th e
legac y o f the e r a o f c o m p e t i t i v e ,
S c i e n t i f i c management's c o n c e p t io n o f th e f a c t o r y as a c l o s e d ,
s e l f - r e g u l a t i n g system r a t h e r than an open end ed, e c o n o m i c a l l y
technical
system and a f u n d a m e n t a l l y s o c i a l
ness to the monopoly c a p i t a l i s t .
tion
i n t o the p r i v a t e
o f a new s o c i a l
in stitu tio n
interdependent,
re stric te d
its
u sefu l­
However, T a y l o r i s m d i d p r o v i d e the founda­
f o r the i n t e r v e n t i o n by the c a p i t a l i s t ,
Taylorism ,
in dustrial
lives o f
aware o f the l i m i t a t i o n s o f
the w o rk e r s f o r the e v e n t u a l
o r d e r to p r e s e r v e th e p s y c h o - p h y s i c a l
creation
e q u i l i b r i u m o f the
wo rk fo rce -
^Gramsci , og." S L l * ’ P* 303*
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER VI I I
THE DISACCUMULATION PHASE— GETTI NG BEYOND TAYLORISM
One o f the f i r s t attenrpts
ism was t h a t o f e x p e r i m e n t a l
to g e t beyond th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f T a y l o r ­
p s y c ho lo gy .
In d e p e n d e n t l y o f s c i e n t i f i c management, psychology had a l r e a d y
d e v is e d t e s t s to d e t e r m i n e t h e person b e s t s u i t e d to c e r t a i n
occupations.
The b a s i s o f thes e t e s t s was the time taken to
r e a c t to a g i v e n im p r e s s i o n .
These te c h n iq u e s had been d e v e l ­
oped in p s y c h o l o g i c a l l a b o r a t o r i e s .
Hugo M u e n s t e r b e r g , German
p s y c h o l o g i s t who t a u g h t a t H a r v a r d , was among the f i r s t to s u r ­
vey the r e s u l t s o f s c i e n t i f i c management, then ( 1 9 12 ) coming
i n t o i t s own, and to p o i n t o u t t h a t from the p s y c h o l o g i c a l
s t a n d p o i n t i t was s t i l l r e c k o n in g by r u l e o f thumb.^
The a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s psych olog y to the s e l e c t i o n o f th e work f o r c e
in i n q u i r i e s
i n t o the p r i v a t e
o f in s p e c t i o n s e r v i c e s
the d i f f e r e n t i a l
live s o f
to a s c e r t a i n
resulted
the w o rk e r s and in the i n s t i t u t i o n
th e m o r a l i t y o f the w o r k e r s .
wage sc he du le s e rv e d t o r e i n f o r c e
Mor eov er,
the p r o p e r b e h a v i o r o f
l a bo r w i t h i n th e f a c t o r y .
The r e l a t i v e l y h i g h wages p a i d to the American p r o l e t a r i a t tur ne d
o u t , however,
to be a d o u b le - e d g e d sword.
Wages n o t o n l y e n f o r c e d d i s c i p l i n e
in the f a c t o r y bu t s t i m u l a t e d new l i f e - s t y l e s o u t s i d e
tion.
the p o i n t o f produc­
Because high wages p r o v i d e d the means f o r the expansion o f the
w o rk e r ' s p r i v a t e a c t i v i t i e s
hi s e x t r a money ' r a t i o n a l l y '
i t was " .
.
. ne c e ss a ry f o r the w o rk e r to spend
to m a i n t a i n ,
renew a n d ,
i f possible,
his muscular-nervous e f f i c i e n c y and no t to c o r r o d e o r d e s t r o y
t io n could thus weaken as w e l l
as s t r e n g t h e n
^Giedion, o£^. c i t . ,
p.
100.
^Gramsci , o p . c i t . ,
p.
303.
labor d i s c i p l i n e .
61
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
it."
in c r e a s e
2
Consump­
Monopoly
62
c a p i t a l i s t s e v e n t u a l l y p e r c e i v e d the n e c e s s i t y o f n o t o n l y
work process bu t the process o f consumption as w e l l .
regulating
the
However i t was e v i ­
dent
. . . t h a t no ma jor bu si ne s s was i n possession o f more than a few
fragments o f i n f o r m a t i o n abo ut i t s own consumers.
A c a r e f u l st ud y
o f da ta f u r n i s h e d by a d v e r t i s i n g a ge nc ies and re s e a r c h bureaus o f
v a r i o u s s o r t s d i s c l o s e d i n a c c u r a t e methods o f g a t h e r i n g f a c t s and
b e f u d d le d s t a t i s t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s .
American business as a whole
has been muddling a lo n g gu essing t h i s and hoping t h a t abo ut b u y e r s .
Is i t to be wondered a t , t h e n , t h a t the g r e a t c r as h o f 1929 l a i d
bar e an u n b e l i e v a b l e s t a t e o f ignor anc e in the l a r g e s t banks down
t o the s m a l l e s t r e t a i l e r .
P r o d u c t i o n has become a marvelous t e c h ­
no lo g y .
Consumption remains a no-man's l a n d .
A d v e r t i s i n g is a
queer cross between a b l a c k a r t and a s w i n d l e . 3
U nd ou bt e dl y , many i n d u s t r i a l i s t s were s i m p l y concerned to improve
t h e i r s a l e s when they
in itia te d
these i n q u i r i e s produced the
s c ie n tific
in quiries
i n t o consumption.
Yet
i n f o r m a t i o n n e c e ss a r y to in s u r e t h a t the w o r k e r
spent h i s e x t r a money r a t i o n a l l y ;
thereby m a in ta in in g ,
ren ewin g, and even
i n c r e a s i n g h i s muscular nervous e f f i c i e n c y on b e h a l f o f the p r o d u c t i o n p r o ­
cess.
The need to g a t h e r
i n d i v i d u a l s as w o rke rs
i n f o r m a t i o n on consumption s h i f t e d
the focus from
to i n d i v i d u a l s as consumers.
To understand man the consumer we have found i t nec essary to b r i n g
i n t o j u x t a p o s i t i o n h i s t r e n d s o f s c h o o l i n g , temperament, v o c a t i o n a l
s k i l l , lang uage, a n a l y t i c t h i n k i n g , v i g o r , a m b i t i o n , s o c i a l a t t i ­
tudes, income, s a v i n g s , r a c e , r e l i g i o n and many more aspe cts . . .
[because] man th e consumer is much more than an economic a n i m a l ,
more than a s o c i a l c o n s t i t u e n t , more than a p r o s p e c t i v e buyer o f
goods.
He is an enormously complex i n d i v i d u a l caught in the Web
of L ife.
A l l o f h i s i n n e r c o m p l e x i t i e s i n t e r a c t w i t h the i n t r i c a ­
cies o f t h i s Web o f L i f e and a st ud y o f the whole stream o f ev en ts
thus c r e a t e d p r o p e r l y f a l l s w i t h i n the scope [ o f a study o f con­
sumption]
The t o t a l i t y o f man's e x i s t e n c e
is thus
Labor becomes a s u b - c a t e g o r y o f consum ptio n.
i d e n t i f i e d w i t h consumption.
I t was n o t u n t i l
the t w e n t i e t h
^Wa lte r J. P i t k i n , The Consumer:
His N at u re and His H a b i t s , New
York and London:
Me
M cG
Graw
r a w- I - H il l Book C o . , I n c . , 19 32, p. v.
4
I b i d . , pp. v - v i .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
63
c en tur y t h a t the s phe re o f consumption c o u ld be e n v i s i o n e d as the p r im a r y
sphere o f s o c i a l e x i s t e n c e .
Even in the e i g h t e e n t h and n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s ,
the sphere o f consumption was a v e ry l i m i t e d one f o r the mass o f p e o p l e .
was l i m i t e d t o the e s s e n t i a l
o f production,
commodities
required fo r s u r v iv a l.
It
The sphere
the f a c t o r y , was the p r i m a r y sphere o f s o c i a l e x i s t e n c e p r i o r
to the m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f th e means o f p r o d u c t i o n .
The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
on by monopoly c a p i t a l
o f th e s t r u c t u r e o f the c a p i t a l i s t system brought
established
the b a s i s whereby the i n d i v i d u a l ' s a c t i v ­
i t y a t the p o i n t o f p r o d u c t i o n was no l o n g e r the p r i m a r y f a c t o r
h i s b e h a v i o r and a t t i t u d e s .
engaged in o c c u p a t i o n s
but the i n d u s t r i a l
sumption.
Not o n l y were an i n c r e a s i n g number o f workers
removed from the p r o d u c t i o n o f b a s i c i n d u s t r i a l
goods,
w o r k e r h i m s e l f became i n c r e a s i n g l y pr e oc c up ie d w i t h con­
The sphere o f consumption
p r a c t i c e o f per so nal
is to be understood not o n l y as the
consumption b u t a l s o as th e economic i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
engaged in the p r o d u c t i o n o f s e r v i c e s and d u r a b l e goods.
The growth o f t h i s
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e was to o c c u r a t a f a s t e r pace than the growth o f
tria l
i n shaping
in fra s tru c tu re .
c a p ita lis m represents
the
in dus­
Such a s h i f t o f economic a c t i v i t y w i t h i n monopoly
the t r a n s i t i o n
from the a c c u m u la t io n phase to the d i s -
accumulation phase o f c a p i t a l i s m .
Th is
cal
tran s itio n a ffe c ts
process as w e l l .
monopoly c a p i t a l
n o t o n l y economic p r o d u c t i o n b u t the p o l i t i ­
To come to g r i p s w i t h
production
f i r s t be br ought to l i g h t .
the p o l i t i c a l
consequences o f
the economic dimension o f d i s a c c u m u l a t i o n must
The
. . . d i s a c c u m u l a t i o n phase c o i n c i d e s w i t h the p a r t i a l and p r o ­
g r e s s i n g e x t r i c a t i o n o f human l a b o r from the immediate goods
p r o d u c t i o n pr o c e s s .
L i v i n g l a b o r power in goods p r o d u c t i o n de­
vo lve s upon the q u a n t i t a t i v e l y d e c l i n i n g r o l e o f w a tc hi n g regu­
l a t i n g and s u p e r i n t e n d i n g . . . . P r o p e r l y un d e rs t o o d , t h e r e f o r e ,
the terms " a c c u m u l a t i o n " and " d i s a c c u m u l a t i o n " r e f e r not t o the
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n f a c i l i t i e s i n i t s e l f , though t h i s is
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
64
i n v o l v e d , nor t o the q u a n t i t y o f money v a l u e in i t s e l f , bu t to
the r e l a t i o n o f p r e s e n t l i v i n g l a b o r to p a s t produced means and
m a t e r i a l s o f goods p r o d u c t i o n , and t o the consequent s o c i a l r e l a ­
t io n s o f men in th e p r o d u c t i o n o f s o c i e t y ' s g o od s .5
The d is a c c u m u la ti o n phase o f c a p i t a l i s m accompanies t e c h n o l o g i c a l
ment in the n a t i o n ' s key
in d u stries.
f u r t h e r accompanied by an i n c r e a s e
However,
t h i s de cr eas e in employment is
in employment in o t h e r s e c t o r s concerned
mainly w i t h the p r o d u c t i o n o f commodities and s e r v i c e s
sonal consumption.
Th is
increase
o f consumption is n o t a c c i d e n t a l
production.
In dustrial
to mediate and s u s t a i n
for
immediate, p e r ­
i n employment and p r o d u c t i o n
nor
production
unemploy­
incidental w ith
in the sphere
r e s p e c t to i n d u s t r i a l
r e q u i r e s a comprehensive i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
the growth o f consumption
tin u e d c i r c u l a t i o n and a c c u m u la t io n o f c a p i t a l
in o r d e r to assu re the con­
a t unprecedented l e v e l s .
d is a c c u m u la t io n phase does n o t mean the end o f c a p i t a l
it
is
the sta ge o f c a p i t a l i s t development in which th e p a r t i c u l a r e n t e r p r i s e s
in
a ll
accumulation;
The
s e c t o r s o f the economy a r e s u b o r d i n a t e d to the r e qu ire m en ts o f c a p i t a l
as a wh ol e .
For t h i s
r e as o n ,
the process o f d i s a c c u m u l a t i o n
n i f i c a n t as the process o f p r i m i t i v e a c c u m u l a t i o n .
is j u s t as s i g ­
The c o o r d i n a t i o n between
the s e c t o r s o f the economy
. . . takes p l a c e on two i n t e r r e l a t e d l e v e l s through the normal
economic process under m o n o p o l i s t i c c o m p e t i t i o n ( gro w ing o r g a n i c
composition o f c a p i t a l p r e s s u r e on the r a t e o f p r o f i t ) ; and
through " s t a t e management".
Cons equ en tly e v e r more s t r a t a o f
the f o r m e r l y indepe nde nt m id d le c l a s s e s become th e d i r e c t s e r v a n t s
o f c a p i t a l , oc c u p i e d i n th e c r e a t i o n and r e a l i z a t i o n o f s ur pl u s
v a lu e w h i l e b e in g s e p a r a t e d from c o n t r o l o f the means o f produc­
tio n. . . .
At the same tim e th e i n c r e a s i n g t e c h n o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r
o f m a t e r i a l p r o d u c t i o n draws the f u n c t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n t s i a i n t o
th i s p r o c e s s . The base o f e x p l o i t a t ion i s thus e n l a r g e d beyond
the f a c t o r i e s and shops and f a r beyond the b l u e c o 1 l a r wo r k i ng
class. &
The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
in th e mode o f c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c ti o n
f o l l o w e d by
^ M a r t i n J. S k l a r , "On th e P r o l e t a r i a n R e v o l u t i o n and the End o f Po­
l i t i c a l - E c o n o m i c S o c i e t y , " R a d ic a l A m e r i c a , V o l . M l , # 3 , May-June, 1969, P* 9
6 |b id ..
p.
12.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
65
a s h ift
in th e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f the
to the sphere o f consumption ushers
labor force
from i n d u s t r i a l
i n the p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n o f a l l
This process o f p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n , which f i r s t began in the
d es tr oy s the r e l a t i v e
the " f e l t "
p r o d u c t io n
autonomy o f the p r o f e s s i o n a l
l8 8 0 's ,
c la s s e s and e l i m i n a t e s
d i f f e r e n c e between mental and p h y s i c a l w o r k e r s .
importance o f the sphere o f consumption
la te
lab o r.
The paramount
in advanced i n d u s t r i a l
s o c i e t y has
meant n o t o n l y th e p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n o f the e n t i r e mass o f peo ple b u t the
subsumption o f a l l
a ll
social
areas o f s o cial
re la tio n s are
life
under the commodity form in which
reduced to r e l a t i o n s between t h i n g s .
v e r s a l i z a t i o n o f the commodity form is th e
This u n i ­
i n e x o r a b l e outcome o f the com­
modity f e t i s h i s m which marked the ve ry b e g i n n i n g o f c a p i t a l
production.
Over th e course o f c e n t u r i e s , a l l the t r a d i t i o n a l t i e s o f i n t e r ­
dependence (e x te n d e d f a m i l y , r e l i g i o n , r e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s ,
e t h n i c i d e n t i t y , p e r s on a l dependence, i n h e r i t e d c r a f t s m a n s h i p ,
wide d i s p e r s i o n o f l i f e s t y l e s , p o p u l a r amusements, and so f o r t h )
are undermined, and c a p i t a l i s m s t r i v e s toward an i d e a l l i m i t in
which a l l o f them w i l l be r e p l a c e d by a s i n g l e p r i n c i p l e o f s o c i a l
cohesion— nam ely , e x c h a n g e .
Under the u n i v e r s a l hegemony o f e x ­
change a l l personal and s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s among i n d i v i d u a l s a r e
mediated through m a t e r i a l o b j e c t s , . . J
A ll
social
a c tiv ity ,
passed by consumption.
m ore ove r, becomes o r i e n t e d
Production
p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r consum ption .
is
important o n ly
toward and encom­
in so f a r as i t
Such a v i s i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n
inverts
is a
the r e l a ­
t i o n t h a t h e l d between p r o d u c t i o n and consumption d u r i n g the a c c u m u la tio n
phase, where p r o d u c t i o n was o f supreme importance and consumption was l i m i t e d
to the l e v e l
nec essary f o r th e mere p h y s i c a l
the mass o f p e o p l e .
D ur in g the p e r i o d o f a c c u m u la ti o n
sumption was d e f e r r e d ,
and r e p r o d u c t i o n o f
in which per son al
con­
a p e r s o n ' s w o r t h was judged by the work he d i d and
not by h i s possessions o r
Vol.
survival
life -s ty le .
Wi th d i s a c c u m u l a t i o n ,
^ W i l l i a m L e i s s , " C r i t i c a l Theory and I t s
I I , No. 3, Aug. 1974, pp. 3 4 3 - 3 4 4 .
the measure o f
Future," P o l it ic a l
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Theorj^,
66
value
in a l l
realms o f s o c i a l
exclusion o f q u a lit y .
p r a x i s has f i n a l l y
Such a measure o f v a l u e d i c t a t e s
n o t e s s e n t i a l l y a w o r k e r , b u t a consumer.
i z e d by i t s
natural
tia b le a p p etite
become q u a n t i t y
a b ilitie s
f o r goods.
Humanity
t o the
t h a t a w o r k e r is
is no l o n g e r c h a r a c t e r ­
to produce b u t r a t h e r by i t s
"n a tu rally "
insa­
As Thomas Edison remarked, "The re cannot be o v e r
p r o d u c t i o n o f a n y t h i n g which men and women w a n t ; and t h e i r wants a r e u n l i m ­
ite d except
in so f a r as they a r e
l i m i t e d by the s i z e o f t h e i r stomachs.
stomach is the o n l y p a r t o f man which can be f u l l y
s a tis fie d .
.
The a c t o f consumption becomes the p r im a r y human a c t .
needs o f
the
produced.
individual
ex pr es s e d in consumption d e t e r m i n e
The i d e o l o g i s t s o f th e
consumption.
The i n d i v i d u a l
No one t h i n k s
to in q u ire
The i n s a t i a b l e
p r o d u c t i o n se rve s
the genuine abundance o f
commodities h i d e s from view the process by which they a r e br ought
Good L i f e .
When p r o d u c t i o n
stands
The w o r k in g c l a s s
lie
is
in the way o f
is acknowledged,
who has become the o n l y t r u e P r o d u c e r .
the w o r k i n g masses as
in to being.
t o a Garden o f Eden. Once a g a i n knowledge
l o n g e r no t o n l y n e c e ss a r y f o r b u t
it
is no
the p u r s u i t o f the
is to g l o r i f y
the c a p i t a l i s t
The r u l i n g c l a s s no lo n g e r c o n f r o n t s
i t s e v e r p r e s e n t t a s k m aster b u t r a t h e r
its benefactor.
the new American m id d le c l a s s , whose b i r t h has p u t the
to th e n o t i o n t h a t the r i c h g e t r i c h e r and the poor g e t p o o r e r .
l o n g e r a r e th e c l a s s e s
in c o n f l i c t .
The c l a s s e s have c o a le s c ed
c o o p e r a t i v e e n t e r p r i s e o f consumption.
not to be c o n s id e r e d c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s
th e means o f p r o d u c t i o n .
the
No
i n t o one
D i f f e r e n c e s between i n d i v i d u a l s a r e
re la tin g
to o n e ' s p o s i t i o n
D iffe re n c e s are considered w ith
one owns and what one owns is
® P itkin , o£.
Q
Consumption dominates c on sc io usn ess .
in to production process;
C a p i t a l i s m has g i v e n b i r t h
."
what is to be
new o r d e r now c l a i m t h a t
is supreme.
.
The
respect
in de x o f how hard one wo rks.
ci t . , p . 341.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
vis a vis
to what
C ap ita lis ts
67
are,
then,
those who have worked the h a r d e s t .
The m a j o r i t y o f the American
w o r k in g c l a s s endorse the consumer s o c i e t y as the end o f the c l a s s s t r u g g l e .
In k e e p in g w i t h such an o p t i m i s t i c p o s t u r e ,
c o n f l i c t and i d e a l i s t i c a c t i v i t y
and i n t e r v e n t i o n
repugnance.
a ll
forms o f s t r u g g l e ,
a r e a v o id e d by i n d i v i d u a l s when p o s s i b l e
i n the course o f e v e n t s
i s u n d e rt a k e n w i t h
C o m pu ls iv e ly s e e k i n g s t a b i l i t y
and o r d e r ,
the most profound
consciousness b e a ts a
ha s t y r e t r e a t from a l l
forms o f a c t i v e engagement w i t h
the w o r l d and r e ­
presses any d i s r u p t i v e
s tim uli
Conspicuous consump­
o r d is c o rd a n t thought.
t i o n demands p a s s i v i t y and r e q u i r e s
e le m e n t s .
the e l i m i n a t i o n o f a l l
The c r a v i n g f o r o b j e c t s s u f f o c a t e s c r i t i c a l
t a u g h t to be s p e c t a t o r s .
Life
is a t
its
subversive
thought.
b e s t when i t appears
Pe ople a r e
to run smoothly
and e v e n l y .
No l o n g e r is consciousness
which th e s e l f
is now the
is o b j e c t i f i e d
the f r e e p l a y between man and n a t u r e
through
i n s t r u m e n t e n a b l i n g the
its
productive a c t i v i t y .
individual
Even the t r a d i t i o n a l
such v a lu e s as community,
b o u r g e o is
tra d itio n ,
Consciousness
to choose between the v a r i o u s
a l i e n o b j e c t s c o n f r o n t i n g him i n o r d e r t o a p p r o p r i a t e
domination.
them through po ss e s s iv e
ideas o f man and s o c i e t y and
beauty, n a tu re ,
l i b e r t y and freedom,
which were o r i g i n a l l y e x p r e s s i v e o f the pr ofo un d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f
d u c t i v e f o r c e s and s o c i a l
in
the p r o ­
r e l a t i o n s o f humanity under c a p i t a l i s m , a r e no
lo n g e r a t t r i b u t e s o f man's c r e a t i v e c a p a c i t i e s b u t have become the mere a t ­
t r i b u t e s o f consumption.
attrib u tes:
Inexorably,
commodities themselves ta k e on these
The Ford a u t o m o b i l e embodies
house wash machine embodies l i b e r t y ,
etc.
trad itio n
and freedom,
the W e s t i n g -
Bourgeois v a lu e s a r e s a l e s gim-
mi c k s .
C a p i t a l now produces n o t so much m a t e r i a l p r i v a t i o n as s t e e r e d
s a t i s f a c t i o n o f m a t e r i a l n e e ds , w h i l e making the e n t i r e human b e in g
— i n t e l l i g e n c e and s e n s e s - - i n t o an o b j e c t o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n geared
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
68
t o produce and reproduce no t o n l y the go al s b u t a l s o the v a lu e s and
promises o f the system. I t s i d e o l o g i c a l heaven.
Behind the t e c h ­
n o l o g i c a l v e i l , be hi nd the p o l i t i c a l v e i l o f democracy, appears th e
r e a l i t y , the u n i v e r s a l s e r v i t u d e , the loss o f human d i g n i t y in a
p r e f a b r i c a t e d freedom o f c h o i c e , and the power s t r u c t u r e is no
l o n g e r ' ' s u b l i m a t e d " in th e s t y l e o f a l i b e r a l i s t i c c u l t u r e , no
lo n g e r even h y p o c r i t i c a l (t h u s r e t a i n i n g a t l e a s t the " f o r m a l i t i e s , "
the s h e l l o f d i g n i t y ) bu t b r u t a l , t h r o w in g o f f a l l p r e t e n s i o n s o f
t r u t h and j u s t i c e . 9
The i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f man as the consumer complements the p r i o r
in v e s tig a tio n
i n t o how work i s pe rf or me d ( T a y l o r i s m )
i n t o th e psychology o f work ( e x p e r i m e n t a l
and the i n v e s t i g a t i o n
psychology).
Human b e h a v i o r
is
p o r t r a y e d as the e x p r e s s i o n o f needs, wants and d e s i r e s which c a n n o t be met
in work b u t o n l y through consumption.
ground upon which th e t e c h n o l o g i c a l
tion o f
l a b o r to c a p i t a l
These i n v e s t i g a t i o n s e s t a b l i s h
ra tio n a lity
can as su re the t o t a l
through the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
b e h a v i o r by t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f
the
subjec­
and r e g u l a t i o n o f human
the sphere o f consumption.
The e x t e n s i o n o f th e e m p l o y e r - e m p l o y e e , e n t e r p r i s e - f o r - p r o f i t
system beyond th e sphere o f g o o d s - p r o d u c t i o n , f i n a n c e , d i s t r i b u ­
t i o n and ex change, to a l l o t h e r s o c i a l s p h e r e s , o r the s u b o r d i n a t i o n
o f o t h e r s o c i a l spheres t o the i m p e r a t i v e s o f t h a t system; t h i s
e x t e n s i o n b e in g n e c e ss a r y to s u s t a i n i n g c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s do m in a tio n
o f the l a b o r system and l a b o r f o r c e as a w h o l e , t h e r e b y e x t e n d i n g
the p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n o f l a b o r to v i r t u a l l y a l l o t h e r spheres o f
w o r k , and p r e - e m p t i n g the p o s s i b i l i t y o f those spheres e x p r o p r i ­
a t i n g f o r t h e i r own r e s p e c t i v e uses the c a p i t a l i s t s ' s u r p l u s - v a l u e
a p p r o p r i a t e d in the g o o d s - p r o d u c t i o n s p h e r e . 10
At th e v e r y moment in h i s t o r y when advanced i n d u s t r i a l
m in im iz e s th e nece ssa ry s o c i a l
labor re q u is ite
c a p i t a l i s m succeeds in s t r e n g t h e n i n g
sively
its
production d r a s t i c a l l y
to the s t r u g g l e f o r e x i s t e n c e ,
d o m i n a t io n o v e r s o c i e t y by p r o g r e s ­
r o o t i n g o u t the consciousness and b e h a v i o r e s s e n t i a l
o f a r e v o lu t io n a r y working class
through the
to th e f o r m a t i o n
im position o f superfluous
lab o r.
The p a c i f i c a t i o n o f th e American w o r k i n g c l a s s was no t accomplished s o l e l y
Press,
9 h e r b e r t Marcuse,
1 9 6 7 , p. 14.
C o u n t e r r e v o l u t i o n and R e v o l t , Boston:
l O s k l a r , o p . c i t . , p.
12.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Beacon
69
through th e new o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n b u t through th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f
labor
i n a new jo b s t r u c t u r e .
pression w ith
American l a b o r p a r t i c i p a t e d
in i t s own r e ­
the f o r m a t i o n o f modern unions which e n f o r c e d l a b o r d i s c i p l i n e
and m a i n t a i n e d o r d e r w i t h o u t t h r e a t e n i n g p r o p e r l y
relatio n s.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER IX
UNIONS AND THE CAPITULATION OF LABOR
In c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n
to the European w o r k in g c l a s s ,
the American
w o rk in g c l a s s had not g a in e d p o l i t i c a l
l e g i t i m a c y and r e p r e s e n t a t i o n p r i o r
to the emergence o f monopoly c a p i t a l .
The p o l i t i c a l
l a b o r p r i o r t o the ascendancy o f advanced i n d u s t r i a l
o f the c e n t u r y were fr ag me nte d and p a r o c h i a l ,
p r o l e t a r i a n w o r k in g c l a s s w i t h a s o c i a l
s t r u g g l e s o f American
p r o d u c t i o n a t the t u r n
re flectin g
the absence o f a
d e m o c r a t i c t r a d i t i o n and p a r t y .
Mor eov er,
thes e p o l i t i c a l
p o litic a l
p a r t i e s which were unable t o compete n a t i o n a l l y w i t h
p a rtie s .
Unlike
a c h ie v e
eral
This
power necess ar y to s a f e g u a r d
f a i l u r e was ro o te d
s itu a tio n
in tere s t.
i n Europe,
ner ed the p o l i t i c a l
in te re s ts .
Hence,
society
in l i b ­
i m p o s s i b l e f o r worke rs
Mor eov er, and once a g a i n
to p e r c e i v e
in c o n t r a s t to the ge ne ra l
th e American c o m p e t i t i v e c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s had no t g a r ­
power necess ar y to s a f e g u a r d i t s
the de f a c t o p o l i t i c a l
to oppose the o v e r a l l
in A m e r ic a .
For t h i s
to e s t a b l i s h
its
1iberal
the two ma jor
i t s own i n t e r e s t s
p a r t i c u l a r economic
a l l i a n c e between the European
t r a d e union movement and t h e c o m p e t i t i v e c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s
lib e ra l
ind epe nde nt
in th e n o n - p r o l e t a r i a n c h a r a c t e r o f
the American w o r k in g c l a s s which made i t
a common c l a s s
took the form o f
th e European l a b o r movement, American l a b o r was un ab le to
the p o l i t i c a l
society.
struggles gen e ra lly
in s u p p o r t o f
demands o f monopoly c a p i t a l
r e a s o n , American monopoly c a p i t a l
hegemony o v e r American s o c i e t y ,
were a b s e n t
was r e l a t i v e l y
free
handily overturning a il
dual Isms.
The response o f American l a b o r to th e coming o f monopoly c a p i t a l
took two forms.
One was the
in h e re n tly
reactio nary
response o f s k i l l e d
70
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71
l a b o r to
its
p ro leta ria n izatio n .
which n o t o n l y
c r a f t s m a n f e a r e d the new system
i n s t i t u t e d a r e v o l u t i o n a r y approach to w o r k , b u t which a l s o
t h r e a t e n e d to reduce h i s
o f un skilled
The s k i l l e d
importance
in the shop.
l a b o r which sought equal
The o t h e r
response was t h a t
t r e a t m e n t under the new system.
to th e absence o f a mature and h i s t o r i c a l l y
rooted p r o l e t a r i a n
Due
id en tity
n e i t h e r th e u n s k i l l e d nor the s k i l l e d American w o r k e r welcomed the
radical
change in the p r o d u c t i o n process
in the c l a s s conscious manner o f the E ur o­
pean w o r k in g c l a s s .
the European w o r k in g c l a s s possessed a
In g e n e r a l ,
class
i d e n t i t y which gave them a p o l i t i c a l - h i s t o r i c a l
ism.
R a th e r than b e i n g a t
believed
it
the com plete mercy o f c a p i t a l ,
R at h er than c a p i t u l a t i n g
was re ga rde d as the
technical
to the might o f advanced i n d u s t r i a l
European t r a d e union movement a t t e m p t e d to c o n t r o l
p e a c e fu l
European l a b o r
had a c h ie v e d a c e r t a i n measure o f c o n t r o l o v e r c a p i t a l .
emergence o f monopoly c a p i t a l
oly capital
p e r s p e c t i v e on c a p i t a l ­
from i t s
tran s itio n
p o s i t i o n o f power w i t h i n
The
base f o r s o c i a l i s m .
production,
the development o f monop­
the l i b e r a l
state
to a s s u r e a
to s o c i a l i s m .
In A m e ric a , ho we ver ,
the p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n o f the American w o r k in g
c l a s s was th e p r o d u c t o f the m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f the mode o f p r o d u c t i o n .
i d e n t i t y o f the p r o l e t a r i a n i z e d American w o r k i n g c l a s s had been l a r g e l y
posed by the c a p i t a l i s t
o f th e o l d ,
with
c l a s s b e g i n n i n g i n the
cooperative,
th e t r a n s i t i o n
its
p o ten tial
la te
18 8 0 ' s .
The
im­
The r e pl a c e m e nt
l a b o r system by the new, p r o f e s s i o n a l l y managed one
to th e d i s a c c u m u l a t i o n phase a ssu red t h a t the " o b j e c t i v e "
s e l f - i n t e r e s t o f l a b o r would be c on g ru en t w i t h
id e n tific a tio n o f
the
labor w ith c a p ita l
to co n tro l
1 Stone, o p . c i t . ,
that o f
t h e i r e m p lo y e r s -
d e t e r r e d the w o r k in g c la s s
the p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s . *
p. 57
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
The
from s e e i n g
72
The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f l a b o r w i t h c a p i t a l
t r a d e union movement whose p r a c t i c a l
tio n o f
was to be s u s t a i n e d by a
outcome was to f a c i l i t a t e
th e American w o r k e r i n t o the new l a b o r s t r u c t u r e .
America a f t e r
s yst em .
These pe as ant s had come l a r g e l y
under the c o n t r o l o f t r a d i t i o n a l
landlord classes.
had been marked by t h e i r w i l l i n g s u b o r d i n a t i o n
things.
in f e r io r position
Th eir social
to a u t h o r i t y
workers f o r the new i n d u s t r i a l
c o n s c io us ne ss ,
d i d o b j e c t to the a b s o l u t e c o n t r o l
relatio n s
i n the b e l i e f
order o f
thes e peasants made i d e a l
of
in d u s tria lis ts ,
the e m p l o y e r .
these
immigrants
The a g r i c u l t u r a l
munes from which thes e w o rk e r s had e m i g r a t e d had a s p e c i f i c s e t o f
as d u t i e s .
ment o n l y w i t h
righ ts
that
Thus,
i n t o th e
system.
However, once i n th e employ o f the
w ell
to
from re g io n s
in s o c i e t y was p a r t o f th e n a t u r a l
Given t h i s Old World s o c i a l
in teg ra­
Im m ig r a t io n
1900 had b r o u g h t a l a r g e number o f European peasants
American i n d u s t r i a l
that t h e ir
the
they would a c c e p t s u b o r d i n a t i o n
the e x t e n s i o n o f c e r t a i n
rig h ts.
com­
r i g h t s as
to the company manage­
I t was th e demand f o r such
le d to th e r i s e o f unions among t h e u n s k i l l e d around the t u r n
o f the c e n tu ry .
These unions were unable t o change the fundamental
between l a b o r and c a p i t a l
b u t they managed to s e t
o f th e c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s .
The success o f the se unions had more to do w i t h
social
ju s tic e ,
rather
than s o c i a l
F u nd am en tal ly th e s t r u g g l e
improve the c o n d i t i o n o f
tories
in t h i s
fo r social
labor w i t h in
ju stice
in the p o l i t i c a l
Aronowi t z , og^. ci t . , p.
is a s t r u g g l e
the c a p i t a l i s t system.
system.
to
The major v i c ­
in creasing la b o r's control
o v e r the p r o d u c t i o n process nor w i t h s e c u r i n g the
2
upon the p r i v i l e g e s
change.
s t r u g g l e had n o t h i n g to do w i t h
the m a j o r i t y o f pe op le
lim its
re la tio n
increased p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f
Instead
these v i c t o r i e s
164.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
73
f ocused on h i g h e r wages, p e ns io n p l a n s and o t h e r d e v i c e s
standard o f
livin g
f o r the i n d i v i d u a l
which p r o v i d e d them w i t h an e v e r
at a fa ir
workers.
to se cu re a h i g h e r
Labor sup p or te d the system
i n c r e a s i n g q u a n t i t y o f goods and s e r v i c e s
p r i c e and encouraged the economic development necess ar y to
the o v e r a l l
standard o f l i v i n g .
raise
From the o n s e t , most union a c t i v i t y had a c ­
cepted th e i d e o l o g y o f the w o r k e r as a consumer and no t as a p r o d u c e r .
Consequently l a b o r was n o t i n t e r e s t e d
expense o f c u r t a i l i n g consumption.
consumption
T h is u n d e r l i n e s
the s o c i a l
in the d i s a c c u m u l a t i o n phase which speeds th e
l a b o r and c a p i t a l .
fo r social
in huma niz ing the work process a t
The e q u a l i t a r i anism i m p l i c i t
the
dynamic o f
in teg ra tio n o f
in th e w o r k in g c l a s s ' s b i d
j u s t i c e was t h a t no one shou ld be de ni ed access to commodities on
the b a s i s o f o n e ' s p a r t i c u l a r employment.
The unions f o u g h t f o r a r e d i s t r i ­
b u t i o n o f w e a l t h and not f o r the r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the means o f p r o d u c t i o n .
The unions c h a l l e n g e d the b o u r g e o i s i e ' s
c la s s
d e c i s i o n s as t o how much the w o r k in g
is e n t i t l e d b u t d i d not q u e s t i o n th e
make t h a t d e c i s i o n .
struggle
fo r social
The concern f o r s o c i a l
r i g h t o f the c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s
to
j u s t i c e w i t h o u t a c o n c o m it a n t
change was a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f
the de h u m a n iz a ti o n o f
the
l a b o r movement.
M e a nw hi le ,
cal
the c r a f t unions were s e e k i n g t o p e r p e t u a t e th e h i e r a r c h i ­
d istin c tio n s w ith in
the new l a b o r s t r u c t u r e
to h o l d on to t h e i r p r i v i ­
leges which were t h r e a t e n e d by th e m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f
From th e t u r n o f the c e n t u r y o n ,
by the c o n f l i c t between th e
the American t r a d e union movement was s p l i t
i n d i v i d u a l ism o f the c r a f t
le c tiv is m o f
the unions o f the u n s k i l l e d .
s k i l l e d were
in itia lly
hierarchy,
w ith
successful
th e i n d u s t r i a l
the National
the mode o f p r o d u c t i o n .
unions and the c o l ­
Although the unions o f
in b l o c k i n g the
the un­
i m p o s i t i o n o f the
labor
union conc ept was u l t i m a t e l y d i l u t e d b e g i n n i n g
Labor R e l a t i o n s A c t o f
1935.
T h is a c t g r a n t e d the r i g h t
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
74
to s k i l l e d
l a b o r to h o ld s e p a r a t e e l e c t i o n s .
the suc c ee d in g decades e v e n t u a l l y
A s e r i e s o f o t h e r measures
r e p l a c e d the i n d u s t r i a l
in
union conc ept w i t h
de f a c t o c r a f t a r r a n g e m e n t s . ^
Both the c r a f t
per ha ps ,
u n w illin g ,
the u n s k i l l e d were un ab le a nd ,
to c re a te a r e v o lu tio n a r y class-conscious p r o l e t a r i a t .
The most r a d i c a l o f
revo lutio n.
unions and unions o f
the e a r l y
u n io n s ,
the
IWW, f a i l e d
W h i l e the t r a d e unions s t r u g g l e d o v e r
to launch a p r o l e t a r i a n
the p r i v i l e g e s o f
they d i d no t t a l k much a b o u t a b o l i s h i n g the supremacy o f c a p i t a l .
s o c i a l i s t appeal was l a r g e l y
who were a t t r a c t e d
Even th e
t o " t h e w or ke rs o f N o r t h e r n European o r i g i n s
to th e s o c i a l i s t movement as a r e s u l t o f t h e i r own p r o t e s t
a g a i n s t the e r o s i o n o f
trad itio n a l
c r a f t s by i n d u s t r i a l
outcome o f t r a d e union a c t i v i t y was to h e l p d i s c i p l i n e
However,
labor
th e b u r e a u c r a t i z a t i o n o f th e t r a d e u n i o n s ,
w i t h i n p r o d u c t i o n and t h e i r c o n s e r v a t i v e p o l i t i c a l
the r e s u l t o f the v e i l e d
c a p italism .^
The
the new l a b o r f o r c e .
th e ir
in teg ra tiv e
role
id e o lo g y was n o t p r i m a r i l y
i n t e n t i o n s o f th e c r a f t unions as much as the
resu lt
o f the c o l l u s i v e p o l i c i e s between the n a t i o n - s t a t e and th e monopoly c a p i t a l ­
is ts,
e s p e c ia lly w ith
In th e e a r l y
c iv il
r e s p e c t t o th e r i s e o f c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g .
part o f this
c e n t u r y , T h o r s t e i n V e b le n no ted t h a t the
b u re a u c r a c y was s t a f f e d by pe op le w i t h a bu sin es s background,
by bu si ne s s p r i n c i p l e s
c r a c y saw i t s
ow ner s.
if
not by busine ss
r o l e as th e g u a r d i a n o f
in tere s ts
the p r o p e r t y
The bu re a u c r a c y would s a n c t i o n , w i t h
by which the f i r m sought to
increase
its
3|bid.,
p.
177.
4 | b i d . , p.
184.
^Vebl en, og^. c i t . ,
T h is b u r e a u ­
r i g h t s o f the a b s e n t e e
force,
c ap ital
ing equipment from p r o d u c t i o n o r u n i l a t e r a l l y
d ire c tly .
governed
if
n e c e s s a r y , any means
e a r n i n g s , such as w i t h d r a w ­
la y in g o f f workers.^
p. 40 9.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Of
75
course,
th e s t a t e had always been w i l l i n g
o u t th e h i s t o r y o f American c a p i t a l i s m ;
br eak up s t r i k e s
t o use f o r c e a g a i n s t l a b o r t h r o u g h ­
however,
the use o f s t a t e
is th e l e a s t d e s i r a b l e mode o f p r o t e c t i n g
force
to
the i n t e r e s t s o f
c a p ita l.
The i n c l i n a t i o n o f
b e f o r e th e y o c c u r r e d .
tive c a p it a lis t s .
the monopoly c a p i t a l i s t s was t o p r e v e n t s t r i k e s
T h is
in c lin a tio n
The r e c o g n i t i o n o f
had not been shared by th e c o m p e t i ­
t r a d e unions and th e a c ce pt a nc e o f
c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g which c o u l d have a v e r t e d many d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h
labor
were f a r more t h r e a t e n i n g
them­
to the pre-monopoly c a p i t a l i s t
than s t r i k e s
selves.
The r o l e o f government d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d o f c a p i t a l i s m was e i t h e r
t h a t o f s t r i k e b r e a k e r o r v e ry o f t e n
t h a t o f m e d i a t o r to propose o r
a s e t t l e m e n t a t the p o i n t o f d e a d l o c k .
Alt hough th e government would o f t e n
appear to be p r o - l a b o r by f o r c i n g c e r t a i n concessions from the f i r m ,
fin al
ana ly s is ,
it
th re w i t s
t h a t d i d no t t h r e a t e n
tw entieth century,
recognition o f
impose
i n th e
a u t h o r i t y b e hi nd a r e t u r n to work on terms
the powers o r p r o s p e r i t y o f th e e m p lo y e r s .
the f e d e r a l
By the
b u re a u c r a c y had come t o con clude t h a t the
the t r a d e unions and th e im p l e m e n ta ti o n o f c o l l e c t i v e b a r ­
g a i n i n g would b e t t e r s e r v e p r o d u c t i o n by r e d u c in g th e number and i n t e n s i t y
o f strikes.
A ll
which was f i n a l l y
O ffic ia l
le ft
tw entieth
c e n t u r y p r e s i d e n t s endorsed c o l l e c t i v e
bargaining,
r e q u i r e d by the Wagner A c t . ^
union r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
the s u b o r d i n a t e p o s i t i o n o f
in the c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g p ro c e du re
the w o rk e r s
in ta c t w hile
i t provided a
mechanism f o r the e l i m i n a t i o n o f g r i e v a n c e s which coul d be s a t i s f i e d w i t h o u t
und ermin ing th e power o f management.
^Brecher, o p . c i t . ,
At f i r s t ,
both government and i n d u s t r y
p . 252.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
76
f a v o r e d company u n i o n s , b u t rank and f i l e
i t apparent th a t
a c h ie v e d
d i s t r u s t o f such unions soon made
the harmony between employees and employers would b e s t be
through unions t h a t were f o r m a l l y opposed t o , and indepe nde nt o f ,
management.
The r o l e o f unions
o f the l a b o r c o n t r a c t
in th e
l a s t h a l f - c e n t u r y has been the f o r m u l a t i o n
through the c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g p r o c e d u r e .
The
l a b o r c o n t r a c t secures c e r t a i n con ce ss ions from management in r e t u r n f o r a
union p le d g e g u a r a n t e e i n g no s t r i k e s
no c o n t r a c t e x i s t e d ,
d u r i n g the p e r i o d o f the c o n t r a c t .
If
the union would then a u t h o r i z e and s u p p o r t s t r i k e s , o c ­
c u p a t i o n s , and even v i o l e n c e , b u t once a c o n t r a c t goes
i n t o e f f e c t t h e union
b u re a uc r ac y becomes a lm o s t s o l e l y concerned to e n f o r c e
the c o n t r a c t and p r e ­
ve nt w i l d c a t s t r i k e s .
The union c e n t r a l o f f i c e .
. . . detach es i t s e l f from the masses i t r e g i m e n t s , removing
i t s e l f from the f i c k l e eddy o f moods and c u r r e n t s t h a t a r e t y p i ­
cal o f the g r e a t tum ul tou s masses.
The union thus a c q u i r e s the
a b i l i t y t o s i g n agreements and ta k e on r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , o b l i g i n g
the e n t r e p r e n e u r t o a c c e p t a c e r t a i n l e g a l i t y in h i s r e l a t i o n s
w i t h th e w o r k e r s .
T h is l e g a l i t y is c o n d i t i o n a l on the t r u s t the
e n t r e p r e n e u r has i n . . .
[ t h e u n i o n ' s ] a b i l i t y to in s u re t h a t the
w o r k in g masses r e s p e c t t h e i r c o n t r a c t u a l o b l i g a t i o n s . 7
When a c o n t r a c t
is
in e f f e c t
th e f u n c t i o n o f the union o f f i c i a l s
to i n s u r e d i s c i p l i n e and o r d e r among th e rank and f i l e
p l i n e w ork er s who s t e p o u t o f
Or ga ni z e d l a b o r was t a u g h t
lin e
as w e l l
is
as t o d i s c i ­
to d e f y management and union l e a d e r s h i p .
to
a do p t r e s p o n s i b l e a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v i o r toward monopoly c a p i t a l
and c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y .
T h is r e q u i r e d r e g u l a r c o o p e r a t i o n be­
tween th e le a d e r s o f o r g a n i z e d l a b o r , the c o r p o r a t i o n s , and the
s t a t e to head o f f mass s o c i a l movements, t r a n s f o r m c o l l e c t i v e
b a r g a i n i n g i n t o an i n s t r u m e n t o f c o r p o r a t e p l a n n i n g , s t r i v e f o r
a hi gh l e v e l o f employment and wages commensurate w i t h produc­
t i v i t y advances and m a i n t a i n l a b o r ' s r e p r o d u c t i v e powers w i t h
r e g a rd no t o n l y to the l e v e l o f p r i v a t e consumption b u t a l s o to
7 I b i d . , p . 254
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
77
O
social
consumption
Monopoly c a p i t a l
(social
insurance,
h o u s in g , e t c . ) .
in America has f u n c t i o n e d through th e c o l l u s i o n o f
s t a t e and th e consent o f th e l a b o r f o r c e .
capital
h ealth,
Alt ho u gh
the c o l l u s i o n between
and th e s t a t e was n o t the r e s u l t o f a c o n s p i r a c y a g a i n s t
subjection o f
l a b o r appears as i f
Q
O 'C on n or , 0£^. c i t . ,
the
a conspiracy e x is t e d .
p. 69-
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
labor,
the
CHAPTER X
THE EMERGENCE OF A CLASS-CONSCIOUS POLITICAL DIRECTORATE
The exp an di ng power o f
the s t a t e has been a d i r e c t
resu lt o f
e x p a n s i o n , c o n s o l i d a t i o n and r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f the economy.
s t a t e has been molded by the p r o g r e s s i v e e le m en t s o f c a p i t a l
fe tterin g
the development o f c a p i t a l .
forces w i t h i n
system and t h e r a p i d
in d u strial
and i n t e r n a t i o n a l
c ra c y w i l l i n g
r a t h e r than
t h e r e have been c o u n t e r ­
in tere s ts
the development o f new economic f o r m a t i o n s .
the very c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
national
The American
the American government s e r v i n g p a r t i c u l a r economic
and a t t e m p t i n g to r e s t r i c t
However,
C erta in ly
the
f l e x i b i l i t y o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s p o l i t i c a l
development o f a n a t i o n bl e s s e d w i t h
various
a dv an ta ges has f o s t e r e d the growth o f a b u re a u ­
to s e r v e new modes o f c a p i t a l
production
i n an i n c r e a s i n g l y
s e l f - c o n s c i o u s manner.
The impact o f
the emergence o f n a t i o n a l
c ap ital
system was to a g g r a n d i z e th e power and f u n c t i o n s o f
w hile
tal
I m p o v e r i s h i n g the s t a t e g o v e r nm e nt s .
after
th e C i v i l
War d i d no t r e s u l t
and a d m i n i s t e r e d n a t i o n a l
economy.
the n a t i o n a l
in d u s tria l
the n a t i o n a l
government
The emergence o f n a t i o n a l
i m m e d ia t e ly
ind epe nde nt
capi­
in a h ig h ly c e n t r a l i z e d
B e f o r e th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ,
ic an economy was composed o f v a r i o u s
of
upon th e f e d e r a l
th e Amer­
i n t e r e s t s w h ic h , because
c h a r a c t e r o f most commodity m a r k e t s , were o r g a n i z e d a l o n g
and not r e g i o n a l
i n d u s t r y were o r g a n i z e d
lin es. ^
M or e ov e r,
in to s e lf - r e g u la t o r y ,
* 0 'Connor, o£^. c i t . ,
th e v a r i o u s
f ir m s w i t h i n an
p r i v a t e a s s o c i a t i o n s em pl oy in g
p. 66.
78
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79
the s t a t e on th e l o c a l ,
menders.
s t a t e and n a t i o n a l
The American s t a t e was thus
c a p ita lis t,
i n t e r e s t gro u ps .
e xpr es s e d i t s e l f
to m e d ia t e between t h e i r
i n the d i r e c t s e r v i c e o f v a r i o u s
The p l u r a l i s t i c s t r u c t u r e o f American p o l i t i c s
in a system o f government in which no one economic i n t e r e s t
had a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e s ha r e o f power.
flected
levels
in th e p a r t i a l
or fu ll
and s t a t e government a g e n c i e s .
e s t group p a r t i c i p a t i o n
These s p e c i f i c
i n t e r e s t s were r e ­
range o f the p o l i c i e s o f hundreds o f n a t i o n a l
The do m in a ti o n o f American p o l i t i c s
by i n t e r ­
in th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t r a n s f o r m e d p o l i t i c a l
economic issues and c o n f l i c t s
and
i n t o problems o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
What emerges as the most i m p o r t a n t p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y is an a r r a y
o f r e l a t i v e l y s e p a r a t e d p o l i t i c a l systems, each w i t h a number o f
elements.
These t y p i c a l l y i n c l u d e :
(1) a f e d e r a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
agency w i t h i n th e e x e c u t i v e b r a n c h ; (2) a h e a v i l y committed group
o f Congressmen and S e n a t o r s , u s u a l l y members o f a p a r t i c u l a r com­
m i t t e e o r sub committee; ( 3 ) a p r i v a t e ( o r q u a s i - p r i v a t e ) a s s o c i ­
a t i o n r e p r e s e n t i n g the agency c l i e n t e l e ; (4) a q u i t e homogeneous
c o n s t i t u e n c y u s u a l l y composed o f l o c a l e l i t e s .
Where d r a m a t i c
c o n f l i c t s o v e r p o l i c y have o c c u r r e d , the y have appeared as r i v a l ­
r i e s among the p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a g e n c i e s , b u t the c o n f l i c t s
a re more conspicuous and le s s i m p o r t a n t than the agreements among
thes e systems.
The most f r e q u e n t s o l u t i o n to c o n f l i c t is j u r i s ­
d i c t i o n a l d e m a rc a t io n and e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f spheres o f i n f l u e n c e .
L o g - r o l l i n g , r a t h e r than compromise, is th e normal p a t t e r n o f
re la tio n s h ip .2
Such p o l i t i c a l
character o f
b e h a v i o r was a response to the i n c r e a s i n g n a t i o n a l
the c o m p e t i t i v e ,
pr e-monopoly c a p i t a l i s t
to e x e r c i s e some measure o f c o n t r o l
o v e r the m a r k e t p l a c e .
o f an advanced s ta g e o f c o m p e t i t i v e c a p i t a l i s m ,
not,
however, a d m i n i s t e r w i t h
whole.
r e s p e c t to the
The c o m p e t i t i v e c a p i t a l i s t s
in tere s ts with
little
concern f o r
As an e x p r e s s i o n
i n t e r e s t group p o l i t i c s
did
i n t e r e s t s o f the economy as a
d e s i r e d to f u r t h e r
th e ir p artic u la r
the consequences upon o t h e r s .
f o r m u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g to the needs o f one f i r m o r
2 |b id .,
f i r m s which were a b l e
Policy
i n d u s t r y o f t e n had the
p . 68
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80
e ffect of
r e t a r d i n g development
in a n o t h e r .
The c o n t i n u e d p u r s u i t o f na r r ow , c o m p e t i t i v e
i n t e r e s t s would s e r i ­
o u s l y d i s r u p t th e i n c r e a s i n g l y
i n t e r d e p e n d e n t economy, e x a c e r b a t i n g the
dangers o f l a r g e s c a l e c a p i t a l
in v e s tm en ts as w e l l
by i n s u r i n g d e f i c i e n c i e s o f a g g r e g a t e demand.
was the
r a l l y i n g cry o f
l i z e d s e c t o r *'.
a b ility ,
. .
the owners o f c o r p o r a t e c a p i t a l
for th e ir s e lf-re g u la tio n
s k ills
through the d e s t r u c t i o n o f
W i t h i n the monopo­
g e n e r a t e d the f i n a n c i a l
and deve lope d the
as a cl a s s . T h e
to c r i s e s
R e g u l a t i o n and not c o m p e t i t i o n
the new c o r p o r a t e c a p i t a l i s t s .
l e a r n e d the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
structure
as c o n t r i b u t i n g
ideas necess ar y
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the l a b o r
the power o f the c r a f t unions and the
c r e a t i o n o f a m an a ge ria l
c l a s s were the f i r s t a c t s o f such r e g u l a t i o n .
ever,
labor force w i t h in
the c o n t r o l o f
process o f v e r t i c a l
the
the
i n d u s t r i e s as w e l l
i n t e g r a t i o n were not s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n s
l a t i o n o f s o c i e t y as a w h o l e .
progressively d e fin in g
that
The b a s i s
was the e a r l y
recognition
and p o l i t i c a l
d i f f e r e n c e s engendered by th e d i v e r g e n t
economic p o l i c y .
w ill
requires a p o l i t i c a l
independent government a g e n c i e s .
not only p r e c ip i t a t e
p a rtic u la r
in te re s ts ,
and between c a p i t a l
the g e n e r a l
but w i l l
and l a b o r .
in c a p a b l e o f p r o v i d i n g the
3Ib id .,
also
class
i n t e r e s t s must be r e ­
d i r e c t o r a t e which tran sce nd s
the a c t i v i t i e s o f the
Such a p o l i t i c a l
directorate
i n t e r e s t from the a d m i x t u r e o f
regulate c o n f lic t s w ith in
A lt ho u gh
req u isite
o f a c o h e s i v e economic p o l i c y
f o r such a development
A d m i n i s t e r i n g t o the
p a r t i c u l a r economic i n t e r e s t s and which c o o r d i n a t e s
nominally
the reg u­
the v a r i o u s c o m p e t i t i v e economic i n t e r e s t s
national
economy as a w h o l e , however,
as the
Such r e g u l a t i o n depended upon the b o u r g e o i s i e
i t s needs as a c l a s s .
so lv e d w i t h i n an o v e r a l l
for
How­
the b o u r g e o i s i e
i n t e r e s t group p o l i t i c s a l o n e were
p o litic a l
structure
f o r the f o r m u l a t i o n
th e y d i d f o s t e r th e emergence o f a c l a s s - c o n s c i o u s
p . 68.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
81
p o litic a l
tro lled
d irecto rate
in the e x e c u t i v e branch d u r i n g World War I , which con­
t h e War I n d u s t r y Board and o t h e r p l a n n i n g a g e n c i e s . ^
The emergence o f a c l a s s - c o n s c i o u s p o l i t i c a l
directorate
in the
E x e c u t i v e branch meant t h a t th e s t a t e had tr an sce nd ed i n t e r e s t group p o l i t i c s
to m a i n t a i n
the s o c i a l
o f labor a t
the
o r d e r ne c e ss a ry f o r the
requisite
le vel o f technical
r e p r o d u c t i o n and expansion
organization.
o f the s o c i a l o r d e r depended upon the s t a t e ' s a b i l i t y
The maintenance
to a d m i n i s t e r c o n f l i c t
between l a b o r and management in the monopoly s e c t o r as w e l l
as the c o n f l i c t s
a r i s i n g between the mass o f unemployed and c o m p e t i t i v e s e c t o r w o r k e r s .
Mor eov er,
the s t a t e must a p p e a r to a c t as a d i s i n t e r e s t e d p a r t y t o these
co n flic ts
to i n s u r e
se rves the c l a s s
its
in terest o f c a p ita l.
S p e c ific a lly ,
la tio n
l e g i t i m a c y and w i n th e s u p p o r t o f the masses as i t
i t was the t r a n s i t i o n
from a c cu m u la tio n t o disaccumu­
in t h e American economy t h a t gave a c o n c r e t e
conscious p o l i t i c a l
d irecto rate.
t h r e a t e n e d th e s o c i a l
superfluous.
relatio n s
rationale
The v e ry success o f
the American economy
between l a b o r and c a p i t a l
I t was n o t th e case t h a t
fo r a class­
th e b o u r g e o i s i e
by r e n d e r i n g l a b o r
im m e d ia t e ly un de r­
stood these dynamics o f c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n so much as they responded to
the new c o n d i t i o n s
With the t r a n s i t i o n
and c a p i t a l
the r e a l
at
in o r d e r to c o n t a i n
them w i t h i n a c a p i t a l i s t
framework.
t o the d i s a c c u m u l a t i o n phase the r e l a t i o n between l a b o r
the p o i n t o f p r o d u c t i o n o f b a s i c goods no l o n g e r c i r c u m s c r i b e d
t e r r i t o r y o f class
repression.
Social
control
d u c t i o n by management was no l o n g e r s u f f i c i e n t .
q u i r e d to assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
Instead
a t the p o i n t o f p r o ­
the s t a t e was r e ­
f o r such c o n t r o l .
As m a n u f a c t u r e r s and merchants un de rto ok the enormous ta s k o f t e a c h i n g
men and women new t a s t e s and methods o f consumption,
the s t a t e
I b i d .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
fa c ilita te d
82
t he accomplishment o f t h i s
ro le,
by i n s u r i n g l a b o r ' s
and o t h e r t a s ks as an i n s t a n c e o f the s t a t e ' s
receptivity
Committee on Recent S o c i a l
Trends
f o r c e from b a s i c goods p r o d u c t i o n
ponding problem o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l
a d s o r p t i o n o f w ork er s
and s e rv e
to the new consumer s o c i e t y .
(1 9 21 )
H o o v e r 's
d e s c r i b e d the s h i f t o f the
labor
to s e r v i c e s and remarked t h a t th e c o r r e s ­
unemployment had been c u r t a i l e d by the
in the " new ly expanded s e r v i c e
le is u re .A lth o u g h
new
this
i n d u s t r i e s which c r e a t e
committee underscored the i n t e r n a l
eco­
nomic mechanism which siphoned unemployed w o rk e r s to the expanding secondary
s e c t o r the committee members were aware t h a t
r e l i a n c e upon t h i s
t u r e a l o n e would no t be a s u f f i c i e n t s o l u t i o n
technological
unemployment.
in frastru c­
to th e e v e r - p r e s e n t problem o f
A cc o rd in g t o th e committee the time had come
to " d e v o t e c o n t i n u i n g a t t e n t i o n not o n l y t o th e problems o f c y c l i c a l
ployment b u t a l s o t o t h i s
newer problem o f
'technological*
unemployment i f
we a r e
to f o r e s t a l l
.
T h is concern f o r the l i v e s o f w ork er s covers up the more fundamental
concern f o r
c o n flic t.
in t e n d e d
h a r d s h i p and u n c e r t a i n t y
unem­
the c o n t i n u e d growth o f c a p i t a l
The s o l u t i o n
in th e l i v e s o f w o r k e r s .
.
and the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f c l a s s
to the problem o f unemployment was p a r t o f a package
to remove th e o b s t a c l e s
confronting
in c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n and con­
sumption d u r i n g the p o s t - W o r l d War I e r a .
As S e c r e t a r y o f Commerce and then as P r e s i d e n t , Hoover, a lo n g w i t h
o t h e r p r o m in e n t men from l a r g e
i n d u s t r i a l , c o m m e r c ia l, and f i n a n c i a l
cor­
p o r a t i o n s s u p p o r t e d th e e xpa nsi on o f government p r a c t i c e s begun w i t h W il son
and e l a b o r a t e d upon by the H a r d i n g and Co ol id ge a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s o f a m e l i o r a t ­
ing unemployment w i t h p u b l i c w o r k s , o f
fa c ilita tin g
i s t c o r p o r a t e e n t e r p r i s e abroad and o f s t a b i l i z i n g
^ S k l a r , o£_. c i t . ,
^ ibid .,
p.
and p r o t e c t i n g
the
im p e ria l­
inves tmen t c y c l e by
16.
p • 16.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
83
a p p r o p ria te subsidy,
p r i c e s u p p o r t , and c r e d i t d e v i c e s .
Such measures were
d e s ig n e d to encourage the advance o f p r o d u c t i v i t y and hence p r o f i t a b l e
vestment o p p o r t u n i t i e s , w h i l e
re s tric tin g
in ­
the volume o f prod uct s thrown
into
the d o m e s t ic m a r k e t . 7
They spoke g l o w i n g l y o f the e r a o f " a b u n d a n c e ,” b u t warned
and took a c t i o n a g a i n s t too much o f i t , which in t h e i r view would
d i s a s t r o u s l y derange the p r i v a t e m ark et economy and throw the whole
system o f e m p l o y m e n t - f o r - i n c o m e and p r i v a t e d i s c r e t i o n a r y i n v e s t ­
ment i n t o h o p e - f o s t e r e d p r o d u c t i o n r e s t r i c t i o n , s e c u l a r I n f l a t i o n ,
and a g g r e s s i v e i m p e r i a l i s t e x p a n s i o n , to s u s t a i n the f l o w o f p r o f ­
i t a b l e in v e s t m e n t and t h e c a p i t a l i s t do m i n a t io n o f the l a b o r f o r c e
w i t h i n the framework o f the c o r p o r a t e i n d u s t r i a l s y s t e m . "
The coming o f a c l a s s - c o n s c i o u s
needs o f monopoly c a p i t a l
overall
p o litic a l
d ire c to ra te sen sitive
and c a p a b le o f f o r m u l a t i n g and a d m i n i s t e r i n g an
economic p o l i c y stands
in marked c o n t r a s t to the response o f the
German and I t a l i a n
p o litic a l
monopoly c a p i t a l .
U n l i k e Germany and I t a l y ,
fascist
in th e s e r v i c e o f c a p i t a l i s m .
advanced i n d u s t r i a l
tain
system which aimed to c u r t a i l
society
the growth o f
the U n i t e d S t a t e s
regime to ac co m p lis h the t o t a l i t a r i a n ,
o f society
to the
r e q u i r e d no
self-conscious o rg a n izatio n
The o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f
is
the response o f
the c a p i t a l i s t
class
the c o n t r a d i c t i o n between
the u t i l i z a t i o n
of
production
p r o f i t and the s o c i a l
needs o f
w o rk — to p r e v e n t the emergence
the mass o f peop le
the mode o f
t o con­
for
w i t h i n a b o u r ge oi s f r a m e ­
o f socialism .
^1b i d . , p . 18.
G |bid.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER XI
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION:
THE HEGEMONY OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL
RATIONALITY AND THE DISSOLUTION OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Advanced i n d u s t r i a l
consciousness t h a t ta k es
c a p i t a l i s m has g i v e n r i s e
the t o t a l i t y o f s o c i e t y and n a t u r e as i t s o b j e c t .
In no o t h e r epoch has consciousness been so a b l e
tions
tion
in m a t e r i a l
conditions.
it
conditions
in ex tric a b ly
obstacles
upon consciousness
for
imposed
A lth ou gh the r e l a t i o n between conscious and
is a h i g h l y ambiguous o n e ,
intertw ined
transform a­
t o overcoming the s t r u g g l e
has removed some o f th e l i m i t a t i o n s
by th e c o n d i t i o n o f s c a r c i t y .
m aterial
to determine
Not o n l y has the c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r od uc ­
removed the t e c h n o l o g i c a l
existence,
to a c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s
in the
la bo r process.
it
is c l e a r
t h a t th e two a r e
T h is process
is th e one
. . . in which both man and N a t u re p a r t i c i p a t e , and in which man
o f h i s own accord s t a r t s , r e g u l a t e s and c o n t r o l s th e m a t e r i a l
r e - a c t i o n s between h i m s e l f and n a t u r e . . . .
By thus a c t i n g on
the e x t e r n a l w o r l d and changing i t , he a t the same time changes
h i s own n a t u r e . . . .
We a r e not now d e a l i n g w i t h those p r i m i ­
t i v e i n s t i n c t i v e forms o f l a b o u r t h a t remind us o f the mere a n i m a l .
. . . But what d i s t i n g u i s h e s the worse a r c h i t e c t from the b e s t o f
th e bees is t h i s , t h a t th e a r c h i t e c t r a i s e s h i s s t r u c t u r e in
i m a g i n a t i o n b e f o r e he e r e c t s i t in r e a l i t y .
At the end o f e v e r y
l a b o u r process we g e t a r e s u l t t h a t a l r e a d y e x i s t e d i n the i m a g i ­
n a t i o n o f the l a b o u r e r a t i t s commencement.
He n o t o n l y e f f e c t s
a change o f form in the m a t e r i a l on which he w o r k s , b u t he a l s o
r e a l i s e s a purpose o f h i s own t h a t g i v e s the law t o h i s modus
o p e r a n d i , and to which he must s u b o r d i n a t e h i s w i l l . 1
The l a b o r process
is
th e ne c e ss a ry and mutual
ness and m a t e r i a l
conditions.
Although Marx c h a r a c t e r i z e s
^Marx, Capi t a l , V o l .
i n t e r a c t i o n between c o n s c io u s ­
l a b o r as the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a c t i v i t y o f
I, op. c i t .,
pp.
1 7 7 " 1 7 8.
84
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85
man in n a t u r e ,
d ivisio n o f
he does n o t a s c r i b e such s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s
l a b o r as a w h o l e .
ual a c t i v i t y
to h i s t o r y
Engels speaks t o the
in h i s
le tte r
to th e s o c i a l
re la tio n s h ip of
in d iv id ­
to Joseph B lo c h.
We make h i s t o r y o u r s e l v e s , bu t in the f i r s t p l a c e , under ve ry
d e f i n i t e assumptions and c o n d i t i o n s . . . .
In the second p l a c e ,
however, h i s t o r y is made in such a way t h a t the f i n a l r e s u l t
always a r i s e s from c o n f l i c t s between many i n d i v i d u a l w i l l s , o f
which each a g a in has been made what i t is by a ho st o f p a r t i c u ­
l a r conditions o f l i f e .
Thus t h e r e a r e innumerable i n t e r s e c t i n g
f o r c e s , an i n f i n i t e s e r i e s o f p a r a l l e l o g r a m s o f f o r c e s which
g i v e r i s e to one r e s u l t a n t - - the h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t .
Th is may a g a i n
i t s e l f be viewed as the p r o d u c t o f a power which works as a w h o l e ,
u n c o n s c i o u s l y and w i t h o u t v o l i t i o n .
For wh at each i n d i v i d u a l
w i l l s is o b s t r u c t e d by ev ery on e e l s e , and what emerges is some­
t h i n g t h a t no one w i l l e d . 2
When Marx speaks o f s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s he is s pe a k in g o f the dynamic by
which i n d i v i d u a l s o b j e c t i f y
n e c e s s a r i l y t h e case t h a t
r e l a t i o n o f the s e l f
e n tailed
in t h e
themselves
In divid ual
to the w o r l d ,
labor p r o je c t.
l a t i o n o f the s e l f
tions
of
l a b o r d e t e r m i n e s the
individual
d ivision o f
a c tiv ity .
d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r which
although
w ill
the
t o the p r o j e c t ,
re stric tio n s
Eng els
.
.
this
is not
grasps th e p a r t i c u l a r p r a x i s
re­
is d i s t o r t e d by the p a r t i c u l a r mode o f
th e l a b o r process
in d ivid u al
modes o f
labor r e s u l t
in cre a s in g ly
re stric ts
requires
its e lf.
The s o c i a l
l a b o r and t r a n s f o r m a ­
in t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s
in the modes
tend toward an i n c r e a s i n g
the scope o f
in divid ual
th e s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f the
th e more complex t h e s o c i a l
labo r.
in d iv id u a l's
d iv is io n o f labo r,
the more
upon th e development o f s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
Marx argues w i t h
.
it
Such t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s
In so f a r as th e l a b o r proce ss
it
M o r e o v e r , any a t t e m p t to comprehend the
to th e s o c i e t y
in th e s o c i a l
However,
s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s grasps the t r u e
s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n which c i r c u m s c r i b e s
d ivisio n o f
in the w o r l d .
r e s p e c t to th e
subordination
re s tric tio n s
upon consciousness t h a t
is no mere momentary a c t .
Besides the
^Ka rl Marx, The Communist M a n i f e s t o , e d . Ro be rt C. T u c k e r , The MarxR e a d e r , New Y o r k :
W. W. Norton & C o . , I n c . , 1972, p . 3^3.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
86
e x e r t i o n o f th e b o d i l y organs the process demands t h a t , d u r i n g
t he whole o p e r a t i o n , the workman's w i l l be s t e a d i l y in consonance
w i t h h i s pu rpo se.
T h is means c l o s e a t t e n t i o n .
The less he is
a t t r a c t e d by the n a t u r e o f the w o r k , and th e mode in which i t is
c a r r i e d o n , and the th e l e s s , t h e r e f o r e , he e n j o y s i t as something
which g i v e s p l a y t o h i s b o d i l y and mental powers, the more c lo s e
h i s a t t e n t i o n is f o r c e d to b e . 3
The more the p a r t i c u l a r p r o j e c t
and the
less
to s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s now g i v e s
o r a v o id e d by t h a t
a ch iev ed
in the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f
gives play
unnatural
rise
pr oc e s s.
labor
the more
What had
to s e l f - a l i e n a t i o n where
t h a t promote consciousness a r e e i t h e r den ied to t h e
dividual
the
division o f
the workman's own ch o o si n g ,
is p e r c e i v e d as an a l i e n ,
the v e r y c o n d i t i o n s
attracted
imposed by the s o c i a l
th e p r o j e c t becomes one o f
the l a b o r process
gi ve n r i s e
is
individual
is
in d iv id u a l.
The i n c r e a s i n g d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r
the mode o f p r o d u c t i o n means the
to th e n a t u r e o f
to h i s b o d i l y and mental
in ­
the w o rk ,
the
less
less
th e work
powers and the les s he r e a l i z e s
his
human i t y .
With c a p i t a l i s m ,
s p ecialized .
th e d i v i s i o n o f
F u rther transform ations
l a b o r has a l r e a d y become e x c e e d i n g l y
in the c a p i t a l i s t mode o f p r o d u c t i o n
promotes the s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f l a b o r to the p o i n t a t which l a b o r ' s a l i e n a t i o n
from the p r o d u c t i v e process
tion o f
is v i r t u a l l y
the d i s a c c u m u l a t i o n ph ase ,
p r o d u c t i o n has become a b s o l u t e
p r o d u c t i v e w o rk .
complete.
labo r's a lie n a tio n
through
from the means o f
i t s engagement in s u p e r f l u o u s ,
Those few who remain t i e d
occupied m ainly w ith
In the economic o r g a n i z a ­
non­
t o the p o i n t o f p r o d u c t i o n a r e
the maintenance and s u p e r v i s i o n o f
the p r o d u c t i v e
a p p a r a t u s and no t w i t h p r o d u c t i v e w o rk .
Under c a p i t a l i s m ,
p a rtic ip a tio n
^Marx,
th erefo re,
th e w o r k in g c l a s s
in the l a b o r process and is
Cap i t a l , o p . c i t . ,
p.
thus w i t h o u t
is
robbed o f a c t i v e
the means o f a c h i e v i n g
178
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
87
self-consciousness
through s e l f - o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n .
The sensual
sinews between
nnan and N a t u r e a r e s e ve r e d and a t r o p h i e d through l a c k o f employment.
v e ry c a p a c i t y o f man to know the w o r l d
is p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e s t r o y e d :
l o n g e r t r u s t s h i s senses and i n c r e a s i n g l y
r e pr es s e s the s t i m u l i
The
He no
a f f o r d e d him.
The workman is no l o n g e r guided and d i r e c t e d by a consciousness a l i v e
w o r l d b u t entombed in a consciousness dead to the w o r l d .
can consciousness be a p r o g r e s s i v e m a t e r i a l
in th e i m a g i n a t i o n a p r o j e c t
consciousness
thus d e p r i v e d o f the means f o r
come t o d e f i n e
dead l a b o r ,
i d e o l o g i e s qua dead t h o u g h t .
life
If
the w o r l d ,
possibly
repetitiou s
a c tiv ity
the p r o l e t a r i a t
if
it
regain
is,
its
de­
c on sc io usn ess .
r e s p e c t t o commodities qua
The p a s s i v i t y o f consumption and
in meaningless
l a b o r has become the
humanity?
must f i r s t
must be th e
in ev ita b le
themselves,
de n ie d
impulses
its o b je c tific a tio n
i t s human n a t u r e ,
in
how then can i t
A c c o rd in g to Marx, o f c o u r s e ,
the l i b e r a t i o n
come from the s e l f - e m a n c i p a t i o n o f t h a t c l a s s .
from the d o m i n a t io n o f c a p i t a l ,
become conscious o f
ganization o f
party,
its e lf
r a t h e r than the outcome o f c r e a t i v e
is de ni ed the means f o r
th erefore,
the w o r k i n g c l a s s w i l l
o r d e r t o e m an cip at e
ca l
i t s own o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n ,
t h e i r existen ce w ith
from p r o d u c t i o n
A
o f the modern w o r k i n g c l a s s , whose e v e r y d a y b e h a v i o r ta kes the form o f
compulsive,
of
respect to e r e c tin g
is a r e a c t i o n a r y , n o n - c r i t i c a l
In divid uals
separation
then,
to be c r e a t e d through the l a b o r p r o c e s s .
p r i v e d then o f s e l f - r e f l e c t i o n ,
the p h y s i c a l
force w ith
No l o n g e r ,
to the
i t s e l f as a c l a s s .
the p r o l e t a r i a t
And t h a t consciousness
r e s u l t o f the e x p l o i t a t i o n o f
the p r o l e t a r i a n s
In
l a b o r , w h i l e "The o r ­
i n t o a c l a s s , and c o n s e q u e n tl y
into a p o l i t i ­
is c o n t i n u a l l y b e in g u p se t by the c o m p e t i t i o n between the w or ke rs
. . .
i t ever
rises
up a g a i n , s t r o n g e r ,
firm e r, m ig h tier."^
^ I b i d . , p . 64 0 .
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88
M a r x 's v ie w was t h a t
the c o n t i n u a l
social
disruptions
and c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
t h e economic a p p a r a t u s stemming from c a p i t a l i s t development would f o r c e the
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f the p r o l e t a r i a t
the s t r e n g t h o f
the p r o l e t a r i a n
P r o l e t a r i a n consciousness
in g ly powerful
p o litic a l
is
i n t o a g r e a t mass.
grows as w e l l
its e lf
consciousness o f an i n c r e a s ­
org an ism .
To become a r e v o l u t i o n a r y
set for
as the f e e l i n g o f s t r e n g t h .
thus th e c o l l e c t i v e
Yet t h i s class-consciousness
ness.
W i th such c o n c e n t r a t i o n ,
is n o t y e t a r e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n s c i o u s ­
force,
t h e p r o l e t a r i a t must s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y
the ta s k o f o v e r t h r o w i n g b o u r ge oi s p r o p e r t y
de ve lop th e t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e
Class-consciousness
nece ssa ry to a c h i e v e the f r u i t s
At points
in
the p r o l e t a r i a t can f u n c t i o n
in which e v e r y v i c t o r y o f
the b o u r g e o i s i e .
the p r o l e t a r i a n
must
fo r a rev­
i t s d e v e lo p m e n t , as Marx e x p l a i n s
the M a n i f e s t o , the c la s s - c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f
a c tu a lity a v icto ry fo r
It
o f such l a b o r .
is a necess ar y b u t n o t a s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n
o l u t i o n a r y c on s c io u s n e s s .
r e a c t i o n a r y manner,
re la tio n s .
unions
in
in a
is
in
The l i n k between a p r o l e t a r i a n
c la s s - c o n s c i o u s n e s s and a r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o l e t a r i a n consciousness must be
fo r g e d by th e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a c t i v i t y o f c e r t a i n ele m en ts w i t h i n
the w o rk in g
cla s s .
Th is
is not to sugg est t h a t such s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a c t i v i t y
orig in a te s w ith in
the p r o l e t a r i a t .
In d e e d ,
c e r t a i n members o f the b o u r g e o i ­
s i e s who a r e c u t loose from th e r u l i n g c l a s s by the advance o f
who a r e " .
may w e l l
.
.a t
provide
and p r o g r e s s . "5
least
.
threatened
industry or
in t h e i r c o n d i t i o n s o f e x i s t e n c e
. th e p r o l e t a r i a t w i t h
S p e c ific a lly ,
necessarily
.
.
."
f r e s h ele m en ts o f e n l i g h t e n m e n t
these ele m en ts o f e n l i g h t e n m e n t and pr o g re s s
a r e s u p p l i e d by the p o r t i o n " o f th e b o ur ge oi s
i d e o l o g i s t s , who have r a i s e d
SMarx, The Communist M a n i f e s t o , o p . c i t . , p .
3^3.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
89
the mselves t o the l e v e l o f comprehending t h e o r e t i c a l l y
ment as a w h o l e . T h e s e
communists
p r o l e t a r i a n i z e d bo ur ge oi s
in t h e i r s t r u g g l e
However,
to c u l t i v a t e
program.
tions
ca lle d
In l i g h t o f
this
move­
i d e o l o g i s t s would a i d
the
a r e v o l u t i o n a r y c l a s s consciousness.
th e h i s t o r y o f c a p i t a l i s m thus f a r
th e American and European p r o l e t a r i a t
the h i s t o r i c a l
reveals
to forge a successful
f a i l u r e , Marx's e x p la n a tio n
the f a i l u r e o f
revolutionary
r e g a r d i n g the c o n d i ­
l e a d i n g to th e development o f a c l a s s conscious p r o l e t a r i a t must be
into question.
the p o i n t
The c r u c i a l
in h i s t o r y when the
c l a i m t h a t c l a s s -c o n s c i o u s n e s s emerges a t
l a b o r process de n i e s
the w o r k e r the means to
o b j e c t i f y h i s e x i s t e n c e must e i t h e r be s u b s t a n t i a t e d o r abandoned.
Alt hou gh t h e European w o r k in g c l a s s seems t o have come much c l o s e r
to a c h i e v i n g a c l a s s - c o n s c i o u s n e s s
World War I I ,
than the American w o r k in g c l a s s p r i o r
the p r o g r e s s i v e e le m en t s w i t h i n
the European w o r k in g c l a s s were
unable to push t h e i r advantage d u r i n g the d i s s o l u t i o n o f bo ur geo is
the t w e n t i e s and t h i r t i e s
to a r e v o l u t i o n a r y outcome.
sponse to a growing s o c i a l i s t movement,
Germany and I t a l y
masses w i t h i n
r u l i n g c l a s s had a l r e a d y succeeded
advanced i n d u s t r i a l
As a l a s t d i t c h
relations
the
Long b e f o r e
in m o b i l i z i n g
the D e p r e s s i o n ,
6 |b id .,
the p r o l e t a r i a t w i t h i n
No r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o l e t a r i a t emerged.
has been t r a c e d
to m a i n t a i n c o n t r o l o f
p.
the American
the
provided
immediate r e a l i z a t i o n o f s o c i a l i s m ; y e t s o c i a l i s m
a p r o l e t a r i a t to m a te r ia liz e
the b o u r g e o i s i e
re­
o r d e r o f monopoly c a p i t a l .
base f o r
d i d no t o c c u r .
In
by m o b i l i z i n g th e
A t the p o i n t o f d i s a c c u m u l a t i o n , c a p i t a l i s m had c e r t a i n l y
the m a t e r i a l
rule
f a s c i s m e n a b le d the r u l i n g c l a s s o f
t o rescue bo u r g e o is p r o p e r t y
a t o ta lita r ia n order.
to
in t h i s
The f a i l u r e o f such
paper to the power o f
the l a b o r f o r c e through t h e process
343.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
30
in which t h e p r o l e t a r i a t p a r t i c i p a t e s
fic u lt
in i t s own c o e r c i o n .
to c la im t h a t the p e rp e tu a tio n o f c a p i t a l i s t
d i s a c c u m u l a t i o n phase was the r e s u l t o f f o r c e s
The p o i n t a t which c a p i t a l i s m p r o v i d e s
fo r existence
I t would be d i f ­
relatio n s
into
in dep end ent o f human w i l l .
the means f o r overcoming the s t r u g g l e
is the p o i n t a t which consciousness becomes i n s t r u m e n t a l
d e t e r m i n i n g subsequent t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s
in m a t e r i a l
r a t i o n a l i t y and monopoly c a p i t a l
class-consciousness
c la im s
t o emerge, which would have e na b le d the w o r k in g c l a s s
conscious a c t i v i t y o f
divided
the b o u r g e o i s i e
is
to r e t a i n
the consequence o f
the s e l f -
control
its e x is ­
and assure
Not o n l y d i d the c r e a t i o n o f an e l a b o r a t e
remove the t h r e a t posed by t e c h n o l o g i c a l
the w o r k i n g c l a s s
in frastru ctu re
unemployment,
d ivisio n o f
Marxism does n o t r e c o g n i z e
t h e development o f a bo u r g e o is c l a s s - c o n s c i o u s n e s s
s t a n d i n g th e h i s t o r i c a l
crucial
h isto rical
is
that
and mental
the p o s s i b i l i t y o f
is c a p a b le o f un de r­
movement as a whole and is c a p a b l e o f
in tercedin g a t
moments on i t s own b e h a l f .
A lt ho u gh Marx d i d emphasize t h a t the b o u r g e o i s i e c o n s t a n t l y
tio n ize s
fa ile d
the mode o f p r o d u c t i o n c r e a t i n g a " w o r l d a f t e r
t o de v e lo p the r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f such a c t i v i t y
c o n s c io u s n e ss .
in
l a b o r , a s s u r i n g t h a t work
i t s e l f would u t t e r l y p r e v e n t th e p l a y o f the w o r k e r ' s p h y s i c a l
What c l a s s i c a l
it
through th e d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f the work p l a c e
an e v e r s p e c i a l i z e d and t r i v i a l i z e d
a b ilitie s .
technological
t h a t the f a i l u r e o f a p r o l e t a r i a t
to s e i z e c o n t r o l o f th e means o f p r o d u c t i o n ,
tence as a c l a s s .
in
conditions.
The p r e c e d i n g a n a l y s i s o f the r e l a t i o n between f a s c i s m ,
o f consumption
the
Of c o u r s e ,
th e emergence o f
revolu­
i t s own i m a g e , h e
upon the b o u r ge oi s
the b o u r g e o i s i e was n o t s i m u l ­
t a n e o u s l y accompanied by th e emergence o f a bo u r g e o is c l a s s - c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
D u r in g t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l
7 |b id .,
p.
and e a r l y
in d u s tria l
modes o f c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n ,
339.
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-91
th e c a p i t a l i s t d i d n o t a c t on th e b a s is o f a p e r c e i v e d c l a s s
a lt h o u g h h i s
independent economic a c t i v i t y
a whole and assured the d o w n f a ll
in tere s t,
s t r e n g t h e n e d the b o u r g e o i s i e as
o f fe ud a l
property
relatio n s.
The success
o f the " c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n u n i t must be a t t r i b u t e d to i t s e f f i c i e n c y as
Q
a means o f economic and s o c i a l c o n t r o l . "
Stephen M a r g l i n o f H ar v a rd
argues t h a t t h e emergence o f the c a p i t a l i s t
uted to new t e c h n o l o g i e s , s i n c e the e a r l y
f a c t o r i e s employed t e c h n o l o g i e s
s i m i l a r t o the g u i l d system o f p r o d u c t i o n .
in c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n
a p o licy o f
p o litic a l
W ithin
to the f e u d a l
i s o l a t i n g w o rk e r s
and i t was t h i s
over labor.
o v e r the l a b o r process
c a p i t a l i s t s were l e a r n i n g new
control.
in h i s t o r y has had the s k i l l
o f every h i s t o r i c a l
epoch p r i o r
from p r i o r
over social
p ra c tic e.
cess w i t h i n
th e f a c t o r y .
f o r a w orld market,
to
The r u l i n g c l a s s e s
to the modern one have depended upon a s t a t i c
o r d e r w i t h a minimum o f s e v e r e d i s r u p t i o n
The b o u r g e o i s i e d i f f e r s
and a b i l i t y
in th e mode o f p r o d u c t i o n o f the magnitude
to the a c c u m u la t io n and expa nsio n o f c a p i t a l .
s e ize control
in stitu te d
Th is assu red the
i n s u r i n g the dominance o f c a p i t a l
From the v e r y b e g i n n i n g ,
survive during transform ations
social
unit
c o n t r o l which e n a b l e d e v e r more p r o d u c t i v e t e c h n o l o g i c a l
No o t h e r r u l i n g c l a s s
essential
p r o d u c t i o n u n i t had im m e d ia t e ly
t h e c a p i t a l i s t had a b s o l u t e c o n t r o l
changes t o o c c u r .
modes o f s o c i a l
The c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n
through t a s k f r a g m e n t a t i o n .
s t a b i l i t y o f th e f i r m
the f i r m ,
f a c t o r y system canno t be a t t r i b ­
In itia lly
to m aintain
r u li n g classes w ith
this
t h e i r dominance.
r e s p e c t to
its control
c o n t r o l was r e l e g a t e d to th e l a b o r p r o ­
However, as c a p i t a l i s t
p r o d u c t i o n was p r o d u c t i o n
changing t r a d e c o n d i t i o n s encouraged the b o u r g e o i s i e
o f the p o l i t i c a l
process
in o r d e r to c r e a t e
to
the n a t i o n s t a t e .
^Samuel Bowles and H e r b e r t G i n t i s , " C l a s s Power and A l i e n a t e d L a b o r , "
M o n t h ly Review, V o l . 2 6 , No. 10 , March 1 9 7 5 , p. 19.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
92
As t h e mode o f p r o d u c t i o n as a whole s h i f t e d from a g r i c u l t u r a l
to in d u s t r ia l
c a p ita lism ,
to a t t a i n
th e b o u r g e o i s i e m o b i l i z e d the emerging p r o l e t a r i a t
own p o l i t i c a l
its
e n d s .^
D u r in g t h i s p e r i o d when the l a b o r process was un de rgoing c o n t i n u i n g
f r a g m e n t a t i o n and the masses o f p e o p le were b e in g s p i r i t u a l l y
and m a t e r i a l l y
im m i s e r a t e d ,
and knowledge
to f u r t h e r
th e c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s was a c q u i r i n g t h e a b i l i t i e s
i t s own c l a s s
expansion o f c a p i t a l
in te re s ts .
a c tu a lly
Social
contributed
s cio us b o u r g e o i s i e by r e q u i r i n g p o l i t i c a l
realm o f the f a c t o r y
th e i n d i v i d u a l
fostered
to s o c i e t y a t
c a p ita lis t
solutions
a re a s o f s o c i a l
p a rtic u la rly
t h a t th e acumen r e q u i s i t e
However,
the
to the
lib e ra l
as to p r e v e n t
Ita lia n
to World War I I .
f o r the c o n t r o l
trad itio n
expansion o f monopo­
the growth o f a
The i n a b i l i t y o f
governments to a r r i v e a t ade quate p o l i t i c a l
in t h e economic and s o c i a l
in Euro pe,
in France and Eng­
the n a t u r a l
t h r ou g ho u t th e e n t i r e economy and to i n h i b i t
i t was n o t u n t i l
r u l i n g c l a s s and le d
in Germany and I t a l y and to a l e s s e r degree
class-conscious b o u rg eo isie p r i o r
German and
Of c o u r s e ,
p r a c t i c e became a v a i l a b l e
l a n d , was so i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d
ly c a p ita l
t h a t went beyond the
Under these c o n d i t i o n s c a p i t a l i s m
the " u n i o n i z a t i o n " o f the c a p i t a l i s t s .
to th e l i q u i d a t i o n o f l i b e r a l i s m .
crises
t o the emergence o f a c l a s s - c o n ­
l a r g e and which were beyond the means o f
to s e c u r e .
the emergence o f monopoly c a p i t a l
of a ll
d i s r u p t i o n s engendered by the
the
solu tion s
to
o r d e r s p u r r e d the f o r m a t i o n o f a massive
p r o l e t a r i a n movement.
However,
th e uniqueness o f American c a p i t a l i s t development m i t i g a t e d
a g a i n s t th e e nt r e n c h m e n t o f s p e c i a l
have sought t o
qu en tly
in the government who would
impose a p a r t i c u l a r economic o r d e r upon a s o c i e t y .
the American p o l i t i c a l
^M arx ,
in te re s t
Conse­
system d i d not a t r o p h y t o the p o i n t where
The Communist M a n i f e s t o , o p . c i t . ,
p.
342.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
it
93
was i n c a p a b l e o f h a n d l i n g th e v a r i o u s
r e s u l t o f new developments in
the economy.
ernment was a p r i m a r y c o n d i t i o n
acting
litic a l
in th e o v e r a l l
tra d itio n ,
crises a r is in g
in the n a t i o n as a
The r e l a t i v e
f l e x i b i l i t y o f gov­
f o r th e f o r m a t i o n o f a p o l i t i c a l
i n t e r e s t o f the b o u r g e o i s i e .
U nlike
directorate
the European po­
th e American t r a d i t i o n was one in which the emphasis has
been upon s o l v i n g p r o b le m s ,
i n n o v a t i v e l y abandoning o l d methods and i d e o l o g i e s
when c ir c u m s t a n c e s d i c t a t e d
t h a t new methods and i d e o l o g i e s be foun d.
re s p e c t to th e te c h n iq u e s o f problem s o l v i n g and c o n f l i c t management,
American p o l i t i c a l
offered
system has thus f a r been e x t r e m e l y s u c c e s s f u l
the w o r l d the most advanced s c i e n c e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n .
tendency has been f o r the v a r i o u s s o c i a l
the government, w h i l e
With
the
and has
in Europe,
and economic problems
the
to overwhelm
in America a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s im p ly overwhelms th e p r o b -
I ems.
I t was the c u m u l a t i v e development o f a f i r s t
is tra tio n
in government and in bu sin es s
America t o t a l l y
un ne ces sa ry.
quence o f a f a i l u r e o f
ernment to m a i n t a i n s o c i a l
t h a t made a f a s c i s t
response in
Fascism in Europe was u l t i m a t e l y
tra d itio n a l
o n l y a temp or ary s o l u t i o n
c l a s s system o f admin­
governments to go ver n.
Fascism c o u l d be
to the problem o f e s t a b l i s h i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e
o r d e r and engage
in the n e c e ss a r y s o c i a l
L i b e r a l i s m p r o s c r i b e d a g a i n s t a government t h a t took an a c t i v e
prehensive s o c ia l
in d iv id u a ls
planning
the conse­
in the b e l i e f
in the m ark et p l a c e
role
planning.
in com­
t h a t the u n f e t t e r e d a c t i v i t y o f
is s e l f - r e g u l a t i n g .
The r o l e o f
the s t a t e
under l i b e r a l i s m had been to i n s u r e the p r e s e r v a t i o n o f such a s t a t e o f
dom,
i n t e r f e r i n g o n l y a t those times when the r i g h t s o f
teed by the s o c i a l
the
in d iv id u a l,
in divid uals
the 1 i b e r a l i s t i c et ho s o f the
in alienable
the American s t a t e was n e v e r an e x c l u s i v e l y
Alt hou gh
righ ts of
lib eral
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
free­
gu a r a n ­
c o n t r a c t had been i n f r i n g e d o r in some way a bus ed.
America was imbued w i t h
gov­
state .
94
The p l u r a l i s t i c
s t r u c t u r e o f American government promoted the d a i l y
v e n t i o n o f the s t a t e
ing th e
apparent
in g ly
in s o c i a l
infringem ent o f
m a tt e r s
in divid ual
t h a t the p a r o c h i a l
in te rtw in e d social
t h a t were n o t d i r e c t l y m a t t e r s c o n c e r n ­
r i g h t s and l i b e r t i e s .
p o s t u r e o f the s t a t e s
order,
in te r­
the f e d e r a l
As i t became
j e o p a r d i z e d the
government s t e a d i l y
increas­
usurped the
power o f t h e s t a t e governments to b e t t e r a d m i n i s t e r to the new needs o f the
social o r d e r .
The a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f s o c i a l
o f s o c i e t y which c h a r a c t e r i z e d
the l i b e r a l
a ffairs
r a t h e r than the p o l i c i n g
governments o f Europe has been
the essence o f American government.
The American s t a t e has been o c c u p i e d w i t h b u i l d i n g
s t r u c t u r e n e c e ss a r y f o r the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f s o c i e t y .
w i t h o r g a n i z a t i o n marks the
in stru m en talist p o lit ic a l
the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
The p r e o c c u p a t i o n
consciousness o f the
American r u l i n g c l a s s , which has focused upon the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f p o l i t i ­
cal a c t i v i t y
in to technical
o f the t e c h n o l o g i c a l
o r technical
P o litic a l
l e a d e r s h i p in
the s e r v i c e
r a t i o n a l i t y has r e c e n t l y become a f u n c t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c
expertise
f o r the purpose o f p l a n n i n g th e f u t u r e needs and
d i r e c t i o n o f the s o c i e t y .
t o the p o l i t i c a l
processes.
The a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e t e c h n o l o g i c a l
process f u n c t i o n s
ra tio n a lity
to
. . . c o n s o l i d a t e th e new s t a t e s t r u c t u r e and the p e r v a s i v e
f u n c t i o n s i t performs on b e h a l f o f p r i v a t e c a p i t a l by denying
the a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f the p o t e n t i a l l y s u b v e r s i v e , t r a d i t i o n a l
p o l i t i c a l norms to t h i s s t r u c t u r e and i t s f u n c t i o n s :
State
structures
need no t be d e m o c r a t i c o r even p l u r a l i s t i c because
the f u n c t i o n s which t h e y p e r f o r m a r e n o t p o l i t i c a l a t a l l b u t
rath er " s c i e n t i f i c . "
Indeed i f the e x e r c i s e o f p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r ­
i t y i n c r e a s i n g l y a p p r ox im a te s t h e model o f the t e c h n i c a l a u t h o r i t y
o f the a i r l i n e p i l o t , then any c l a i m to q u e s t i o n t h a t a u t h o r i t y
on the b a s i s o f norms which uphold the p o l i t i c a l competence o f
the a v er a g e c i t i z e n can and must be d i s c o u n t e d on the ground t h a t
i t c o n s t i t u t e s a gr av e t h r e a t t o the s e c u r i t y and w e l l - b e i n g o f
the e n t i r e s o c i e t y .
A c t i v e c i t i z e n s h i p , in s h o r t , becomes no t
o n l y n e c e ss a r y b u t p o s i t i v e l y h a r m f u l ; d e p o l i t i c i z a t i o n is h e ld
to be e s s e n t i a l to th e very s u r v i v a l o f the system as a w h o l e . *0
lO lke Balbus, " P o l i t i c s
March 1 9 7 5 , P- 29-
as S p o r t s , " Monthly R e v i e w , V o l .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2 6 , No.
10,
95
Indeed the d e p o l i t i c i z a t i o n
and the d e p l u r a l i z a t i o n o f American
democracy is a t once a cause and e f f e c t o f the dehumanized, o n e - d im e n s i o n a l
s o c i e t y which Marcuse so p a s s i o n a t e l y c r i t i q u e s .
how eve r, c r e a t e d
through t h e
is no t a s o c i e t y ,
i m p e r a t i v e s o f an advanced t e c h n o lo g y
de nt o f human purpose and w i l l .
ogy
Th is
R a t h e r the
i m p e r a t i v e s o f advanced t e c h n o l ­
is the modern embodiment o f consciousness as a m a t e r i a l
sc io us n ess t h a t no t o n l y d e v is e s
technological
processes.
Of c o u r s e , such a consciousness
independently o f c la s s .
West, a c l a s s has a r i s e n
the h i s t o r i c a l
For the f i r s t
v irtu a lly
tim e in th e h i s t o r y o f the
t o i t s own needs.
the s o l e concern o f the b o u r g e o i s i e .
is c a p i t a l
a c tiv ity .
th eless,
and c a p i t a l
engages in l a b o r .
is
l a b o r and m y s t i f i e s
The o b j e c t o f h i s
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f human n a t u r e
its
Bourgeois p r a c t i c e
that
the n a t u r e o f bo ur ge oi s
his
labor
insight
the
l a b o r power, he,
none­
is no t o n l y the a p p r o p r i ­
the a p p r o p r i a t i o n and
in o r d e r to ad ap t both to a changing mode o f
t a k es as i t s o b j e c t h i s t o r y
goal o f ongoing s o c i a l
control.
ism has nega ted s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a c t i v i t y
so w i t h
id e n tific a tio n o f
th e a c t i v i t y o f the p r o l e t a r i a t obscures h i s
a t i o n and t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f non-human n a t u r e bu t a l s o
achieve
p o i n t has been to
Marx's
Althou gh th e c a p i t a l i s t does n o t s e l l
production.
does n o t
f o r the mass o f p e o p le and to make s u b s t a n t i v e p r a x i s
l a b o r process w i t h
labor
it
t h a t has proven thus f a r c a p a b le o f comprehending
process in o r d e r t o a d a p t i t
praxis
the
is obsessed w i t h
the w o r l d , b u t
The outcome o f c a p i t a l i s t development t o t h i s
triv ia liz e
a con­
i n c r e a s i n g l y complex and s e n s i t i v e
t e c h n o l o g y as the o n l y means by which to c o n t r o l
operate
force:
the t e c h n o lo g y p e r se b u t p r o v i d e s
s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n n e c e ss a r y f o r the
inde pen ­
W h i le
f o r the
the development o f c a p i t a l ­
in d iv id u a l worker,
th e growth o f a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s b o u r g e o i s i e .
task o f m ain ta in in g labo r d i s c i p l i n e w it h in
in o r d e r to
The i n i t i a l
the f a c t o r y
it
does
bo ur ge oi s
to the l a t e r concern
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
96
o f c o n tro llin g a ll
exchange
ar ea s o f s o c i e t y by re d u c in g a l l
r e l a t i o n s has bred a consciousness
d e v i s i n g the means ne ce ssa ry t o a c h i e v e
b o u r g e o i s i e t o remake the w o r l d a f t e r
nological
ra tio n a lity
philosophy,
that
social
relations
is p a r t i c u l a r l y a d e p t a t
the d e s i r e d e nd .
The success o f the
i t s own image has e l e v a t e d
to th e supreme r a t i o n a l i t y .
t h e o l o g y have been thrown o u t ;
to
M e t a p h y s ic s ,
the t e c h ­
p o litic a l
the c a p i t a l i s t w o r l d o p e r a t e s
w i t h o u t them.
The t e c h n o l o g i c a l
n a lity
f o r the v e ry
instrumental
p e r s p e c t i v e has d i s p l a c e d o t h e r modes o f
reason t h a t
effic a cy
that
i t "gets
t h i n g s d o n e ."
And i t
ra tio ­
is upon i t s
t h i s w o r l d view has been s o l d to the masses, who
no l o n g e r p e r c e i v e p o l i t i c a l
s t r u g g l e and the development o f a r e v o l u t i o n a r y
consciousness as an e s s e n t i a l way In which t o r e s o l v e s o c i a l c o n f l i c t be­
cause they too have p u t t h e i r f a i t h
what problems e x i s t .
can n o t t o l e r a t e
Moreover,
in s c ie n c e and tec hn ol og y to r e s o l v e
th e e f f e c t i v e
a p p l i c a t i o n o f such e x p e r t i s e
i n t e r f e r e n c e by any o t h e r w o r l d v i e w — con sciousness
must be o r g a n i z e d and a d m i n i s t e r e d .
the means o f p r o d u c t i o n , b u t
it
its e lf
Not o n l y has th e b o u r g e o i s i e monopolized
has a l s o come to monopolize the p r o d u c t i o n
o f consciousness and th e means by which consciousness can modify the w o r l d .
M a r x ' s assumption t h a t
the b o u r g e o i s i e ' s c o n t r o l o f p r o d u c t i o n would lea d
im m e d i a t e l y t o a s u b v e r s i v e c la s s - c o n s c i o u s n e s s n e g l e c t e d
th a t control
the p o s s i b i l i t y
o v e r th e means o f p r o d u c t i o n can le a d to c o n t r o l
o v e r con­
s cio us n ess .
W i t h i n advanced i n d u s t r i a l i z e d s o c i e t y the f o r m u l a t i o n o f a r e v o l u ­
t i o n a r y p r o l e t a r i a n movement becomes
s i m p l e a t a s k as i t
immensely d i f f i c u l t .
It
has been in the le s s deve lop ed s o c i e t i e s
is n o t as
in which the
mass o f p e o p le have n o t been s y s t e m a t i c a l l y d e p r i v e d o f the means f o r s e l f ­
em ancipation.
It
is no l o n g e r s im p ly a m a t t e r o f po ss e s s in g th e c o r r e c t
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
97
a n a ly s is o r a m atter o f o rg a n izin g
become c l a s s - c o n s c i o u s
by i n d i v i d u a l .
i t w ill
P o litic a l
a c tiv ity
reconstruction o f
the
If
the w o r k in g c l a s s
have to r e s u r r e c t consciousness
th e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the e x t e r i o r
w ith the
the p e o p l e .
is to
in divid ual
can no l o n g e r concern i t s e l f s o l e l y w i t h
landscape,
in te rio r
it
must a l s o concern i t s e l f
landscape.
There can be no doubt t h a t the d i s s o l u t i o n o f b o u r ge oi s p r o p e r t y
in e v ita b le .
Alt hou gh th e t e c h n o l o g i c a l
b o u r g e o i s i e has been s u c c e s s f u l ,
la r h isto rical
development.
ecological
moment.
It
r a t i o n a l i t y o f the c l a s s - c o n s c i o u s
remains a r a t i o n a l i t y
tied
to a p a r t i c u ­
is a response to and a consequence o f c a p i t a l i s t
Such a r a t i o n a l i t y
c a nnot o f f e r a s o l u t i o n
d e v a s t a t i o n and d e h u m a n i z a ti o n w i t h i n
Both e c o l o g i c a l
t o the problems o f
the c o n t e x t o f c a p i t a l i s m .
d e v a s t a t i o n and d e h u m a n i z a ti o n a r e processes t h a t w i l l
u l t i m a t e l y undermine th e
relatio n s
Whether th e advanced i n d u s t r i a l
la p s e
it
is
i n t o b a r b a r i s m is
upon which the b o u r g e o i s i e depends.
nations w i l l
become communist s o c i e t i e s o r
the m a t t e r a t s t a k e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
Aronow itz, S ta n le y .
Brecher,
Jeremy.
H o r k h e l m e r , Max.
F a ls e P r o m is e s .
S trik e .
San F r a n c i s c o :
C ritic a l
T h eo ry .
Jay, M a r t in .
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