Projections No 2 (2013)
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An aesthetic approach to the translation of Wang Wei’s
landscape poetry
CHEN Xi, University of Macau
Abstract
Chinese landscape poetry is not only the concentration and embodiment of the unique
Chinese landscape culture, but also demonstrates the harmonious integration of poetry
and painting. The key question in translating Chinese landscape poetry into English is
how to keep the aesthetic quality of an image. Through analysis of different English
versions of Wang Wei’s landscape poems from the perspective of Chinese painting
theory, this paper argues that aesthetic concepts in Chinese painting theory provide
significant new perspectives for the translation of Chinese landscape poetry. An
understanding of the method of creating “artistic conception” (Yi Jing) in Chinese
painting and of composition skills such as “blank-leaving” (Liu Bai) and “cavalier
perspective” (San Dian Tou Shi) might help to retain the beauty of artistic conception,
beauty of blankness, and beauty of pictorial composition, representing the harmonious
fusion of poetry and painting in the original poem.
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Key Words
Chinese landscape poetry; Chinese painting theory; artistic conception; blank-leaving;
cavalier perspective
摘要
中国山水诗歌是中国山水文化的浓缩和体现，也是诗画融合的绝佳诠释。在中国
山水诗的英译中，使译作保留原诗的画面美是翻译的关键。本文通过中国画论的
视角对王维山水诗的不同英译本进行分析，发现中国画论可以为中国山水诗的翻
译提供崭新的视角，借鉴中国画论中的意境营造和“留白”、“散点透视”等构图技
巧，可以使译文保留原诗的意境美、留白美和构图美，再现原诗中诗画融合的艺
术特色。
关键词
中国山水诗；中国画论；意境；留白；散点透视
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1. Introduction
China has been a country of poetry since ancient times and Chinese classical poetry
has marked its significant place in the realm of world poetry by its melodious rhythms,
refined language, profound cultural backgrounds, and the pursuit of artistic
conception. As a notable part of Chinese classical poetry, landscape poetry is
characterized by its harmonious combination of affective states and poetic imagery,
which can be explained by Wang Guowei’s idea that “all the scenes are the
expressions of feelings” (Wang, 2007: 42). Landscape poetry presents landscape as an
aesthetic object and brings landscape into poetry as the main source of poetic imagery
(Li, 2004: 214). In Chinese landscape poetry, the sensibilities conveyed by the poems
are produced through the description of the landscapes; the sensibilities and
landscapes blend and interact with each other and constitute a verbal picture filled
with sensibilities. The idea of shi hua tong yuan (poetry and painting sharing the same
origin) has arisen since ancient times as poetry and painting are always closely
connected. Meanwhile, some landscape poets were also talented landscape painters;
the renowned landscape poet Wang Wei of the Tang Dynasty (618 CE - 907 CE) is a
representative among them.
This paper argues that Chinese painting theory has had a significant influence on
the creation and practice of Chinese landscape poetry. Elements of Chinese painting
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theory, such as composition skills and ink drawing techniques, play a significant role
in the creation of visual effect and the construction of artistic conception in poetry.
Artistic conception is a unique term in China, which refers to not only the soul of
Chinese classical poetry, but also the essence of Chinese classical aesthetics. Artistic
conception in Chinese classical poetry means an artistic sphere produced by the fusion
of a poet’s emotions and the scenes described by him or her (Gu, 2006: 18).
Consequently, retaining the quality of an image in the original poem is the key to
the translation of Chinese landscape poetry. As such, aesthetic concepts in Chinese
painting theory may provide significant new perspectives for the translation of
Chinese landscape poetry. Focusing on the poetry and painting of Wang Wei, this
paper analyses the transfer and the reconstruction of the aesthetic qualities of images
in the translation of Chinese landscape poetry from the perspective of Chinese
painting theory.
2. Wang Wei’s Landscape Poetry and his Painting Theory
In The Literature Mind and the Carving of Dragons, considered China’s foremost
aesthetic treatise dating from the fifth century, the acknowledgement that “with
Daoism receding into the background, nature poems came to the fore” is regarded as
the starting point of research on landscape poetry (Wu, 2010: 20). According to the
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Landscape Poetry Appreciation Dictionary, “landscape poetry takes mountains and
rivers as aesthetic objects, illustrating an expansive world of natural scenery rather
than simply describing flowers, grass, trees or stones. Meanwhile, what is represented
in landscape poetry are not the simple mountains and rivers, but rather ‘poetic’ natural
scenes” (Zhang, 1989: 2).
Landscape was used as a medium to convey emotions in the Book of Songs and
Songs of Chu. During the Jian-An Period (196 CE - 220 CE) of the Han Dynasty (206
BCE - 220 CE), landscape description was widely used to express the turbulent but
dynamic social atmosphere of that time. In the Tang Dynasty, China achieved national
strength through a prosperous economy, a stable social atmosphere and wide-ranging
development. The philosophical doctrines of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism
coexisted and people enjoyed freedom of thought and faith, the phenomenon of the
hermitage was prevalent in society and poets were fond of sightseeing in the
mountains and rivers. Landscape poetry reached its artistic peak during this time and
became a significant sub-genre of Chinese classical poetry. A large number of
landscape poets emerged, such as Wang Wei, Meng Haoran, Wei Yingwu, and Liu
Zongyuan. Known collectively as the School of Wang Wei, their landscape poems
convey an appreciation of the beauty of nature with a peaceful and elegant style.
Wang Wei (701 CE – 761 CE), an outstanding poet and painter in the Tang
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Dynasty, is regarded as the master of poetry, calligraphy, and painting. He created his
own style of landscape painting from his understanding of poetry—pure ink drawing
composed in the pursuit of an elegant artistic state. He infused his landscape painting
with the poetic flavor of his poems and was regarded as the predecessor of the South
School of Literati Painting. Wang Wei produced more than four hundred poems
throughout his lifetime, most of which describe his secluded leisure life and the
landscape scenery he saw during his travels. The description of natural scenery and
landscape in his poems reveal his keen insight and his poems are full of beautiful
imagery. Wang Wei’s landscape poetry presents a harmonious fusion of poetry and
painting; the beautiful artistic conception and visual effect in his poems have been
appreciated by many scholars. Just as Su Shih commented, “Reading Mojie’s poem,
one can sense the beauty of a picture; appreciating Mojie’s painting, one can taste the
flavor of his poetry” (Su Shi, Shu Mojie Lan Tian Yan Yu Tu《书摩诘蓝田烟雨图》).
Chinese painting theory has had a profound and extensive influence on the
creation and practice of Chinese landscape poetry; the composition skills and ink
drawing techniques play a significant role in the creation of visual effect and the
construction of artistic conception. As a landscape painter, Wang Wei wrote two
articles on Chinese painting theory, “Shan Shui Jue” and “Shan Shui Lun,” in which
he briefly put forward the techniques of landscape painting:
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When painting landscapes, one should conceive before painting. Mountains, trees, horses and
people should appear in corresponding size in the painting. When painting people or trees in the
distance, details such as people’s eyes or branches of trees should be omitted; when painting
mountains in the distance, stones should not be drawn and the mountains seem like eyebrows;
when painting water in the distance, waves should be omitted and water can be the same height
as clouds. These are the painting techniques. (Yu, 1986: 592)
Wang Wei’s painting techniques emphasise that landscapes should present different
forms of mountains and rivers with the change of seasons and time. The arrangement
of distant and close images as well as the techniques of ink drawing should all be
taken into consideration when composing a painting. Wang Wei’s painting theory is
fully demonstrated in his landscape poetry and his poetry and painting are a good
example of poetry composition under the influence of painting theory.
3. An Aesthetic Approach to the Translation of Wang Wei’s
Landscape Poetry
It is useful to explore the transfer or reconstruction of aesthetic qualities and
sensibilities in the translation of Chinese landscape poetry in relation to three aesthetic
concepts in Chinese painting theory: artistic conception, blank-leaving, and cavalier
perspective.
3.1 Artistic Conception
In the Dictionary of Chinese Ancient Literary Theories (1985: 640), the concept of
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“artistic conception” (Yi Jing) refers to “an artistic realm that can lead the readers to
an imaginary space through vivid artistic description with the fusion of emotion and
scene.” Artistic conception is not only an indispensable aesthetic concept in Chinese
classical aesthetics, but also the essence of Chinese painting theory. It has been widely
used in Chinese poetry, painting, and calligraphy, becoming a significant element of
aesthetic creation, particularly in landscape poetry and painting.
Artistic conception also plays a role in the English translation of Chinese
landscape poetry. Poetry translation is a controversial topic with many scholars and
translators insisting on the idea that poetry cannot be translated. However, in the field
of poetry translation, noteworthy translated works by many Chinese and western
translators have proved that poems can not only be translated, but also translated well.
Susan Bassnett (2001: 74) points out that “poetry is not what is lost in translation; it is
rather what we gain through translations and translators.” She confirms the
translatability of poetry by proposing the “transplanting” method of poetry translation.
In her essay “Transplanting the Seed: Poetry and Translation” (1998), the “seed” that
Bassnett refers to represents the spiritual essence of the poem. In my view, the
transmission of internal spiritual essence helps to restore and represent the
quintessence of the original poem in the translation. Chinese landscape poetry, which
is characterised by the notion of artistic conception, has strong visual effects.
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Therefore, in the translation of Chinese landscape poetry, how to successfully
reconstruct artistic conception and represent the aesthetic qualities and sensibilities of
the original poem, becomes the critical concern of translation.
A landscape poem of Wang Wei can be used to analyze the reconstruction of
artistic conception in translation. Visiting the Temple of Accumulated Fragrance (《过
香积寺》) embodies the concept of “painting in poetry and poetry in painting”.
不知香积寺，数里入云峰。
古木无人径，深山何处钟？
泉声咽 危石，日色冷 青松。
薄暮空潭曲，安禅制毒龙。
I didn’t know where the temple was,
pushing mile on mile among cloudy peaks;
old trees, peopleless paths,
deep mountains, somewhere a bell.
Brook voices choke over craggy boulders,
Sun rays turn cold in the green pines.
At dusk by the bend of a deserted pond,
a monk in meditation, taming poison dragons.
(Tr. Burton Watson)
For the convenience of analysis, I have added emphasis to different key elements in
the translation of this poem. In the original poem, the static images of cloudy peaks,
old trees, deep mountains, and green pines correspond to the quiet environment of the
ancient temple in the mountains, rendering a tranquil and graceful atmosphere. The
most noteworthy point in this landscape poem is the tactful use of “咽” and “冷”. The
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character “咽” (whimper) is personified as the sound of the spring when it flows
through rugged boulders; thus “咽” forms a dynamic image, appropriately showing
the scene of the spring flowing through rugged rocks with great difficulty. The
character “冷” (feel cold) combines the senses of sight and touch, vividly depicting
the scene of a ray of the setting sun shining through the thick forests. The quiet
environment and dim light complement each other and create a splendid artistic
conception and visual effect. In the translation, Watson uses “choke” to personify the
spring flowing through rugged rocks and to reconstruct the dynamic image in
translation. Moreover, in “old trees, peopleless paths,/ deep mountains, somewhere a
bell” a complete grammatical structure is abandoned and a simple arrangement of
images is used to create the artistic conception of the deep mountains as mysterious
and tranquil.
Another landscape poem by Wang Wei, “Rainy Days in My Riverside
Hermitage” (《积雨辋川庄作》), provides a further example of artistic conception and
its associated aesthetic qualities and sensibilities:
积雨空林烟火迟，蒸藜炊黍饷东菑。
漠漠水田飞白 鹭 ，阴阴夏木啭黄 鹂 。
山中习静观朝槿，松下清斋折露葵。
野老与人争席罢，海鸥何事更相疑？
After long rain cooking fire’s made late in the village;
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Millet and greens are cooked for those doing tillage.
Over the boundless paddy fields white egrets fly;
In gloomy summer forest golden orioles cry.
In quiet hills I watch short-lived blooms as I please,
And eat sunflower seeds under the green pine trees.
With other villagers I would not disagree;
Even sea gulls from far away would come near me.
(Tr. Xu Yuanzhong)
The original poem describes a vivid picture of joyful country life with rich vitality,
expressing the poet’s great love of nature. In particular, the two lines “漠漠水田飞白
鹭, 阴阴夏木啭黄鹂” (“Over the boundless paddy fields white egrets fly;/ In gloomy
summer forest golden orioles cry”) present a beautiful landscape picture. The scenes
set off and complement each other, depicting the poet’s riverside hermitage with
strong pictorial quality, which can be regarded as “painting in poetry.” Xu
Yuanzhong’s translation focuses on the translation of major images, especially the
color images in the poem. Xu once proposed the “Triple Beauty” theory for poetry
translation, which emphasizes the importance of “Message Beauty” (Beauty in Sense),
“Prosodic Beauty” (Beauty in Sound), and “Image Beauty” (Beauty in Form) in
translation. In his translation of Wang’s poem the “Triple Beauty” theory is expressed
well: “boundless paddy fields” and “gloomy summer forest” are juxtaposed with each
other, similar to the antithesis in the original Chinese poem, creating a sense of
contrast in the artistic conception; “white egrets” and “golden orioles” present the
visual difference of color shades; “fly” and “cry” correspond through rhyme, while
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the dynamic state of egrets flying is augmented by their melodious twitter. With the
successful translation of color images, this translation renders a vibrant picture of the
riverside hermitage in spring, with the aesthetic qualities of the image and the fusion
of emotion and scene preserved.
3.2 Blank-Leaving and the Beauty of Blankness
“Blank-leaving” (Liu Bai) is an important technique and principle in Chinese
traditional aesthetics, which originates from Lao Tzu’s (571 BCE – 471 BCE) Taoist
philosophical notion of “interaction between being and non-being.” On the basis of
Lao Tzu’s philosophical thoughts, Chuang Tzu (286 BCE - 369 BCE) proposed the
idea of “Xiang Wang,” the combination of the real realm and the virtual realm.
Combined together, these ideas have had a profound impact on Chinese traditional
aesthetics by emphasizing not only images (being and the real realm), but also the
blankness beyond images (non-being and the virtual realm). Therefore, as a method of
creating artistic conception, blankness and blank-leaving have played a significant
role in the theory and composition of traditional artistic forms such as calligraphy,
poetry, and painting.
“Blank-leaving” in poetry is not absolute emptiness, but rather a blankness full of
rich implications and philosophical thought. “Blank-leaving” allows readers the space
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to create their own imaginative interpretations of the poems. Therefore, in the
translation of Chinese landscape poetry, blank-leaving in the original poem should be
preserved as much as possible in order to retain the quality of artistic conception and
aesthetic sensibilities derived from the interaction between the real and the virtual.
Wang Wei’s poems provide illuminating examples of the use of blank-leaving in
landscape poems, for example in his poem “Hsin-i Village” (《辛夷坞》):
木末芙蓉花，山中发红萼。
涧户寂无人，纷纷开且落。
High on the tree-tips, the hibiscus.
Sets forth red calyces in the mountain.
A stream hut, quiet. No one around.
It blooms and falls, blooms and falls.
(Tr. Wai-lim Yip)
This poem is composed of plain language and depicts a natural scene to readers,
drawing upon the natural picturesque beauty to suggest an artistic conception of Zen
(Chán).
In
Buddhist
teachings,
Zen
usually
refers
to
the
attainment
of enlightenment and the personal expression of direct insight. The Zen realm in
poetry thus implies the peaceful internal world. As Wu Sheng argues, “[t]he poem has
not contained allusions or words of Zen, but in the depiction of landscape and real life,
it unconsciously leads the readers into a Zen realm with a sort of Zen flavor spreading
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around” (Wu, 2000: 195). Thus, in translation, the question of how to retain this
impression of a Zen realm is key.
Wai-lim Yip’s translation achieves the reconstruction of a Zen realm to a great
extent. Yip abandons subjects and conjunctions, arranges and enumerates the major
images with independent words or phrases, and thereby produces blank-leaving
between the lines and provides a space for the reader’s imagination. Above all, the use
of the article “the” before “hibiscus” is particularly effective. In Chinese classical
poetry, the quantity of nouns is often “fuzzy” and the plural or singular form of a noun
cannot be identified in grammar; it is not clearly indicated whether “芙蓉花”
(hibiscus) in the original poem refers to one hibiscus or a cluster of hibiscuses.
However, as the main image in the poem, the singular or plural form of a noun might
result in subtle but profound differences in the construction of artistic conception in
poetry (Zhu, 2012: 57). Establishing a main image in a poem and using the singular
form to express its distinction is called “imagery focalization” (Zhu, 2012: 57). As
Gaston Bachelard (1964: 134) suggests, “with a single poetic detail, the imagination
confronts us with a new world. From then on, the detail takes precedence over the
panorama, and a simple image, if it is new, will open up an entire world.” Thus, Yip
uses a single image—“the hibiscus”—to highlight the artistic conception created by
this image: against the backdrop of remote mountains and quiet valleys, a single
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hibiscus is in bloom, blossoming quietly and falling in silence. Large blank-leaving is
created with the highlighting of this single image, which deepens the implied Zen
realm. Meanwhile, the last line in the translation—“It blooms and falls, blooms and
falls”—uses an unconventional repetitive structure to express an unconventional
effect of passing time. Two paratactic expressions “blooms and falls” illustrate the
artistic conception of the reiterative word “纷纷” (fen fen), expressing the dynamic
state of the hibiscus blooming and falling at the same time, as well as the state of
endless recycling of everything in the universe. With the retaining of blank-leaving in
the translation, the sense of a Zen realm and the depth hidden beneath the simple
language are subtly reconstructed.
3.3 Cavalier Perspective and Picture Composition
“Cavalier perspective” (San Dian Tou Shi) is a composition technique in Chinese
painting. It refers to the representation of landscapes of different levels and different
perspectives in the same picture without a limitation of the field of vision. The effect
of cavalier perspective is to make the space of the picture extend in any dimension
and to break the boundary of time and space.
The syntax differences between English and Chinese have significant influences
on the English translation of Chinese poetry. In landscape poetry, the differences
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between the syntax of languages such as English and Chinese can be used to convey
the differences in the field of vision implied by cavalier perspective. In English,
appropriate conjunctions are usually used to connect different components in
sentences and to show structural relationships. By contrast, in Chinese writing,
components are connected with semantic meanings instead of conjunctions. Thus,
Chinese syntactic structure is more flexible than its English counterpart, lending a
relatively less restricted syntactic arrangement and expression to Chinese poetry.
Wai-lim Yip (2005: 2) states, “[t]he flexibility of grammar in Chinese classical
poetry—the uncertain location, indefinite relationship, ambiguous parts of speech, and
multiple functions—allows the readers to regain the freedom similar to the free space
consciousness in the landscape painting, and to let them observe, appreciate and
understand objects.” Chinese landscape poetry borrows ideas from “cavalier
perspective” in Chinese painting theory for image arrangement; translators of Chinese
landscape poetry can also learn to arrange images under the influence of “cavalier
perspective” in Chinese painting theory so as to strengthen the pictorial sense and
aesthetic qualities of the translation.
Using “cavalier perspective,” Chinese landscape poems include both the scenes
in the distance and those nearby in the same spatial dimension; for example, through
the artistic choice of the poet, images are juxtaposed using rhetorical devices such as
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antithesis, through which opposite and complementary image groups are formed. In
the translation of Chinese landscape poetry, the “cavalier perspective” in Chinese
painting theory may provide new inspiration for translators: they may escape the
bondage of grammar by arranging and enumerating images in poetry using the same
method. As such, they may better reflect the structure of classical poetry in which the
logical relations between different images is uncertain; images can be directly united
without intermediates and function words for connection, such as conjunctions and
prepositions may be omitted. Yuan Xingpei (2009: 58) has compared the connection
of images in classical painting to the ‘montage’ technique in film in which a series of
short shots are edited into a sequence to condense time, space and information.
The “cavalier perspective” has been used in Chinese landscape poetry to create
blankness through tactful image arrangement according to Chinese syntactic features;
the void between the lines provides an imaginative space for readers and evokes the
readers’ response to an interaction between the real and the virtual. Therefore, in the
translation of Chinese landscape poetry, translators may selectively retain Chinese
syntactic features and arrange images correspondingly. Wang Wei’s landscape poem
“Bird–Singing Stream” (《鸟鸣涧》) provides a fine example:
人闲桂花落，夜静青山空。
月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中。
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Version One:
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unemployed;
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;
Their fitful twitters fill the dale with spring.
(Tr. Xu Yuanzhong)
Version Two:
Man at leisure. Cassia flowers fall.
Quiet night. Spring mountain is empty.
Moon rises. Startles–a mountain bird.
It sings at times in the spring stream.
(Tr. Wai-lim Yip)
Wang uses synaesthesia to combine the dynamic scene of falling blooms, rising moon,
and twittering birds with the static scene of his internal state of leisure. Synaesthesia
refers to the “phenomenon wherein one sense modality is felt, perceived, or described
in terms of another” (Preminger and Brogan, 1993: 1259) The poem shows a quiet
and beautiful spring night with vivid detail and reflects the inner silence of the poet.
The above two translations possess different features and produce different aesthetic
effects and sensibilities. In Version One, Xu Yuanzhong adds subjects and
conjunctions in his translation according to English grammar usage to make the
structure more comprehensive. In this translation, the basic images of “osmanthus
blooms,” “hills,” “rising moon,” “birds,” and “twitters” are accurately translated and
the artistic conception is well reconstructed, yet it fails to reconstruct the realm of
emptiness. In contrast, Version Two contains minor mistakes in the translation of “桂
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花” (Gui Hua) as “cassia flowers” and “惊” (Jing) as “startles,” but it achieves the
effect of reconstructing the realm of emptiness. The translation escapes grammatical
bondage, abandons the rules of coherence and cohesion in English grammar, and
dispenses with subjects and conjunctions. With such arrangement and enumeration,
the major images are expressed by independent nouns and phrases in English, such as
“Man at leisure,” “Quiet night,” and “Startles–a mountain bird” in the translation. The
emptiness between these words and phrases creates a realm of emptiness that may
evoke the readers’ imagination. Meanwhile, the juxtaposition of different images
constitutes different groups of images, which produce visual effect. This kind of
image arrangement is similar to “cavalier perspective” in Chinese painting or
“montage” in western art, that can produce direct visual aesthetic responses in the
readers and represent the style of “painting in poetry” in Chinese landscape poetry.
4. Conclusion
Chinese landscape poetry, with artistic conception at its core, typically integrates
poetry and painting. In the English translation of Chinese landscape poetry, aesthetic
concepts in Chinese painting theory can provide different perspectives for the
translation of Chinese landscape poetry. The method of creating artistic conception in
Chinese painting, and composition skills in Chinese painting such as “blank-leaving”
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and “cavalier perspective,” may help to retain the beauty of artistic conception, beauty
of blankness, and beauty of picture composition, representing the harmonious fusion
of poetry and painting in the original poem. The unique techniques and aesthetic
principles of Chinese landscape poetry should be given greater significance in the
translation process. Chinese painting theory may also help translators preserve
original aesthetic qualities and sensibilities in the translation. Therefore, Chinese
painting theory can provide valuable aesthetic references for the appreciation and
translation of Chinese classical poetry.
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