Chapter 9 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS FOR LINEAR ELASTIC SOLIDS Figure 9.1: Hooke memorial window, St. Helen’s, Bishopsgate, City of London 211 212 9.1 CHAPTER 9. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS FOR LINEAR ELASTIC SOLIDS Mechanical Constitutive Equations Recall that in Chapters 2, 3 and 8 we briefly introduced the concept of a constitutive equation, which generally relates kinetic variables to kinematic variables in the application of interest. With respect to the application of the analysis of mechanical deformations in solids, the kinetic variable is the stress tensor, σ, whereas the kinematic variables are the displacements ux , uy , uz , and the strain tensor, ε which includes derivatives (sometimes called gradients) of the displacements. Since it is generally observed that rigid body displacements do not induce stresses, the displacement field ux , uy , uz , will not enter into a mechanical constitutive equation. Thus, the constitutive equations will in general relate stress, σ, to strains, ε, and temperature T . In 1660, Robert Hooke observed that for a broad class of solid materials called linear elastic (or Hookean), this relationship may be described by a linear relationship. Hooke originally considered the test of a uniaxial body with a force (stress) applied only in one direction and measured the corresponding elongation (strain) to obtain: σyy σyy y x E A=cross-sectional area yy = Eε yy ε yy σyy Figure 9.2: Stress-Strain Curve for Linear Elastic Material For a general three-dimensional state of stress, there are 6 independent stresses and 6 independent strains; therefore, the linear relationship between stress and strain can be written in matrix form as: σ = [C] ε (9.1) where [C] is a 6 × 6 matrix of elastic constants that must be determined from experiments. In expanded form, these 6 equations become: σxx = C11 εxx + C12 εyy + C13 εzz + C14 εyz + C15 εzx + C16 εxy σyy = C21 εxx + C22 εyy + C23 εzz + C24 εyz + C25 εzx + C26 εxy σzz = C31 εxx + C32 εyy + C33 εzz + C34 εyz + C35 εzx + C36 εxy σyz σzx = C41 εxx + C42 εyy + C43 εzz + C44 εyz + C45 εzx + C46 εxy σxy = C61 εxx + C62 εyy + C63 εzz + C64 εyz + C65 εzx + C66 εxy (9.2) = C51 εxx + C52 εyy + C53 εzz + C54 εyz + C55 εzx + C56 εxy It is interesting to note that Robert Hooke first proposed the above “law” publicly in an anagram at Hampton Court (1676) given by the group of letters: ceiiinosssttuv. 9.1. MECHANICAL CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS 213 In 1678 he explained the anagram to be “Ut tensio sic vis,” which is Latin meaning “as the tension so the displacement” or in English “the force is proportional to the displacement.” Students may recall that during this time period, science and scientific writing was criticized and hence Hooke thought it necessary to discretely disclose his scientific finding with an anagram. Note that in the previous chapters stress and strain were represented as (3 × 3) matrices. It is convenient, however, here to represent them as (6 × 1) column vectors since they have only 6 independent components (stress due to conservation of angular momentum and strain by its definition). We then write σxx σyy σzz {σ} = σ yz σ zx σxy , εxx εyy εzz {ε} = ε yz ε zx εxy By adopting this representation for σ and ε, their linear relationship (9.2) can be easily written in matrix form: σxx σyy σzz σ yz σ zx σxy = C11 C21 C31 C41 C51 C61 C12 C22 C32 C42 C52 C62 C13 C23 C33 C43 C53 C63 C14 C24 C34 C44 C54 C64 C15 C25 C35 C45 C55 C65 C16 C26 C36 C46 C56 C66 εxx εyy εzz εyz εzx εxy (9.3) • If a material is homogeneous then the constants (Cij , i = 1, ..., 6 and j = 1, ..., 6) are all independent of x, y, z for any time, t. • If a material is isotropic, then for a given material point, Cij are independent of the orientation of the coordinate system (i.e., the material properties are the same in all directions). • If a material is orthotropic, then for a given material point, Cij can be defined in terms of properties in three orthogonal coordinate directions. • If a material is anisotropic, then for a given material point, Cij are different for all orientations of the coordinate system. In order to determine the material constants in equation (9.3), consider a uniaxial tensile test using a test specimen of linear elastic isotropic material with cross-sectional area A and subjected to a uniaxilly applied load F in the axial (y) direction as shown below. The cross-section may be any shape but generally a rectangular or cylindrical shape is chosen. For a rectangular specimen, assume a width W and thickness t so that the cross-sectional area is A = W t. Assume a small gauge length of L for which the axial deformation will be measured during the load application. During the uniaxial tensile test, we observe that the gauge length changes from L to L∗ and the gauge width decreases from W to W ∗ . We also observe a decrease (contraction) in the z dimension. We further observe no change in angular orientation of the vertical or horizontal elements and conclude that for uniaxial loading, no shear strains are produced. This leads us to postulate the following strain state: εxx , εyy , εzz = 0, εxy , εyz , εxz = 0. The axial stress and strain in the axial (y) direction are defined to be 214 CHAPTER 9. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS FOR LINEAR ELASTIC SOLIDS σyy after deformation F y L x z A=cross-sectional area L* t F σyy A=Wt W* W test specimen Figure 9.3: Experimental Measurement of Axial and Transverse Deformation σyy = εyy = F A ∆L (L∗ − L) = L L The strain the in the transverse (x) direction due to the axial load is εxx = ∆W (W ∗ − W ) = W W If we plot axial stress vs. axial strain and transverse strain vs. axial strain, we obtain the following two plots: σ yy = F A εxx = E σ yy = Eεyy ∆W W εxx = −νεyy 1 εyy = ∆L L 1 −ν εyy Figure 9.4: Experimental Results for Axial Stress vs. Axial Strain & Transverse Strain vs. Axial Strain From these two plots, we can write σyy = Eεyy and εxx = −νεyy for the uniaxial tension test. Consequently, we may define the following two material constants from this single uniaxial test: • E = slope of the uniaxial σyy vs. εyy curve = a material constant called Young’s modulus 9.1. MECHANICAL CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS 215 • ν = − εεxx = negative ratio of the strain normal to the direction of loading over the strain in yy the loading direction = a material constant called Poisson’s ratio If the transverse strain were measured in the z direction, we would find the same ratio for transverse zz to axial strain: ν = − εεyy . Combining these equations, we can write the two transverse entirely in terms of the axial σ strains σ stress σyy : εxx = −νεyy = −ν Eyy and εzz = −νεyy = −ν Eyy . In order to obtain a complete description of three-dimensional constitutive behavior, consider a test where we apply normal tractions (stresses) in the x, y and z directions simultaneously and measure the strain only in the x direction. For a linear material response, we may use the principle of linear superposition and consider three separate cases as shown below: σ yy σ yy σ zz σ xx σ xx σ xx σ xx = σ zz σ zz + + σ yy σ yy σ zz Figure 9.5: Experimental Test with all Components of Normal Stresses Applied εxx = normal strain in x direction due to σxx + normal strain in x direction due to σyy + normal strain in x direction due to σzz 1 ν ν σxx − σyy − σzz = E E E or εxx = 1 [σxx − ν(σyy + σzz )] E (9.4) The stress in the x direction increases the strain in the x direction while the transverse stresses causes a contraction (decrease in εxx ). Doing similar experiments in the y and z directions gives: εyy = εzz = 1 [σyy − ν(σxx + σzz )] E 1 [σzz − ν(σxx + σyy )] E (9.5) Experiments with shear tractions will show that a shear stress σxy in the x-y plane produces only shear strain εxy in the x-y plane for a state of pure shear loading (i.e., no normal strain is observed so that the shear strain is uncoupled from the normal strain).1 Thus, we obtain the following 1 Keep in mind that even for the case of pure shear, if one calculates shear stresses (or strains) at some angle θ from the x-axis (Mohr’s circle), one may obtain non-zero normal stresses (or strains) for the off-axis planes. 216 CHAPTER 9. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS FOR LINEAR ELASTIC SOLIDS experimental observations for the shear strains: εxy = εxz = εyz = 1+ν σxy E 1+ν σxz E 1+ν σyz E (9.6) Combining equations (9.4), (9.5) and (9.6), Hooke’s law for a linear elastic isotropic solid with a three-dimensional stress state becomes: Hooke’s Law for a Linear Elastic Isotropic Solid εxx = εyy = εzz = εxy = εxz = εyz = 1 [σxx − ν(σyy + σzz )] E 1 [σyy − ν(σxx + σzz )] E 1 [σzz − ν(σxx + σyy )] E 1+ν σxy E 1+ν σxz E 1+ν σyz E (9.7) where E = Young’s modulus and ν = Poisson’s ratio. It should be noted that in materials that undergo permanent deformation, the above model is not accurate (such as metals beyond their yield point, or polymers that flow). A typical uniaxial stress-strain curve for a ductile metal is shown below: σ xx yield stress E ultimate stress failure stress εxx Figure 9.6: Typical Stress-Strain Curve for Ductile Metal An algebraic inversion of the strain-stress relationship (9.7) provides the following relationship of stress in terms of strain: 9.1. MECHANICAL CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS E {σ} = 1+ν 1−ν 1−2ν ν 1−2ν ν 1−2ν ν 1−2ν 1−ν 1−2ν ν 1−2ν ν 1−2ν ν 1−2ν 1−ν 1−2ν 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 217 0 0 0 εxx 0 0 0 εyy εzz 0 0 0 ε 1 0 0 yz εzx 0 1 0 εxy 0 0 1 (9.8) or, Hooke’s Law for a Linear Elastic Isotropic Solid σxx σyy σzz {σ} = σ xy σ xz σyz = E (1+ν)(1−2ν) E (1+ν)(1−2ν) E (1+ν)(1−2ν) [(1 − ν)εxx + νεyy + νεzz ] [νεxx + (1 − ν)εyy − νεzz ] [νεxx + νεyy + (1 − ν)εzz ] E 1+ν εxy E 1+ν εxz E 1+ν εyz (9.9) where E = Young’s modulus and ν = Poisson’s ratio. E The term (1+ν) ≡ 2G defines a shear modulus, G, relating shear strain and shear stress (similar to Young’s modulus, E, for extensional strain). Thus, the shear modulus is given by: G= E 2(1 + ν) (9.10) Note that the shear strain εxy is related to engineering shear strain γxy by γxy = 2εxy = σxy 2( 1+ν E )σxy = G so that σxy = Gγxy = 2Gεxy . σ xy σ xy = Gγ xy = G2εxy G = shear modulus G= E 2(1+ν) γ xy Figure 9.7: Experimental Results for Shear Stress vs. Engineering Shear Strain Note that G is defined in terms of E and ν and consequently G is not a new material property. Thus, for a homogeneous linear elastic isotropic solid, we conclude that only two material properties (Young’s modulus, E, and Poisson’s ratio, ν) are required to completely define the three-dimensional constitutive behavior. 218 CHAPTER 9. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS FOR LINEAR ELASTIC SOLIDS The stress-strain equations may also be written in terms of shear modulus to obtain: σxx = σyy = σzz = σyz = σzx = σxy = E 2G [(1 − ν)εxx + νεyy + νεzz ] = [(1 − ν) εxx + νεyy + νεzz ] (1 + ν)(1 − 2ν) 1 − 2ν E 2G [νεxx + (1 − ν)εyy − νεzz ] = [νεxx + (1 − ν) εyy + νεzz ] (1 + ν)(1 − 2ν) 1 − 2ν E 2G [νεxx + νεyy + (1 − ν)εzz ] = [νεxx + νεyy + (1 − ν) εzz ] (1 + ν)(1 − 2ν) 1 − 2ν E εyz = 2Gεyz (9.11) 1+ν E εzx = 2Gεzx 1+ν E εxy = 2Gεxy 1+ν zz Side Note: If the definition of εxx and εzz from ν = − εεxx = − εεyy is substituted into equation (9.9), yy we obtain for the uniaxial bar extension experiment described previously: E [(1 − ν)(−νεyy ) + νεyy + ν(−ν)εyy ] = 0 (1 + ν)(1 − 2ν) 2 E = −ν εyy + (1 − ν)εyy − ν 2 εyy = Eεyy (1 + ν)(1 − 2ν) =0 σxx = σyy σzz σxy = σxz = σyz = 0 This result is consistent with all observations made regarding the nature of stress for the uniaxial test with an applied stress of σyy . 9.2 Constitutive Equations with Thermal Strain Experimentally, we observe for a linear isotropic metal that a temperature increase, ∆T , produces a uniform expansion but no shear and the expansion is proportional to a material constant α (coefficient of thermal expansion). The additional strain due to heating is thus: εxx = εyy = εzz = α∆T . Thus, the constitutive equation for a linear elastic isotropic solid (9.7) may be modified by the addition of the thermal strain to the normal strain components: εxx = εyy = εzz = εxy = εxz = εyz = 1 [σxx − ν(σyy + σzz )] + α∆T E 1 [σyy − ν(σxx + σzz )] + α∆T E 1 [σzz − ν(σxx + σyy )] + α∆T E 1+ν ( )σxy E 1+ν ( )σxz E 1+ν ( )σyz E (9.12) 9.2. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS WITH THERMAL STRAIN 219 These equations can be inverted to obtain stress in terms of strain: σxx = σyy = σzz = σxy = σxz = σyz = E [(1 − ν)εxx + νεyy + νεzz ] − (1 + ν)(1 − 2ν) E [νεxx + (1 − ν)εyy + νεzz ] − (1 + ν)(1 − 2ν) E [νεxx + νεyy + (1 − ν)εzz ] − (1 + ν)(1 − 2ν) E εxy 2(1 + ν) E εxz 2(1 + ν) E εyz 2(1 + ν) Eα∆T (1 − 2ν) Eα∆T (1 − 2ν) Eα∆T (1 − 2ν) (9.13) In the above, ∆T = ∆T ( x, y, z ) and represents the increase in temperature from a “reference” temperature where the thermal strain is zero. It should be noted that the first term in the extensional strain terms above (the [ ] term) is due to elastic behavior of the material (i.e., it has Young’s modulus in it). The second part is due to thermal strain. We can separate the total strain into elastic and thermal strains: εtotal xx εtotal yy εtotal zz = εelastic + εthermal xx = εelastic + εthermal yy = εelastic zz +ε (9.14) thermal The elastic (also called mechanical) and thermal terms are given by: εelastic xx εelastic yy εelastic zz εthermal 1 [σxx − ν(σyy + σzz )] E 1 [σyy − ν(σxx + σzz )] = E 1 = [σzz − ν(σxx + σyy )] E = α∆T = (9.15) total total The terms εtotal represent the total strain as measured or observed, and are thus equal xx , εyy , εzz to their deformation gradient definitions, i.e., for small strain, ∂ux ∂x ∂uy = ∂y ∂uz = ∂z εtotal xx = εxx = εtotal yy = εyy εtotal zz = εzz (9.16) We state once again that shear strains have no thermal component for an isotropic material. Examples of problems involving thermal strain will be considered in Chapter 10. Some typical values of material properties for isotropic metals are provided in the table below. Note that the values of E (Young’s modulus) are typically in the million psi or GPa range for engineering materials, while the values of ν are between zero and 0.5 (0 < ν < 0.5). The yield strength represents the stress level at which the metal yields (becomes inelastic). For ductile metals, 220 CHAPTER 9. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS FOR LINEAR ELASTIC SOLIDS the ultimate tensile strength is typically 10 to 50% higher than the yield strength. It should be noted that material properties for commonly used metals must satisfy specifications established by regulatory agencies. Values in Tables 9.1 and 9.2 that are not provided are unknown for purposes of presentation herein and they should not to be interpreted as zero. The reader may with to consult other sources for the omitted values. For non-metals, properties may vary significantly depending upon many variables (for example, wood has a Young’s modulus varying from 0.1×106 psi to 2×106 psi depending upon the tree species and direction of wood grain; the modulus of concrete will depend on the concrete/aggregate ratio and curing process). Examples of non-metals commonly used are concrete (ultimate compressive strength of 5 ksi but zero tensile strength; with an elastic modulus in compression of 3 × 106 psi) and Douglas fir (parallel to grain, ultimate compressive strength of 7 ksi; with an elastic modulus of 1.6 × 106 psi). Material Density Young’s lb Modulus in3 (106 psi) Poisson’s Ratio Yield Strength (ksi) Ultimate Tensile Strength (ksi) Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 62 42 12.9 (200 ◦ F) 13.0 (70-200 ◦ F) 65 55 240 6.5 6.8 (70-200 ◦ F) 7.1 (80-800 ◦ F) 10−6 ◦F Tension Shear Aluminum 2024-T4 6061-T6 Steel Structural (A36) AISI 1025 5Cr-Mo-V Copper G3-Heat Treated Titanium Ti-5Al-2.5Sn Ti-6M-4V 0.100 0.098 10.5 9.9 0.33 0.33 40 36 0.284 0.284 0.281 30.0 29.0 30.0 0.29 0.32 0.36 36 36 200 0.272 16.0 60 110 9.0 (70-570 ◦ F) 0.162 0.160 15.5 16.0 110 120 115 130 5.2 (200-400 ◦ F) 4.6 (200-400 ◦ F) 0.34 21 21 72 Table 9.1: Structural Material Properties for Selected Metals (US Customary Units) Example 9-1 Given: z −y M Izz [σ] = 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 where Mz and Izz are constants Required : (a) Verify that the stress tensor satisfies the Conservation of Linear Momentum. (b) Determine the components of the infinitesimal strain tensor, ε. (c) Determine the components of the displacement, ux , uy , and uz . (d) Describe the displacement and physical problem described by these equations. Use as reference the figure below. 9.2. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS WITH THERMAL STRAIN Material Density Young’s Mg Modulus m3 (GPa) Poisson’s Ratio 221 Yield Strength (MPa) Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 469 290 23 24 445 517 12 17 655 17 1,000 895 9.4 8.3 10−6 ◦C Tension Shear Aluminum 2024-T6 6061-T6 Steel Structural A36 Stainless 304 Copper Alloy Bronze C86100 Titanium Ti-6Al-4V Ti-6M-4V 2.79 2.71 73.1 68.9 0.35 0.33 414 245 7.85 7.86 207 193 0.29 0.27 248 207 8.83 103 0.34 345 4.43 4.34 120 110 0.36 0.34 924 827 145 145 495 Table 9.2: Structural Material Properties for Selected Metals (SI Units) y y x z h L t Figure 9.8: (a) x-component of linear momentum: x→ ∂σxx ∂σxy ∂σxz + + + ρgx = 0 ∂x ∂y ∂z z ∂ −y M Izz ∂x =0 - Stress tensor satisfies the Conservation of Linear Momentum (b) The strains are given by: εxx = σxx , E εyy = εzz = − εxx = −y Mz , Izz E ν σxx , E εyy = νyMz , EIzz εxy = εxz = εyz = 0 εzz = νyMz EIzz 222 CHAPTER 9. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS FOR LINEAR ELASTIC SOLIDS (c) Integrate the displacement equations and apply boundary conditions: Mz ∂ux = −y ∂x EIzz → εyy = → εzz ∂uy νyMz = ∂y EIzz νyMz ∂uz = = ∂z EIzz → εxx = Mz ux = −y x + C1 EIzz 2 ν y2 Mz uy = + C2 EIzz νyMz uz = z + C3 EIzz ux |x=0 = 0, uy |y=0 = 0, C1 = 0 uz |z=0 = 0, C3 = 0 C2 = 0 Mz Izz νv 2 Mz y 2E Izz ν Mz yz E Izz ux = −yx uy = uz = (d) The displacement in the x-direction is negative (shortening) when y is positive due to the negative ux term. If y is negative the displacement in the x-direction is positive (expanding). In the y-direction and z-direction the displacement is expanding when y is greater than zero and vice versa. Displacement in the y-direction changes with respect to y 2 , and in the z-direction it changes with respect to y. 9.2. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS WITH THERMAL STRAIN Deep Thought Ut tensio sic vis! Ut tensio sic vis!! Ut tensio sic vis!!! 223 224 9.3 CHAPTER 9. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS FOR LINEAR ELASTIC SOLIDS Questions 9.1 Which conservation laws are especially useful for describing stresses and strains? How are stress and strain related? 9.2 Write the equations that result from an inversion of the stress-strain relationship. 9.3 Describe in your own words the meanings of the state of plane stress and the state of plane strain? 9.4 Describe the two types of problems which when solved using the theory of plane elasticity provide exact solutions. 9.5 Consider small shear strain for a moment. It is often given in terms of an angle. Explain why this is done. 9.6 What is a constitutive relation? Write down the general constitutive relation in terms of Cauchy stress and strain. 9.7 For an elastic, isotropic solid material, how many constants are required to define the constitutive relations? Name these and define their meaning. 9.4 Problems 9.8 Structural steel is subjected to the deformation defined by ux ( x, y, z ) = 0.002x, uy ( x, y, z ) = 0, uz ( x, y, z ) = 0 (displacements in inches). Determine the following in US units: a) Infinitesimal strain tensor. b) Stress tensor. c) Draw Mohr’s Circle for the given state of stress. d) Principal Stresses and Strains. 9.9 Repeat steps a and b in 9.8 for ux ( x, y, z ) = 0.002x2 + 0.001x, uy ( x, y, z ) = 0.002xy, uz ( x, y, z ) = 0.001z 2 . 9.10 GIVEN : A Hookean material with E = 10 × 106 psi and ν = 0.5 experiences the following deformation: ux ( x, y, z ) = 0, uy ( x, y, z ) = 0.004x, uz ( x, y, z ) = 0 REQUIRED: a) Sketch ux versus x, uy versus y, and uz versus z, and calculate ∂ux ∂uy ∂uz ∂x , ∂y , ∂z . b) Calculate the infinitesimal strain tensor. c) Calculate the stress tensor. 9.11 GIVEN : ν = 0.25 and E = 2.0 × 1010 Pa, and strain tensors as follows 0.002 0.004 0 0 0.005 0 0 (1) 0.004 0.003 0 , (2) 0.005 0.04 0 0 0 0 0 0.006 REQUIRED: (1) Calculate the stress tensors; (2) How much is the relative volume change (the dilatation) for this deformation, and compare the results obtained by using both finite strain formula and the small strain formula. 9.4. PROBLEMS 225 9.12 GIVEN : ν = 0.33 and E = 15.0 × 103 MPa, and stress tensors as follows 10 MPa 4 MPa 0 20 MPa 50 MPa 0 0 0 (1) 4 MPa 30 MPa 0 (2) 50 MPa 0 0 0 0 0 6 MPa REQUIRED: Calculate the strain tensors. 9.13 GIVEN : ux = z10−4 , uz = x10−4 , and uy = 0, and material constants E = 2.6 × 1010 , and ν = 0.3. (1) Compute infinitesimal strain tensor. (2) Compute the corresponding stress tensor. (3) What are the principal stresses and principal strains? (4) Are the principal stresses and strains acting in the same directions? 9.14 A steel plate lies flat in the x-y plane and has dimensions 20 cm × 40 cm. If the plate is uniformly heated throughout at 1000 ◦ C and the thermal expansion coefficient is given by α = 11 × 10−6 (m m - ◦ C) , calculate the new dimensions of the plate due to thermal expansion. 9.15 A thin rectangular sheet of linearly elastic material has an x-y coordinate system located at its lower left corner. The body extends 15 in. in the x direction and 8 in. in the y direction. The material is isotropic with an E = 35, 000, 000 psi and ν = 0.33. A plane stress condition has been created by forces acting along the edges of the body with a displacement field of: 1.44 × 10−8 x2 y ux = uy = −1.44 × 10−8 xy 2 Write expressions for the surface force normal to and for the tangential surface force along the upper 15 in. boundary as functions of x. Write expressions for the surface force normal to and for the tangential surface force along the right 8 in. boundary as functions of y. Draw the distribution of normal surface force along these two boundaries on a sketch of the body. 9.16 Use web resources to determine the following material properties. Provide the URL (http address) that you used. (a) Yield strength in shear of 2024-T4 and 2014-T6 aluminum. (b) Poisson’s ratio and yield strength in shear for Ti-5Al-2.5Sn. (c) All of the table values as presented in Table 9.1 for 4130 heat treated alloy steel. (d) All of the table values as presented in Table 9.1 for balsa wood. 9.17 GIVEN : The isothermal (no temperature gradient) uniaxial bar specimen of 2024-T4 Aluminum (isotropic) shown below: The axial displacements are measured to be: ux uy = −0.02x in = 0.000125x − 0.0005 in x in inches!! REQUIRED: 1. Sketch the deformed configuration of the test section boundary (using the displacements given above). 2. Calculate the infinitesimal strain tensor for the test section. 226 CHAPTER 9. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS FOR LINEAR ELASTIC SOLIDS Problem 9.17 3. Calculate the stress tensor for the test section. 9.18 GIVEN : A linear isotropic ThermoElastic plate of Stainless 304 is subjected to a uniform temperature change of ∆T and is assumed to be in a state of stress as shown below. At equilibrium, the ∆T is known. −125 σ = −50 0 −50 −100 0 0 0 MPa 0 REQUIRED: a) Calculate the infinitesimal strain tensor when ∆T = 0 ◦ C. (review equations 9.12 and 9.13 in the notes) b) Calculate the infinitesimal strain tensors for the two cases: when ∆T = 100 ◦ C, and when ∆T = 25 ◦ C. c) Find the temperature change ∆T necessary to produce zero strain. 9.19 GIVEN : Consider the state of stress called plane stress in which non-zero stresses exist in only one plane. REQUIRED: a) For a state of plane stress in the x-y plane, show that the constitutive equations for an elastic isotropic material (isothermal case) reduce to the following. Hint: start with the constitutive equations for the general 3-D elastic, isotropic case and reduce to plane stress; see equation 10.6): SHOW ALL STEPS. σxx = σyy = σxy = E [εxx + νεyy ] (1 − ν 2 ) E [νεxx + εyy ] (1 − ν 2 ) E εxy (1 + ν) 9.4. PROBLEMS 227 b) Starting with the above relations, show that the strains for plane stress in the x-y plane become those shown below (see equation 10.7). You must show all steps necessary to obtain the relations below. εxx εyy εxy εzz 1 [σxx − νσyy ] E 1 = [σyy − νσxx ] E 1+ν = ( )σxy E ν = − (σxx + σyy ) E = You may use Scientific Workplace to do the matrix algebra. 9.20 GIVEN : Given that for a general orthotropic elastic material there are 12 unique coeffecients such that: [D] = 1 E11 − Eν21 22 − Eν31 33 − Eν12 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 E22 − Eν32 33 − Eν13 11 − Eν23 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 µ23 1 E33 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 µ31 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 µ12 The constitutive equation for this form would then be: {ε} = [D] {σ} where the stress have the following values σxx = 5 ksi σ yy = 10 ksi σzz = 20 ksi {σ} = σyz = 0 ksi σzx = 0 ksi σxy = 7.5 ksi ; εxx εyy εzz {ε} = ε yz εzx εxy REQUIRED: a) Write the stress tensor in its more common form (i.e., as a tensor or matrix). Does this constitute generalized plane stress? Why or why not? Recall that generalized plane stress is a requirement for Mohr’s Circle b) Suppose that the 12 material coefficients have the following values: E11 = 106 psi E22 = = 3 × 107 psi 0.2 × 106 psi E33 228 CHAPTER 9. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS FOR LINEAR ELASTIC SOLIDS ν12 = = 0.2 0.25 = 0.33 ν23 = 0.43 ν31 = 0.05 ν32 = 0.06 ν13 ν21 µ23 µ31 µ12 = = 104 psi 2 × 104 psi = 3 × 104 psi Calculate the infinitesimal strain tensor. c) Write the strain tensor in its more common form. Does this constitute generalized plane strain? Why or why not?
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