Masunaga - Renaissance Man Introduction Within the field of Oriental medicine, shiatsu is nowadays considered to be an established modality, especially when viewed from a Western perspective, although not necessarily from a strictly Chinese one it must be noted. Within the field of Shiatsu itself there are often said to be distinct styles and one the most easily identifiable is held to be Zen Shiatsu, created roughly half a century ago in Japan by Masunaga Shizuto. This article will pursue three main threads. One of them will be to provide a historical account of the birth of a style of Shiatsu and describe the process within the larger context of Japanese history and culture. In doing this we will also examine Massunaga's creation in terms of both tradition and innovation. Further, we will attempt to identify the attributes of Zen which gave it its name and which might distinguish this style from other shiatsu forms. This article makes no assumptions as to the amount of specialised knowledge an individual reader might have. Instead it is accepted as a given that various readers will be interested and knowledgable in different areas and to varying degrees. For some there will be superfluous detail in places, while for others certain basic concepts will already be understood and can be quickly scanned through. The Birth of Zen Shiatsu Zen Shiatsu is a recently founded therapeutic style. However, due to its use of concepts and practices from the traditions of Oriental medicine we may usefully regard it as a young and vibrant branch on an ancient and powerful tree. The gradual formation of the style that came to be known as Zen Shiatsu is primarily the work of one man: Shizuto Masunaga. Born in Kure, Hiroshima, Japan in 1925, his first professional field was psychology, in which he graduated from Kyoto Imperial University in 1949. Moving on to bodywork, following his mother's influence ‐ she hosted Shiatsu classes with master Tempaku in the Masunaga family home ‐ he graduated from the first ever class at the Japan Shiatsu School in Tokyo under Tokujiro Namikoshi. From 1959 he taught clinical psychology for ten years at the school, which held at the time, and still holds to this day, the exclusive right to licence shiatsu practitioners in Japan. We can only guess at the exact stages in the process of development and separation that took place in Masunaga the teacher and practitioner, but by 1968 he had established his own school: the Iokai Shiatsu Centre. From here, and together with a dedicated group of students, he proceeded to lead the process of deconstruction and reconstruction which would gradually lead to the development of Zen Shiatsu. In terms of deconstruction, Masunaga went to extreme lengths to dismantle the style he had inherited ‐ the Namikoshi shiatsu of his teacher. As far as reconstruction goes, he was able, as we shall see, to put together a holistic method which integrated the vital, energetic theories of traditional Oriental medicine with key aspects of the result‐based science of the west. The story of Masunaga's efforts entails not only his bringing the 1 spiritual essence back into Shiatsu, but also significant contributions to the evolution of Shiatsu through developing theories and practices unique to his system. Shizuto Masunaga created a style of shiatsu that re‐integrated its original core of spirituality and vital energy. Following his special interest in exploring the mental, emotional, and spiritual components of the human entity, he crafted a system that merged ideas from western psychology and physiology, traditional Chinese medicine and Zen Buddhism. Because Masunaga was able to frame traditional Eastern concepts in conventional, modern Western terms, his style, Zen Shiatsu attained a wide appeal and has become perhaps the most popular form of shiatsu internationally. The Iokai (Ee‐Oh‐Kai) Centre still exists, even though its founder passed away in 1981. The name Iokai says a great deal about the ambitions of its leading figure. Translated literally, it would mean: Emperor of Medicine Association. This may strike the Western reader as somewhat lacking in humility, and thus the following set of contextual references may be helpful. "Zen" in Shiatsu Masunaga's attention had been seized by a certain passage in the buddhist sutra known in Japanese as zoagon‐kyo. The passage in question explains the importance of a thorough and spiritual (what we might today call ”holistic”) approach to healing. The Emperor of medicine should, it urged, thoroughly examine the nature of disease, clearly identify origin and cause, treat the disease but also care for and enlighten himself as to the constitution of his own being. In this short passage we find a concise description of some of the key tenets of traditional Oriental medicine: the enquiry into the nature of disease; its origins and causes as well as its effective treatment, but also, and perhaps above all else, the caring for of one's own person and the path to enlightenment through the calling of healing. These ideas are not often stated quite this directly by either modern or traditional practitioners and teachers of Oriental medicine, but Masunaga seems to have been very clear on this point: the way of healing is a way to enlightenment. This of course goes a long way to explain why generations of people throughout the ages and in all cultures and situations in life have felt compelled to dedicate their lives to healing. Thus healing work should in no way be mistaken for a selfless giving of time, energy and life resources. It is a way in itself with its own promise of reward. In the preface to his seminal English text from 1977, "Zen Shiatsu", we find the following lines written by Masunaga: "In Zen it is important to have a good master to learn from. In shiatsu your patient is your master. You can achieve satori by treating disease and restoring health." This underscores the importance of the word Zen in the context of the name Masunaga gave to his style of shiatsu. Further on in this article we will be taking a close look at the 2 practical aspects of the style, and in particular the emphasis on "natural pressure", fluid movement and ergonomic postures. Once we have done this, we will be able to consider the question of whether or not the word "tao" might not have been equally as fitting, if not more so, to describe the essence of Masunaga's contribution to shiatsu. There are two interesting stories regarding how Masunaga eventually came to name his style Zen Shiatsu. The first is the one with which the majority of practitioners tend to identify. The story goes that either Masunaga treated a Zen monk or that a monk witnessed Masunaga giving a treatment to a third party. Either way, it is related that the monk then likened what he had experienced, or seen, as Zen practised between two people. The other story is somewhat less appealing to practitioners of Zen Shiatsu, but perhaps no less important in the larger context of Oriental bodywork therapies making inroads into Western cultures. This story relates that during the process of translating Masunaga's book "Shiatsu Ryoho" ‐ literally "Shiatsu Therapy" ‐ into English, his collaborator, Wataru Ohashi, suggested the name "Zen Shiatsu". Ohashi argued that such a name would have a far greater appeal among Western readers. This has proved to be a powerful insight, and the story is not likely to be dismissed out of hand by those aware of Ohashi's penetrating knowledge of the human psyche, and, on a practical level, of what sells. What is certain, however, is that Zen Shiatsu has become a recognised and popular style of shiatsu in the Western world, notwithstanding its relative obscurity in Japan. This obscurity is partly explained by the complete monopoly still enjoyed by the Namikoshi family organisation over the issuing of licences for shiatsu practitioners in Japan. The other major factor is the current low status accorded most forms of traditional Japanese and Oriental art, with a few notable exceptions (sumo, kabuki and ikebana being the most prominent among them). The Two Sides of Masunaga 1. The scholar sage This brings us to the two very different sides of Masunagas life story. On the one hand, it is possible to see Masunaga as a modern example of the scholar sage, a universal figure known and revered throughout Oriental history. On the other hand, he is very much able to be regarded as a product of his own particular time and place. Ultimately we will find that he can perhaps best be viewed as an exceptionally gifted individual who managed to successfully combine these two polarities. From the particulars of time and place, but equally from the resources of tradition, Masunaga created a thing of lasting value that outlived his own physical existence and still continues to grow. If we choose to regard Masunaga as one in a long line of scholar sages, we have much to support our view. As mentioned above, he initially studied psychology to a professional level. Augmenting this, he moved on to incorporate not only the art of bodywork, but also the field of movement. As if to emphasise the importance of the latter, his other translated text published in 1987 was called: "Zen Imagery Exercises". 3 In this later book (fluidly translated by Stephen Brown), we see the second major result of his life‐long investigation into what he called "the echo of life". The main body of the text consists of several series of exercises. The pronounced aim was to introduce the reader and ‐ hopefully ‐ practitioner to simple movements, which would awaken and kindle the relationship of the individual to his/her own life energy or ki (qi). In this text he also developed his descriptions of the meridians of Oriental medicine, and it is here that we encounter yet another area of endeavour in this remarkable man's life. Masunaga was a man who seems to have ceaselessly analysed, interpreted and applied traditional as well as modern streams of knowledge. His work was one of re‐evaluation, re‐interpretation and synthesis. This synthesis was achieved over a lifetime and through the dual processes of mental exertion and practical application. We can infer in his work a spiral‐like process of continual reassessment. By this we can understand a relentless instinct to discover and learn, but also to thoroughly test all theories and discoveries in the clinic, that most exacting of arenas. These various attributes and accomplishments, when taken together, bear the hallmark of the scholar sage: endeavour in several parallel and connected fields; traditional knowledge painstakingly accrued; modern theories and practices examined and tested and, finally, a personal synthesis of the most effective and rewarding components contained within a substantially new creation. 2. A Man of his Time If we now take a look at the reverse side of the dichotomy, we find a man completely in harmony with his zeitgeist: the spirit of the age in post‐war Japan. Ever since the Meiji restoration in the 1800's, Japan had been undergoing a rapid transformation. In a relatively short period of time Japan transformed itself from a hermetically sealed, feudal culture to a modern, progressive society, open and willing ‐ almost in a sense desperate ‐ to assimilate that which had previously been strictly forbidden: Western values and practices, and of particular interest to us, natural scientific method. In medical terms, this meant anatomy and physiology and the modern practices of Western medicine. The crisis for the traditional Oriental healing arts that this inevitably precipitated took many forms, ranging from complete abandonment through partial integration to outright denial and entrenchment. The crisis had, however, merely begun and was to both accelerate and intensify. By the end of the Second World War, Japan was utterly devastated. In material terms, food was scarce, infrastructure destroyed and national health depleted. The most naked symbols of this were, of course, the southern cities of Nagasaki and ‐ even more notably ‐ Hiroshima, Masunaga's birthplace, both of which were annihilated by atomic bombs. Spiritually, the Japanese were no less diminished at this time. The Emperor, having traditionally enjoyed the status of a god, had been thoroughly humiliated by the "cultureless" Americans, and shown to be no more than an ordinary mortal. It is probably impossible for a modern, western reader to imagine how this might have felt or gauge the impact it must have exerted on an entire people. What history has objectively and emphatically shown us however, is that the consequences were far‐
4 reaching in the combined fields of the arts ‐ expressive and stage arts no less than medical and martial arts. The in‐depth examination which had steadily progressed during the past century intensified exponentially. A distinct feeling of life‐or‐death importance seems to invest this period, together with a fierce need to reinvent and re‐invigorate the culture and identity of Japan. We can see the consequences in such diverse fields as Butoh dance, ryodoraku acupuncture, aikido, macrobiotics, and, not least, Zen Shiatsu, although in each case the ratio of assimilation to conservation varies slightly. Whereas Butoh dance is a superb example of dance pioneers searching back towards the roots of "Japaneseness" in their art, Ryodoraku acupuncture is, by contrast, a system that was developed to reinterpret, explain and practise acupuncture through the application of certain key conceptual tools derived from modern, Western medicine. Aikido came into being as an urge to derive the maximum effectiveness out of the traditional fighting arts of jujitsu and swordsmanship, while framing them overtly in the language and practice of love and harmony. Aikido became a modern, synthetic art steeped in the time‐honoured traditions of Japanese martial arts. George Ohsawa founded Macrobiotics in an attempt to redefine the principles of Oriental philosophy (primarily yin and yang) and apply them to the daily bread all humans ingest, in the wider service of world peace and harmony. There are numerous examples of this process right across the board in Japanese cultural life ‐ examples of re‐invention, re‐interpretation and re‐incorporation. Synthesis of varying degrees is the common denominator and Zen shiatsu is a prime example. In short, we could say that Masunaga re‐introduced some of the major philosophical and practical tools from traditional Oriental medicine into the existing framework of shiatsu as it then was. We might even contend that the new style, once established, represented a complete overhaul of the existing therapy, including as it did certain vital aspects derived from the West ‐ some superficial and others more integral. Masunaga's Creation: a Synopsis of a Synthesis As noted, Masunaga made several startling changes to the shiatsu he inherited. In the following section we will identify and explore four key areas of innovation that distinguish the new style. Each in its own way helped to establish Zen Shiatsu as a robust newcomer with firm foundations and a will to survive, prosper and make a lasting contribution to the integrated field of health and consciousness. (1) He reemphasised the importance of ki, vital energy, and reincorporated the basic concept of the meridian system, even extending the traditional pathways for ease of use by bodyworkers. These are usualy referred to as Masunaga's extended meridians. (2) He updated the old system of zones for abdominal (hara) diagnosis, and also mapped out diagnostic zones on the back of the body. 5 (3) He developed a simple diagnostic system, one based on the traditional concepts of kyo and jitsu, comparable to xu and shi in Chinese medicine, and roughly translatable as "deficiency" and "excess". (4) Finally, and perhaps most importantly, he revolutionised the actual practice of shiatsu. This he did through two major contributions: firstly he introduced the concept of "natural pressure". Secondly, he developed an entirely new kata or form. This consisted of fluid movements and ergonomic postures designed to create pressure and stretch‐openings using not only thumbs but also palms, elbows, knees and feet. We will examine the kata in more detail further on, but can usefully summarise its total effect as follows: treating the whole body using the whole body. The kata Masunaga developed is both practical and pragmatic, offering as it does the possibility of treating in a way that enhances the flow of energy in the practitioner’s own body. In all of this, Masunaga combined concepts and practices primarily from the storehouses of traditional Oriental medicine, and also from the various schools and branches of Western medicine, science and philosophy. In the following pages we will explore each of these four areas of innovation in turn, each under its own heading. (1) Meridians in Zen Shiatsu: Location and Function When Masunaga learnt shiatsu at Namikoshi's instution it was without the use of meridians in either theory or practice. A system of "points" or "tsubos" did exist, but these were purely symptomatically employed, and though useful practically, not arranged in any conceptually enlightening manner. Masunaga was at pains to point out that the mere pressing of points would never achieve long lasting or satisfactory results, as this quote from "Zen Shiatsu" eloquently testifies: "The common conception that shiatsu is no more than the application of strong digital pressure on single points on the body misrepresents the truth. Shiatsu is based on a full oriental medical system, which explains the human body in terms of a network of meridians through which flows an energy called ki." Indeed, Zen Shiatsu was apparently even referred to by its pioneer practitioners as ”Meridian Shiatsu”. (i) Meridian Location according to Masaunaga A parallel and contemporaneous development in Japan was the Meridian Therapy movement in acupuncture. Oriental medicine in Japan had for many years undergone a crisis which had resulted in a loss of traditional tactile skills and a consequent over‐
reliance on point prescriptions. Yanagiya Sorei, his colleagues and followers instigated a vigorous return to study of the classical texts of Oriental medicine, especially the Nan Jing. Their stated aim was to revitalize acupuncture through a return to careful treatment of the meridians according to the age‐old theories of the five elements, paying 6 specific and rigorous attention to pulse and abdominal diagnosis, as well as meridian and point palpation. Masunaga submitted the traditional meridian system to a similar kind of intense scrutiny in his clinical work, by means of point‐by‐point and zone‐by‐zone palpation and observation of micro‐function. However, not content with utilizing the traditional pathways of the meridians, as the Meridian Therapy acupuncturists did, Masunaga extended the meridians, using the traditional pathways as his basis but extending each meridian to new areas. Simply put, Masunaga’s innovation consists of two parts. Firstly, all meridians have their origin in the Hara or abdomen. Secondly, the traditional arm meridians were provided with pathways on the legs, while the traditional meridians of the legs were now also to be found on the arms. In practice, this latter innovation means that a bodyworker can always reach any meridian at any time, no matter where on the body s/he happens to be working. For example, a practitioner is working with a diagnosis or treatment plan that calls for the inclusion of both the Spleen meridian and the Small Intestine meridian. Using the traditional meridian system, this would entail working with the channel and points on the leg and torso for the Spleen and, separately, on the arm and shoulder for the Small Intestine. Figures 1 & 2 Extended meridians of Spleen and Small Intestine In Masunagas new, extended system (see figures 1 & 2 above), the practitioner is able to work on both meridians on the legs or both on the arms at the same time. Furthermore, it makes no difference whether the treatment is being carried out in the prone, supine, side or seated position ‐ all the meridians are always available to the bodyworker schooled in the extended meridian system of Zen Shiatsu. 7 Figure 3 Masunaga's extended meridians chart At first glance, Masunaga's meridian chart can appear somewhat intimidating. Even practitioners already familiar with the traditional meridians of Chinese medicine might experience an initial feeling of bewilderment. A useful technique in navigating the chart is to begin with the traditional pathways and work from there. For example, we might choose to chart the Large Intestine meridian (solid grey lines). Being a yang meridian, it retains its traditional pathway running from index finger along the radial portion of the forearm and upper arm, the frontal area of the shoulder and via the neck and jaw to the opposite nostril. None of this is new to the student or practitioner familiar with traditional meridian pathways. What is new is the branch which originates in the Large Intestine zone in the lower back and runs between the Gall Bladder and Bladder meridians along the lateral, dorsal aspect of the thigh, calf and foot, ending finally in the pads of the foot together with its yin partner, the Lung. Another new but fairly logical addition, is the branch which arises 8 in the Lung zone in the upper, lateral area of the abdomen and rises to meet the traditional Large Intestine meridian on the shoulder at LI 15. Similar considerations apply to the Small Intestine meridian (solid, dark red lines). Its traditional pathway is retained, running as it does from the little finger along the ulnar aspect of the arm, via the elbow, shoulder blade and posterior aspect of the neck to the cheek and ear. Additionally, there is a logical extension from the shoulder blade down the lateral aspect of the back, shadowing the Bladder meridian (solid blue lines), its Tai Yang or Greater Yang six division* partner, and entering the Small Intestine zone in the lumbar area. (*see below, p. 9‐10 and glossary for a brief explanation of the six divisions or combined meridian pathways concept in traditional Oriental medicine.) There is even a small branch originating in the zone for the ovaries in the lower back and running down proximally to the traditional site of the Small Intestine and Bladder Shu points on the sacrum. This micro‐branch serves, incidentally, to highlight the close connection in Zen Shiatsu theory between the Small Intestine meridian and the functions of the female reproductive organs. Continuing with the Small Intestine meridian, the final and most controversial addition originates logically enough in the Small Intestine lower abdominal zone. Rather less logically, it then continues down the medial portion of the thigh and lower leg, running parallel with the traditional Spleen meridian. This Small Intestine extension finally curves around under the instep to unite with its yin partner in the Fire element, the Heart meridian (broken dark red lines). An interesting phenomenon in the current context of these two yang meridians, is that Masunaga chose to make abundantly clear something which is often only implicit in traditional meridian charts ‐ along with all their fellow yang meridians, they both make a significant detour to converge at GV 14 at the base of the neck, below the seventh cervical vertebrae. This serves to emphasize the node‐like nature of this area of the body, and mark it out as a key centre of yang energetic activity, an aspect of traditional Oriental medical theory Masunaga chose to make explicit and visibly underline. A general point of interest regarding the chest and throat area on the chart is that many of the internal branches from the traditional pathways are here lifted to the surface. This applies specifically to the yin meridians, especially Heart and Pericardium (broken red lines), but also Kidney (broken blue lines) and Lung (broken grey lines). Another point of interest for meridian buffs is the broad sweep of the Gall Bladder meridian (solid green lines) around the posterior and medial aspect of the shoulder blades. Thus does Masunaga provide us with his personal answer to the mystery of the exact pathway of the Gall Bladder channel between GB 21 and 22. A certain amount of discussion has revolved around the similarity or otherwise of Masunaga's extensions to the ancient six divisons or combined meridian pathways mentioned above. Previously, we have named the Tai Yang (Bladder and Small Intestine) combined channel from the classical six divisions meridian model. 9 If we examine the leg extensions of the Large Intestine and Small Intestine meridians, we observe no similarity whatsoever with the dynamics of the six divisions. Indeed the Small Intestine extension is located on the medial aspect of the leg ‐ traditionally the exclusive domain of the yin meridians! However, if we instead consider the Triple Heater extension in the leg (solid red lines), we will find it running immediately parallel to the Gall Bladder, its partner in the Shao Yang division. Similarly, the Pericardium sits tightly parallel to the Liver, the other half of the Jue Yin unit. In the case of the Spleen extension in the arm (broken yellow lines), we may note its close proximity to the Lung, its Tai Yin six division partner. The Heart extension in the leg is in the medial and posterior portion, exactly where its Shao Yin partner Kidney traditionally flows. The effect is somewhat spoiled however, by Masunaga's new placement of the Kidney where the traditional outer Bladder line is usually to be found; not entirely illogical of course, but enough to spoil any possible exactness of overlap with the six divisions system. Indeed, if we look closely at each and every one of the extensions of the Zen Shiatsu system, we find that exactly half are in a location which could be said to match a plausible Six Divisions setting. The question then becomes whether fifty per cent is sufficient to sustain such a weighty comparison, and is the exercise thus, in the end, a fruitful one? (ii) Meridian Function according to Masaunaga So far, we have considered the innovations Masunaga made to the meridian system with reference to anatomical location of specific pathways. Conceptually, Masunaga also redefined the functions of the meridians, while also re‐incorporating the ancient nomenclature of the meridians as "officials." For example, he re‐stated that the traditional office of the Heart meridian was that of Emperor. He then however, went on to define in modern terms what this would imply with regard to function: "the heart meridian converts the input from the five senses into appropriate internal responses and thus controls the whole body as the center of ki and blood." Contrast this with the traditional description from the Nei Jing as rendered by Wang Ju Yi and Jason Robertson in their text ”Applied Channel Theory in Chinese Medicine” from 2008: ”The heart holds the office of emperor and is the issuer of spirit clarity” Another example from the same text, "Zen Imagery Exercises", may serve to illustrate this point even more clearly: "The kidneys and bladder from the standpoint of Chinese medicine, include the function of the adrenals and the autonomic nervous system, as well as that of the reproductive organs." 10 This may well be the most glaring example of a helpful attempt to elucidate through updated terminology, the effect of which, however, is instead to distort and obscure. Compare with the definition first given in the Nei Jing, again courtesy of Wang and Robertson: ”The kidney holds the office of forceful accomplishment and is the issuer of wondrous talent.” What we see in these quotes from Masunaga can be understood as an attempt to modernise the ancient and arguably obscure definitions of meridian function as laid down in the ancient texts. We may, however, regard the attempt as less than entirely convincing, and it might perhaps be observed that the risk of modernising is often that of over‐simplification, thereby excluding the depth of nuance embedded in the more poetic and necessarily diffuse language utilised by the ancients. We might also remind ourselves that to translate medical systems ‐ to explain one in terms of another ‐ is a risky and ambitious undertaking. Realms of subtlety may easily be neglected and gross oversimplifications become the norm, notwithstanding that the exercise may in itself be a useful and enlightening one for the individual practitioner. (2) Diagnostic Zones: Front and Back (i) The Zones of the Hara. Systems of Hara (abdominal) diagnosis have existed in Oriental medicine since ancient times. Historically speaking, abdominal diagnosis has its roots in Chinese medicine, but as with numerous aspects of ancient Chinese culture, its usage is nowdays extremely limited there. The Japanese, on the other hand, have never dropped the practice of Hara diagnosis and have over the centuries elevated it to new heights and to levels of extreme subtlety. The Hara has a special place in Japanese life and is acknowledged as a center of intelligence, power and vitality in areas of life as disparate as healing, archery and business. It is believed to be the seat of both health and illness and as such is regarded as an optimal place to "read" the energy levels of the patient in a treatment situation. One simple and much‐utilised system is framed around the dynamics of the Five Elements (see figure 4, right). Figure 4 Five elements hara diagnosis chart 11 Simply stated, the practitioner uses both objective and subjective signs in the zones of the hara to assess the relative health of the organs and meridians belonging to the Five Elements. Such signs could include for example: pain, lack of sensation, flaccidity, hardness, nodules, stringy textures, cords, discolouration, whiteness and relative warmth or coolness. The map is still used in many modalities, especially those pertaining to the various Japanese schools of acupuncture, shiatsu and acupressure. A rather more detailed map of the abdomen was developed during the late 1600’s in Misono Isai’s Mubun school: Figure 5 Mubun school diagnostic chart The Mubun method involves tapping gold and silver needles into the abdomen with a small mallet. It disregarded other aspects of Oriental medicine, focusing all attention on the diagnosis and treatment of the abdomen. Today this chart is used solely by practitioners of the Mubun method of acupuncture in Japan. In his landmark text from 2007: In the Footsteps of the Yellow Emperor, Peter Eckman argues persuasively however, that the Mubun school was responsible for the emphasis of Japanese medicine on Hara diagnosis, which was subsequently adopted by many other schools. Masunaga, true to his belief in the importance of clinical testing and re‐evaluation, designed his own, even more detailed map of the abdominal diagnostic areas: Figure 6 Masunaga's hara zones 12 A casual glance at these three models will show that there are common denominators, but also key differences between them. Let us now take a careful look at them together for the purposes of comparing and contrasting. To the similarities belong this absolutely central and key phenomenon: Fire rises to the top Earth settles in the middle Water sinks down to the bottom. This central feature is virtually identical in all three of the above hara diagnosis charts and illustrates a fundamental aspect of traditional Chinese medical philosophy: Fire belongs to the heavens and strives constantly upwards. Earth revolves on its axis and holds the centre stable. Water belongs to the depths and flows inexorably downward. Masunaga has not deviated from this most ancient of touchstones, and we see clearly how his Heart zone sits atop the hierarchy as befitting the Emperor. Directly below is the Pericardium zone, also commonly associated with Fire. Centrally placed is the Spleen, representing Earth. Occupying the lowest, central area we find the zones for the Kidney and Bladder, the meridians of the Water element. This is certainly the most striking common denominator, but the similarities do not end there. What we may also observe is that Masunaga continued the work of refining the individual meridian zones which figure prominently in the Mubun system, but which are conspicuously absent from the simpler Five Elements model. One reason for this is very likely the largely unstated and thus implicit attempt by Masunaga to "re‐balance" the yin and yang meridians of Oriental medicine. Some background may be useful here: traditionally the yin meridians were also known as Zang. "Zang" in Chinese stands literally for an organ capable of containing something precious. The Heart, Spleen, Kidney, Liver and Lung meridians were regarded as the storehouses for various types of pure and vital energies and substances. (These are respectively Shen, nutritional energy, Jing essence, Blood and Qi). Contrastingly, the yang organs, the Fu, were viewed rather as passageways and run‐offs for impure, intermediate and even waste products. This in turn has given rise to a tendency in many schools of acupuncture to emphasise the importance in treatment and diagnosis of the yin Zang over the yang Fu. The problem this presents for the bodyworker is quite simple: the yin meridians, by their very nature, (i.e. yin) are invariably less accessible, shorter in length and have far fewer points. Compare for example the yang Bladder (67 points) with the yin Kidney (27 points). Another example: the yin Pericardium has 9 points while its yang partner, the Triple Heater, has 23. The Gall Bladder ‐ yang ‐ has 44 points while the Liver, its yin partner in the Wood element, has only 14. Masunaga made a de facto case for the elevation of the yang meridians both conceptully and ‐ even more importantly ‐ in practice, to the same level as the yin. This represents a 13 kind of levelling or democratization of the meridian network, which is consistently reflected in all aspects of his system: meridian chart, hara zones and back zones. In the absence of any detailed written explanations regarding this "levelling out" effect, we may surmise that both its derivation and impact were primarily clinical. Another intriguing aspect of Masunaga's hara zones are the obvious anatomical influences. If we look at the simpler Five Elements chart, we notice that the zone for the Wood element is on the right side as we look at it. Masunaga's zones for the Liver and Gallbladder are on the left as we look ‐ directly underneath the actual, physical location of their respective anatomical organs. The same anatomical considerations may be said to apply to the Stomach zone and, to a certain extent, the zones for the Small and Large Intestines in Masunaga's chart. Even his Lung zones, symmetrically matching their metal element partner, the Large Intestine, are neatly placed at the lower tip of the anatomical lung organs. This provides us with a crystal clear example of Masunaga's method of incorporating Western medical knowledge, while also phasing out certain traditional Oriental insights and practices as part of his synthesis. The sole mystery in Masunagas's chart of the abdominal zones is the admittedly already rather mysterious Triple Heater (also known as the Triple Warmer, Triple Burner and even Triple Energizer). No clear explanation has been forthcoming as to why the zone for this overarching and omnipresent meridian was placed between the Stomach and Lung zones and above the Bladder zone. In the absence of any explicit recorded statement, we may perhaps infer that this was either: (i) the actual zone located through clinical practice; or (ii) the only space left! (ii) The Zones of the Back Numerous classification systems exist for diagnosing via the dorsal area of the human body within Oriental medicine. We can employ the same method of "compare and contrast" to understand the zones of the back as Masunaga envisaged them. To begin with we will examine a simple one, again based on the Five Elements model (see right). In this case, we see Metal occupying the highest position instead of Fire. This is easily explained by one of the traditional names given to the Lung: "the lid of the organs", as well as its relationship to the organs of respiration in the upper body: mouth, nose, trachea. The central place is taken by Wood, which we will see is due to the position of the Shu points (see below, figure 14 and glossary) of the Liver and Gallbladder, those belonging to Earth (Spleen and Stomach) being slightly lower. Water, master of the depths, assumes its indisputable place at the base, as the lowest of the zones. Figure 7 Five elements back zones 14 The most common method of mapping and diagnosing from the back is, of course, via the Back Shu points. Below and on the left is a map of the Shu points, on which we will find numerous similarities to the Five Elements chart above: Lu Pc Ht Liv GB Sp St TH Kid LI SI Bl Figure 8 Back Shu points Figure 9 Masunaga back zones The highest Shu point belongs to the Lung (Metal), followed by those of the Pericardium and the Heart itself (Fire). Skipping discussion of the otherwise interesting Shu points for Du Mai and diaphragm and passing below the shoulder blades, we find the Liver and Gall Bladder (Wood), slightly above the Spleen and Stomach (Earth). They are in turn followed by Triple Heater and Kidney (Water). Arriving in the lumbar area, we acknowledge but omit discussion of two highly intriguing, but here irrelevant Shu points belonging to Qi Hai ("Sea of Qi") and Guan Yuan ("Ancestral Gate"). Instead we proceed directly to the highly relevant Shu points of the Large Intestine, Small Intestine and finally the Bladder. Compare this to the illustration of Masunaga's back zone chart beside it, where we will once again witness the current of tradition as well as the spirit of innovation in his work. The similarities to the traditional charts are, once again, as interesting as the differences. In terms of similarities, we find several common threads running through all three systems: Metal or Lung at the top and Water (Bladder in the case of the Shu point and Masunaga zone systems) at the bottom. We will also note a general convergence 15 between the zone for Wood, the Shu points for Liver and Gall Bladder and Masunaga's Liver and Gall Bladder zones. The same can be said of the zone for Earth, the Shu points for Spleen and Stomach and Masunaga's Spleen and Stomach zones. What becomes apparent, of course, is the dissimilarity this immediately reveals: the element zones are similar to the Shu points ‐ bilateral ‐ whereas Masunaga's zones are unilateral: Liver and Gall Bladder on the right; Spleen and Stomach to the left. Once again, we see clearly how this mimics the anatomical location of the Western organs, revealing the influence of Western ideas on Masunaga's work of synthesis. The same consideration can be said to apply to the zones for the Small Intestine, here taking the place traditionally alloted to Water and the Kidneys, which are now placed both lower down and to either side. The Large Intestine zones are, much like their hara zones, placed low down and symmetrically to either side, not unlike the Large Intestine Shu points. Finally, the mysterious Triple Heater is slotted into an intriguing though unexplained location. This time it is squeezed in between the Stomach, Spleen, Pericardium and Kidney zones. Does this in itself reveal something of the nature of the Triple Heater? It is, after all, understood to be "everywhere and nowhere" and "occupying the spaces between everything". It should be noted that these zones on the abdomen and back are not to be regarded as purely diagnostic in function. They are also of use as treatment zones in precisely the same way that the Shu Points are used for both diagnosis and treatment in acupuncture and other styles of traditional Oriental bodywork. (3) A Simple Diagnostic Paradigm: Kyo and Jitsu From the myriad of diagnostic methods and modalities available in traditional Chinese medicine, Masunaga chose one. It may be supposed that what he wanted was a tool with the following key qualities: simplicity, practicality and flexibility. The name given to this system is: Kyo and Jitsu. The words themselves are the Japanese translations of the terms "xu" and "shi" from Chinese medicine. They are derivations of the more universal yin and yang, and have been variously translated. A useful initial observation to bear in mind is that no oriental term is capable of one definitive, single and direct translation. Thus Kyo is commonly rendered as deficiency or depletion, while Jitsu often translates as excess or repletion. Masunaga described them in the following terms on the back cover of ”Zen Shiatsu”: "If the flow of ki through the meridians is smooth, the person is healthy. If the flow becomes sluggish, the person falls ill. The nature of the flow is analyzed on the basis of the Chinese conception of the duality Yin and Yang into two states called Kyo and Jitsu. In the Kyo state, the flow of ki is sluggish, and the body's functions dulled. In the Jitsu state, the flow is too rapid, and the body functions are overactive." 16 Figure 10 Kyo and Jitsu portrayed as the most uneven points on a circle. However we choose to translate the terms, the system is genial in its ease of application. Kyo and Jitsu may be located through touch in the zones of the abdomen, the zones of the back, the meridians themselves or even in the various joints and muscles with regard to left and right sides of the body. Additionally, the states of Kyo and Jitsu may be inferred conceptually through signs and symptoms. What is extremely important to note in Masunaga's system is the very strong emphasis placed on the Kyo. Depletion or hypo‐activity is very often regarded in Zen Shiatsu as the true causative factor in disease. This in turn means that in treatment, attention is often directed away from sites of tension, stiffness and sharp, superficial pain ‐ usually thought to be representative of the Jitsu phenomenon. Attention is instead directed towards areas of weakness, emptiness and deep, dull pain, which are more commonly associated with the Kyo state, and by their very nature somewhat more elusive. Further, it is deemed advantageous in Zen Shiatsu treatment to begin by treating Kyo. This is in itself a traditional concept, where the reasoning has been that it may be safer to tonify or strengthen an "empty" weakness than to risk aggravating an already overstretched, "full" tension. This idea can be extended to embrace another enormously strategic discovery: if we successfully nourish a weak Kyo area, point or meridian, we may in the very process of doing so find that we have already, to some extent at least, drained away some of the excess from a related, corresponding or nearby Jitsu. The initial attention paid to the Kyo thus reveals itself to be not only a cautious but also an ergonomic choice, reducing the amount of struggle necessary to calm tension. If the general tendency in Zen Shiatsu thereby veers towards the minimalistic, it also confirms a close kinship with the "bare minimum" ethos of Zen practice and the "bare bones" aesthetics of zen design. This conceptual and practical minimalism has gradually become one of the hallmarks of Zen Shiatsu, and helps to explain why seemingly passive treatments, where the practitioner at times appears to do very little "work", have far‐reaching, deep and long‐
lasting therapeutic effects. It also provides useful insights into why Masunaga's shiatsu came to look as it did; graceful movements, economic use of body weight and ergonomic, elegant posture became the outward signs of a Zen Shiatsu practitioner. 17 (4) Natural Pressure and the "Kata" of Zen Shiatsu When we use the word kata we need to remain aware of its inherent subtlety and flexibility. We are familiar with the term from martial arts, in particular the many and varied styles of karate ‐ yet another example of a radically modernized, traditional art in the post‐war era of Japan. We recognize it to mean form, set or programme, and indeed, the traditional martial arts of China are characterised by the phrase: "fixed and unchanging". This implies that the forms are, notwithstanding personal idiosyncracies and body types, not subject to whimsical modification. They are handed down through the generations in a form as clearly defined as possible. This then is the primary aim of lineage and tradition ‐ to transmit packages of hard‐won, distilled, practical knowledge in a relatively unchanged form. However, "kata" also means "shape" in Japanese: ie very simply how something looks, the form it takes. While there are schools and teachers all over the world who teach a Zen Shiatsu kata and pass this on to their students in a relatively unchanged form year by year, it is nevertheless the case that each and every one of these forms is relatively speaking, mutually distinct. This point can not be emphasised strongly enough: no two schools and no two teachers, indeed no two practitioners of Zen Shiatsu practise exactly the same form. This means that in our consideration of the kata of Zen shiatsu, we cannot simply count on the sequence of moves being the same from school to school and from country to country. Rather, the most helpful nuance to guide us in our use of the term "kata" in the present context becomes the general shape, look and style of it: its outward appearance. The outward appearance of Zen Shiatsu is usually characterised by various permutations of the following components: • lack of force • natural pressure • open and upright posture • solid and earthed foundation • use of many body parts to deliver technique • fluid, light and natural movement around the patient To this must necessarily be added that the patient is invariably lying – in rare cases seated ‐ on a futon mattress on the floor, and that the patient is usually fully clothed. Both of these considerations have their importance. Being fully clothed allows the patient to retain body warmth, which otherwise has a tendency to drop during intense relaxation. It also provides a sense of security during the treatments, which are designed to peel away the layers of the bodymind to gradually reveal and eliminate buried patterns of trauma and distress. Experience has shown it to be entirely unnecessary, in fact strategically disadvantageous, to have the patient undressed in the practice of Zen Shiatsu. The floor is also of vital importance. The earthed and rooted position in proximity to the earth itself is a source of nourishment and energy. In addition, this enables the 18 practitioner to make maximum use of his own infinite resource ‐ body weight. By using body weight, the practitioner avoids the need to push, press or otherwise exert muscular force against the patient. This in turn means that the tendency to react back towards the pressure is sidestepped to a very significant extent. This saves time and energy for both practitioner and patient. Energy and awareness can instead be directed towards the otherwise elusive, subtle inner processes, which are the essential mainstay of a Zen Shiatsu treatment. Natural Pressure Defined Masunaga defined the term "natural pressure" with the help of three principles. These three priciples arguably constitute the major characteristics of Zen Shiatsu to this day: 1) Vertical pressure: more precisely perpendicular pressure, delivered firmly but gently can be absorbed and accepted into the patient’s body with a minimum of resistance. 2) Stationary pressure: ie pressure which does not oscillate, vibrate or move. This type of pressure emphasizes stillness, and is also very easy for the body to accept. According to Masunaga's observations, it has the effect of rapidly activating the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), that part of the autonomic nerve system (ANS) responsible for activating the deep relaxation response. 3) Supported pressure: this introduces the all important concept of the "mother hand". Consistent with the principles of yin and yang, Masunaga found it efficient to maintain equal pressure between the two hands. In practice this means that the mother hand of the Zen Shiatsu practitioner learns to absorb pressure momentarily from the active hand during transition movements. In this way "nothing is lost", and the effect of the perpendicular and stationary pressure is not removed, but remains to a significant extent constant throughout the treatment. The combined effect of these three principles, when practised in a fluid manner, can be likened to the effect of white noise on an insomniac. The very security provided by the constant, perpendicular and supported pressure rapidly eases the bodymind into a state where it can let go, cease questioning and stop spinning in meaningless circles. The "drop down" into the parasympathetic mode of activity is thought to be the pre‐requisite for deep relaxation, self‐healing and reparation at the cellular level. It has been noted, and is worth emphasizing, that using this approach, the practitioner is left free to concentrate on listening to the signals of the receiver. What this means in practice is that by freeing up valuable listening resources, the practitioner is able to deliver a treatment appropriate to the present needs and requirements of each individual patient in the moment. Tao Shiatsu or Zen Shiatsu? This brings us back to the perhaps academic but nonetheless intriguing question of whether the word Zen, or perhaps rather the older term Tao, might more fittingly describe the essence of Masunaga's style. We have already identified and elaborated on the aspects which derive from or reflect a Zen influence. It may however, be equally relevant to apply the descriptive epithet Tao to the style, especially now that we have looked closely at the manner in which it is practised. 19 The emphasis is clearly on flow, involving as it does listening to and responding to the natural and spontaneous rhythms of energy in the "here and now", and on utilising the tools that happen to be immediately available, ie the various parts of the practitioner's body. These attributes are considerably more reminiscent of Taoist than Zen practices. The point may of course be considered moot in the light of the enormous influence Taoism exerted on Buddism as it entered China, where it became known as Ch'an. By the time Buddhism travelled via Korea to Japan, where it finally metamorphosed into Zen, it would be fair to say that a profound cross‐fertilization between Buddhism and Taoism had occurred. Interestingly, Endo Ryokyu, a student of Masunaga, later named his own style ‐ one highly derivative of his teacher's ‐ exactly this: Tao Shiatsu. Readers interested in the development of Zen Shiatsu are directed to the text published by Endo under the title: "Tao Shiatsu: Life Medicine for the 21st Century". Treatment and Diagnosis in Zen Shiatsu In concluding, the reader should bear in mind, as stated earlier, that treatment styles vary somewhat within Zen Shiatsu. In plain terms: there are a profusion of approaches to, interpretations of and applications for the extensive Zen Shiatsu vocabulary. The shape and pattern of a Zen Shiatsu treatment is generally influenced by the diagnosis formed by the practitioner at the beginning of the session, and modified by the information forthcoming during the course of the treatment. In other words, it is fluid, constantly in flow and always changing. This brings us to another of Masunaga's and thus Zen Shiatsu's guiding principles: "diagnosis is treatment, and treatment is diagnosis". This is a central and universal maxim within traditional Oriental medicine and implies that diagnosis and treatment are so intertwined as to be inseparable: it is impossible to diagnose a person at a deep level without simultaneously treating them. It is equally impossible to treat at a deep level without spontaneously gleaning diagnostic information. The true significance of the phrase then, is that even while diagnosing, we should be aware that everything we as practitioners do and say, even the manner in which we observe, has a potentially therapeutic ‐ or otherwise! ‐ effect on the receiver. Conversely, every nuance of information which arises during the course of the treatment, is useful to modify, complement or update the initial diagnosis. This points us in the direction of a spiral‐like phenomenon, where a diagnosis never reaches a fixed state, and a treatment plan can never with certainty be mapped out beforehand. In Zen Shiatsu, as in life itself, everything is connected, and each part of the process organically and symbiotically influences every other part of the whole. Ceaselessly.  Chris McAlister 2014 20 Timeline: Masunaga Shizuto 1925 ‐ Born in Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan. 1949 ‐ Graduated from Kyoto Imperial University with a degree in psychology, and entered into the practice of shiatsu. Graduated from the first class of the Japan Shiatsu School founded by Namikoshi Tokujiro. 1959 ‐ Began teaching at the Japan Shiatsu School (clinical psychology), where he taught for 10 years. 1968 ‐ Founded the Iokai Shiatsu center. 1977 ‐ Publication of his seminal English text Zen Shiatsu. 1981 ‐ Chosen as a board member of the Japan Oriental Medicine Association. 1981 ‐ Death from colon cancer. 1987 ‐ Posthumous publication of his second English text Zen Imagery Exercises. Glossary Aikido: literally "the way of harmony and ki". Method created by Ueshiba in the post‐ war period in Japan. Said to be a fusion of traditional sword and grappling techniques. Popular world‐wide today as the "peaceful" martial art. Buddhist sutra: teaching text in the Buddhist tradition. Often chanted out loud. Butoh dance: a Japanese stage art incorporating aspects of traditional Japanese dance methods and aesthetics, but also influenced by surrealism and other modern currents in art and philisophy from both East and West. Combined meridian pathways: a modern name for the Six Division meridians and their pathways. The six combined pathways are named as follows: Tai Yang, Yang Ming, Shao Yang, Tai Yin, Jue Yin and Shao Yin. Shao Yin for example, incorporates both Heart (Fire element) and Kidney (Water element) meridians. This nomenclature enables us to see vital relationships existing outside of the Five Elements system of organisation. The combined pathway of Shao Yin stretches from the sole of the foot out to the tip of the little finger via the abdominal and thorax regions. Much of this combined pathway is hidden from sight under ordinary circumstances; thus Shao Yin meaning "lesser" yin, though not in terms of function but in terms of visibility and accessibilit. See also: the six divisions. Diagnostic zones of the back: areas on the back used in palpation to assess the state of a person's energetic resources. Expressive and stage arts: those arts which have an overtly expressive and creative aspect, from painting and sculpture through poetry and literature to theatre and opera. 21 Extended meridians: Masunaga's system of meridians, where the traditional meridians form the basis and are extended into non‐traditional areas of the body. Used almost exclusively in Zen Shiatsu and derivative styles. Hara diagnosis: the technique of using abdominal palpation to assess the state of a person's energetic resources. Ikebana: literally "living flowers" ‐ the art of Japanese flower arranging. Traditionally a very spartan aesthetic. Can involve the use of foreign objects both natural and artificial. Kabuki: heavily stylised form of Japanese theatre. Certain kabuki actors attain cult status in Japan, though nowadays mainly among the elderly population. Karate: literally "empty hand". A group of Japanese martial arts styles with a common root in Okinawan, and going further back in time, southern Chinese martial arts styles. Kata: form, shape, programme. Ki: a term usually translated as life energy. Also understood to be the common matrix which all things, material and immaterial are made up of and dissolve back into. In Chinese: Qi. Kyo and jitsu: derived from the Chinese diagnostic parameters "xu" and "shi". In this context they are synonymous with negative, pathological phenomena, and indicate the states of scarcity and over abundance respectively. In other contexts they have quite different meanings. Kyo/xu denote a philosophical state of emptiness, which has very positive connotations in traditional spiritual philosophy. Jitsu/shi can also mean truth. Macrobiotics: taken from the Greek words meaning "great" and "life". School of thought founded by George Ohsawa, where food is classified into a somewhat idiosyncratically defined system of yin and yang that has an international following. Medical and martial arts: those arts which have the aim of healing illness and/or promoting health, and those devoted to cultivating life force through the discipline of martial art study. Meridian functions: the group of functions traditionally assigned to the network of meridians. Meridian therapy: movement initiated in early 20th century Japan to revitalise acupuncture, through study of the classics and intensely detailed analysis of simple protocol. Based largely on the dynamics of the Five Elements, and highly clinical/empirical in approach. Key figure: Yanagiya Sorei. Meridian and point palpation: the technique of gathering diagnostic information through palpatory examination of the meridians and acupoints on the body. Often performed on the forearms and lower legs, but also on such point groups as the Back Shu and Front Mu points. 22 Mother hand: in Zen Shiatsu this denotes the hand which has the more passive, supportive role. It is widely held that the mother hand is in fact the most influential in its role of grounding and providing continuity. The sign of a mature practitioner is the automatic, reflex‐like nature of the mother hand in practice. By providing calm solidity and reassurance it keeps patients comfortably anchored in the moment, holding them steady through potentially challenging energetic experiences. Nan Jing: the "Classic of Difficult Questions". A classic text from the early Chinese dynastic period (probably around 100‐200 AD) of uncertain authorship. It discusses 81 controversial issues arising from the earlier text known as the Nei Jing, the Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine, itself in all likelihood a compilation of writings from various scholars during the early Han dynasty period. Natural pressure: the name given to the type of pressure defined and taught by Masunaga. Has three main criteria: perpendicular, supported and continual. Post­war Japan: the era immediately following the Japanese surrender to the allied forces after WW2. Ryodoraku acupuncture: a style of acupuncture founded by Nakatani in the 60's, and today practiced equally by medical and non‐medical practitioners, both in Japan and internationally. Seeks to provide a natural scientific rationale and methodology for the practice of traditional acupuncture. Strong theoretical reliance on the ANS (See: the autonomic nervous system), and practically on refined techniques of electro‐
acupuncture in both treatment and diagnosis. Satori: "awakening". The ultimate goal of Zen Buddhist practice. Seiza: literally "correct sitting" in Japanese. One of the classic postures from Zazen and Shiatsu, as well as Tea Ceremony and many other Japanese arts. The back is easily held straight as the knees are folded underneath the body. The straight back allows the diafragm to move freely and the ki to decend to the hara. In Japanese culture it is traditionally held that seiza is one of the only truly (ie deeply) relaxing postures. Shu Points or Back Shu Points: provide the most common method of mapping and diagnosing from the back. The shu points lie on the Bladder channel but relate also to individual meridians within the network of the 12 main meridians. The Shu points as located on the back from top (Lung) to bottom (Bladder) also represent a pictorial map of the Triple Heater energetic system as a whole. The shu points are used equally for diagnosis and treatment of the twelve main meridians. Sumo: Japanese wrestling. Steeped in traditional Shinto ritual and ceremony. Today a multi‐million dollar business, and immensely popular both in Japan and overseas. Tao: literally "The Way". A term used to describe a wide group of teachings and practices from ancient China, including the famous Tao Te Ching (or Dao De Jing) of Lao Zi, but also a vast number of other teachings both written and oral. There are different streams 23 of taoism including the so‐called religious branch, but also sects more devoted to longevity practices such as meditation, qigong and taiji chuan. The autonomic nervous system (ANS): often called the vegetative nervous system in that it is not subject to conscious will. Influences all autonomic functions in the body including heart rate, blood pressure and respiration as well as endocrine and immune system function. The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS): that branch of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) responsible for directing attention inwards and thus activating the deep relaxation response. Often contrasted with its sister branch, the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), which tends instead to direct attention outwards and into the external world. The six divisions: ancient system of nomenclature and energetic organisation of the meridian system. Every meridian has a Six Division name indicating: (i) which is its partner meridian, (ii) where on the body it is to be found, and (iii) what kind of general functions it is responsible for. See also: Combined meridian pathways above. The twelve officials: a term used particularly in the school of acupuncture founded by J. R. Worsley. Denotes the meridians, or Zang Fu as they are known in TCM. This terminology assigns a title and role to each of the meridians. The Heart for example, has traditionally occupied the role of Emperor. Its role is to fill the seat of awareness or consciousness. Tsubo: literally "pot". The Japanese term for acupoint. Adds a useful, three‐dimensional perspective to the otherwise two‐dimensional image suggested by the English term. Western medicine: the body of medical knowledge based generally on hippocratic and more specifically on post‐enlightenment, natural scientific method. Zeitgeist: the spirit of the time, general trend of thought or feeling of a particular period of time. Zen Buddhism: style of Buddhism in Japan, derived from the Chinese style Ch'an. Main practice is Zazen meditation: sitting Zen. 24