Some
BIG QUEStions in Art
• Where do artists get their ideas? What can I make art about?
• When is it okay to copy?
• Do you have to be able to draw well to be a good artist?
• What makes some works of art better than others? How can you tell good art from
bad art? Is there really such a thing?
• What work of art do I hate/love the most and why?
• Why do artists do what they do?
• How does an artist know when a work or art is finished?
• What is art? What isn’t art? What is art for?
• Can anyone make art? Can animals make art?
• Should art be pleasing to the eye? Can art be ugly? Why would an artist make an ugly
work of art?
• Should art make people happy?
• Should art tell a story?
• Should artists imitate what they see? In what ways does art represent the world?
• Does something have to be original to be art? Can a forgery or copy be art?
• What’s the difference between art and craft?
• What is an artist? Are artists the same in every culture?
• What are some different ways to approach art? What can we learn from studying a
work of art?
16
Why do people make Art?
People around the world make art to:
• seek personal enjoyment and satisfaction.
• express personal thoughts and feelings
• communicate with others.
• create a more favorable environment.
• make others see more clearly.
• provide us with new visual experiences.
• record a time, place, person, or object.
• commemorate important people or events.
• reinforce cultural ties and traditions.
• seek to affect social change.
This mask represents “The Cannibal of the
Mountains” and was used in a secret winter
ceremonial, British Columbia, around 1900.
• tell stories.
• heal the sick.
• adorn themselves.
• explain the unknown.
• worship.
• create an illusion or magic.
Art is like a border of flowers along
the course of civilization.
• Lincoln Steffens
• predict the future or remember the past.
• earn a livelihood.
• do something no one else can (or has yet done).
• amuse themselves (or make us laugh).
• make the ordinary extraordinary.
• increase our global understanding.
Try This: Display examples of art from various cultures and time periods
in the classroom. Ask students to speculate on the possible reasons why
the art was made.
17
Why do artists do that?
The following list of purposes for which a work of art might have been
created may prove helpful in sorting through the variety of art forms
we see today. A single work of art can serve more than one purpose.
Artists create to:
• record images inspired by observations of daily life; connect us with everyday
experience, people or events.
• demonstrate technical virtuosity; do something no one else can.
• celebrate the aesthetic qualities of common objects; transform the mundane
into an object of art; make the familiar strange, the ordinary extraordinary.
• celebrate beauty as found in the aesthetic qualities of nature; record a time
or place.
• explore art that speaks about the basic elements of art; celebrate the aesthetic
qualities of line, shape, color, and so on.
• convey dynamics of movement; explore relationships between time and
space.
• stimulate public discourse; provide social commentary; make people
think.
• emphasize the experience of looking at a work of art.
• convey a feeling of human emotion; show human experience.
• explore narrow and personal visions.
• innovate; give up the old, break the rules; explore new approaches; provide
us with new visual experiences.
• explore new materials and technologies to create new forms of art.
• express private, personal musings; explore the unconscious.
• subvert, create irony; break established notions of how things should be;
change people's minds.
• emphasize the importance of the idea rather than the object/product as the
work of art.
• create optical effects; optics created by shadows and reflection of light.
• raise questions about art traditions such as, "What is art?" "What is a painting?"
• commemorate important people or events; reinforce cultural ties and
traditions; tell stories.
• other.
To be an artist today is to be
continually engaged in questioning
what art is and what it could be; it
is to be constantly reinventing art.
• George Szekely
Try This: Display examples of art by various contemporary artists. Ask students to
speculate on the possible reasons why the art was made.
18
Running Fence
Photo: AK Ciesielski
PRESS RELEASE: CHRISTO AND JEANNE-CLAUDE: RUNNING FENCE,
SONOMA AND MARIN COUNTIES, 1972-76.
Running Fence, 5.5 meters (eighteen feet) high, 40 kilometers (twenty-four and half miles) long, extending
East-West near Freeway 101, north of San Francisco, on the private properties of fifty-nine ranchers,
following rolling hills and dropping down to the Pacific Ocean at Bodega Bay, was completed on September
10, 1976.
The art project consisted of: forty-two months of collaborative efforts, the ranchers' participation, eighteen
public hearings, three sessions at the Superior Courts of California, the drafting of a four-hundred and fifty
page Environmental Impact Report and the temporary use of hills, the sky and the Ocean.
All expenses for the temporary work of art were paid by Christo and Jeanne-Claude through the sale of
studies, preparatory drawings and collages, scale models and original lithographs.
Running Fence was made of 200,000 square meters (2,222,222 square feet) of heavy woven white nylon
fabric, hung from a steel cable strung between 2,050 steel poles (each: 6.4 meters / 21 feet long, 9
centimeters / 3 1/2 inches in diameter) embedded 1 meter (3 feet) into the ground, using no concrete and
braced laterally with guy wires (145 kilometers (90 miles) of steel cable) and 14,000 earth anchors. The
top and bottom edges of the 2050 fabric panels were secured to the upper and lower cables by 350,000
hooks. All parts of Running Fence's structure were designed for complete removal and no visible evidence
of Running Fence remains on the hills of Sonoma and Marin Counties. As it had been agreed with the
ranchers and with the County, State and Federal Agencies, the removal of Running Fence started fourteen
days after its completion and all materials were given to the ranchers. Running Fence crossed fourteen
roads and the town of Valley Ford, leaving passage for cars, cattle and wildlife, and was designed to be
viewed by following 65 kilometers (forty miles) of public roads, in Sonoma and Marin Counties.
Questions to consider: (1) Should art be permanent? (2) Must art be made by the artist? (3) Where
should art by displayed? (4) How big can art get? (5) What can art be made of? (6) Is Running Fence
Art?
19
An Overview of Bloom's Taxonomy of
Education Objectives: Cognitive Domain
One of the more popular models used to promote thinking skill instruction in schools was developed by Benjamin
Bloom (1956). It categorizes thinking skills from the concrete to the abstract and in six categories--knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation. The last three are considered by many educators as
involving higher-order thinking skills.
Knowledge -- the remembering of previously learned material. This may involve the recall of a wide range of
material, from specific facts to complete theories, but all that is required is the bringing to mind of the appropriate
information. Sample cue words include: acquire, choose, cluster, define, describe (from memory), draw, fill-in,
follow directions, identify, indicate, know, label, list, locate, match, memorize, name, outline (format given), pick,
point, read, recall, recognize, record, repeat, reproduce, select, state, sort, write.
Comprehension -- the ability to grasp the meaning of material. This may be shown by translating material
from one form to another (pictures to words), by interpreting material (explaining or summarizing) and by predicting
consequences or effects. Sample cue words include: associate, classify, compare/contrast, conclude, describe,
discuss, document, expand, explain, express (in other terms), extend, generalize, give examples, give in own words,
group, illustrate, infer, interpret, outline, paraphrase, predict, put in order, rearrange, recognize, restate, show, simplify,
summarize.
Application -- the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations. This may include the application
of such things as rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories. Requires a higher level of understanding
than comprehension. Sample cue words include: apply, change, choose, classify, demonstrate, develop, discover,
employ, express (in discussion), illustrate, imitate, interview, investigate, make, manipulate, modify, organize,
participate, predict, prepare, present, produce, put to use, relate, restructure, sequence, select, show, use, utilize.
Analysis -- the ability to break down material into parts so that its organizational structure may be more easily
understood. This may include the identification of the parts, analysis of the relationships between parts and recognition
of the organizational principles involved. Requires an understanding of both the content and the structural form of
the material. Sample cue words include: analyze, break down, categorize, characterize, compare/contrast, debate,
depict, detect, deduce, diagram, discriminate, distinguish, draw conclusions, examine, form generalizations, map,
outline, point out, put in (categories), relate to, research, search, sort, survey.
Synthesis -- the ability to put material together to form a new whole. This may involve the production of an unique
product (painting or theme), a plan of operations (proposal) or a set of abstract relations (scheme for classifying
information). Emphasis is on creative behaviors involving the formulation of new patterns or structures. Sample cue
words include: adapt, combine, compile, compose, conjecture, construct, create, design, devise, dramatize, generate,
imagine, integrate, invent, modify, originate, perform (in public), plan, produce, propose, rearrange, reconstruct,
reverse, revise, speculate, suppose, synthesize, transform.
Evaluation -- the ability to judge the value of material for a given purpose. Judgements are to be based on definite
criteria including internal (organization) or external reasons (relevance to purpose). Involves elements of all of the
other categories plus conscious value judgements based on clearly defined criteria. Sample cue words include:
appraise, argue, assess, award, choose, compare (pros/cons), consider, convince, decide, defend, determine,
discriminate, evaluate, grade, judge, justify, persuade, prioritize, rank, rate, recommend, select, support, test, value,
verify.
20
"Minds-On" Art Activities
1. Examine how different cultures use art to commemorate and celebrate persons and events. Compare and
contrast stamps and currency from different cultures. Create a work of art that celebrates you!
2. Design and construct a 3-D form from a 2-D material without wasting anything. Evaluate the results
according to aesthetic appearance and structural stability.
3. Design and construct the highest self-supporting structure using a given amount of material (e.g., 2 sheets of
newspaper and 2 inches of masking tape). Evaluate the results according to height achieved, quantity of
material used and aesthetic appearance.
4. Examine two paintings of the same subject matter by different artists. List in two columns all the similarities
and differences observed. Create a work of art based on the same subject matter, but in your own style.
5. As a group, examine a painting closely for one minute, memorizing as much of the painting as you can. Turn
your backs to the painting. In a round-robin fashion, name (without repeating) any object or relationship in
thepicture. When no one has anything to add, re-examine the picture to see what (if anything) has been left
out.
6. Recall a tension-provoking moment. Depict in lines, dots and other marks your thoughts/memories regarding
this situation. Create a work of art from this drawing that illustrates tension. Compare and contrast your work
with those by other members oof the class.
7. Examine masks from different cultures, primitive to modern. Discuss the universality of masks. Identify
purposes for various types of masks and categorize them by form and function. Express how specific masks
make you feel, especially maks which transform the personality. Analyze how various emotions are conveyed
in the masks. Describe ways people mask their faces without using real masks (e.g., masking thoughts and
feelings by using facial expressions). Using materials found around the home, create a mask that will give
you special powers.
8. Create a work of art which passes on to the next generation some bit of knowledge about now which you
think is significant. Categorize the works made by members of your class according to similarities. Discuss
what factors were considered to determine significance. Examine how art is used in different cultures to
transmit myths, folklore, legends, beliefs, and truths.
9. Use the element of "visual surprise" as a basis for creating a 3-D art object.
10. List the ingredients for a nonexistant work of art. Trade "recipes" with another member of your class and
then create a work of art based on each other's lists.
11. Identify the steps to creating a work of art. Design a machine or device that would help you to make art.
12. Andy Warhol once said, "In the future, everyone will be famous for 15 minutes." Decide what you will be
famous for. Create a work of art to communicate your contribution.
13. Generate a list of "causes of the year." Select what you consider the most important cause and create a work
of art to increase public awareness. Examine works of art designed to heighten social awareness.
14. Determine factors which influence your thinking. Design and create a prototype for a thinking cap that will
help you to think better.
15. Imagine yourself as an animal, an appliance or an inanimate object. Indicate the basis for this animal being
you. Examine the use of metaphor by artists in different cultures. For example, Picasso utilized the concept
of metaphor in his "Bicycle Bull." Create a mask based upon your personal metaphor.
21
16. Design a postcard about you. Consider the kinds of lines, textures, colors and shapes that you like. Now
include these kinds of things in the postcard you make. Exchange postcards through the mail with a pen pal.
Examine ways "new tools" (such as computers and fax machines) make new connections between people,
between places and between ideas.
17. Visually examine your school. Decide and then illustrate how you would make your school a better place.
Discuss and compare designs among class members. Value diversity and similarity of thinking.
18. Generate a group list of possible meanings of the word "shelter." Consider the broadest sense and
application of the word. Analyze the various factors which effect how people design and build shelters in
different parts of the world. How does culture influence shelter design? (e.g., extended families remain close
together in multi-family units in some cultures; the habit of sitting on the floor in the Oriental home influences
its design.) How does technology affect the design of shelters? Location? Climate? Design an "ideal"
shelter for you and your family to live in. Construct a prototype model based on your drawing.
19. Recall the first time you experienced or witnessed injustice. Describe your thoughts and feelings at the time
of this incident and how this experience confirmed or challenged your view of the world. Depict this scene in
a drawing, using expressive lines to convey your feelings. Examine and compare works of art which protest
social injustice (e.g., Picasso's "Guernica" and Rivera's "The Liberation of the Peons.")
20. Research hats and headgear. Find as many examples as you can from throughout the world, past or
present. List various attachments and elements. Consider function and aesthetics. Create a hat or
headdress that exemplifies your importance.
21. Identify the qualities of a "good design." Using a sheet of white paper only create "the best possible design."
Enlarge or expand this product in any way you choose.
22. Generate a group list of things that cannot be seen, but that can be experienced in other ways (e.g., sounds,
wind, tastes, feelings, abstract ideas, etc.,) Select one item from the list and use it as the basis for creating a
work of art. Examine how various artists have depicted the "unseen."
23. Sequence a collection of art prints in order from the most to less beautiful. Determine criteria selected and
justify the order.
24. Select an art work that you wish to promote. Determine the various qualities it possesses. Create a "sales
pitch" for the value of this work. Test it out on others.
25. Observe a realistic/narrative work of art. Speculate what might be the next scene or where this scene might
occur in a sequence of events. Draw out your idea.
26. Recall the major events of your life to date. Select an important event and then design a commemorative
stamp.
27. Research and discuss the plight of the "homeless." Design a shelter for a homeless individual. Determine
criteria for evaluating the best possible design.
28. Interpret the meanings of flavors. Create a 3-D form which will visually communicate the idea of a particular
flavor. Test out your solution on other members of the class. Determine success of the form and redesign if
necessary.
29. Imagine yourself as an inanimate object. Create this object (which is your personal metaphor) by tearing out
its contour from a sheet of paper. Explain why.
30. Design your own art problem to solve. Create a solution.
22
Teaching for
Critical & Creative Thinking
Students engage in creative thinking when they
are encouraged to:
A. generate many ideas.
Students engage in critical thinking when they are
encouraged to:
A. seek a clear statement of the problem or
question.
B. gather, judge and connect relevant
information in order to be well informed.
B. seek alternative solutions to a problem
situation.
C. come up with unusual or innovative
responses.
D. go beyond the ordinary and obvious.
E. expand or elaborate upon an idea..
C. monitor their own thinking and progress.
F. be different from others.
D. withhold judgment.
G. take conceptual risks and expose
themselves to failure or criticism.
E. be open-minded.
F. identify and challenge assumptions.
G. consider other points of view.
H. seek alternatives.
I.
detect bias.
J. identify verifiable facts, opinions and
reasoned judgments.
K. determine the factual accuracy and strength
of an argument or claim.
L. determine the credibility of a source.
M. be honest and sensitive with others.
N. deal with ambiguity.
O. strive for precision, definition and clarity.
P. remain central to the main point.
Q. suspend judgment when sufficient evidence
and reasoning are lacking.
R. support their positions with sufficient
evidence and reasons.
S. change a position when evidence and
reasons are sufficient to do so.
H. make connections between things.
I.
dream, fantasize and visualize mental
images.
J. point out gaps in information given.
K. create order out of chaos.
L. be inquisitive.
M. persist with a problem where others may
give up.
N. plan and develop an idea before committing
it to materials.
O. work at the edge of their potential.
P. rely on their inner-self rather than others to
determine the worth of their work.
Q. reframe a problem in order to develop new
points-of view.
R. get away from an idea in order to put it in
perspective.
S. predict possible outcomes without complete
information.
23
Thinking like an artist means:
• looking at things more closely than most people do.
• finding beauty in everyday things and situations.
• making connections between different things and
ideas.
• going beyond ordinary ways of thinking and doing
`things.
• looking at things in different ways in order to
generate new perspectives.
• taking risks and exposing yourself to possible
failure.
• arranging things in new and interesting ways.
• working hard and at the edge of your potential.
• persisting where others may give up.
• concentrating your effort and attention for long
periods of time.
• dreaming and fantasizing about things.
• using old ideas to create new ideas and ways of
seeing things.
• doing something simply because it’s interesting
and personally challenging to do.
© 1996 Craig Roland
Artists
Speak
We can get some idea of what it means to “think like an artist" from reading these quotes by a few
well-known artists.
"I'm a work horse. I like to work. I always did.
I've never had a day when I didn't want to
compose, I painted or stacked the pieces or
something. In my studio I'm as happy as a cow
in her stall."
• Louise Nevelson
"The more an artist works the more there is to
do"
• Ad Reinhardt
Louise Nevelson
"All the really good ideas I ever had came to
me while I was milking a cow."
• Grant Wood
"A man paints with his brains and not with his
hands."
• Michelangelo
"I shut my eyes in order to see."
• Paul Gauguin
Grant Wood
"I think the artist has to be something like a
whale, swimming with its mouth open absorbing
everything until it has what it needs."
• Romare Bearden
"Art is an adventure into an unknown world,
which can be explored only by those willing to
take the risks."
• Mark Rothko
Romare Bearden
25
Design an Artrageous Hat!
Make a hat from paper that will help you to think like an artist.
Suppose you had a hat that would help you think like an artist. What
would it look like? How would it work?
Try to imagine such a hat in your mind's eye. Once you have a mental
picture of your hat, make it using a paper plate as a base and colored
construction paper to create it's form. It may help to draw a picture of
your hat before you start.
Materials You Need: A paper plate, assorted colored
construction paper, white glue or glue stick, stapler,
hole punch, yarn, and other materials that may
make your hat unique.
The Project: There are no "rules" for making your artrageous hat (that's what
makes it "artrageous.") The following suggestions may help you in deciding how
to make your hat:
• Try to use several paper techniques to make your hat.
• Try to make a hat that no one else would think of making.
• Make it so that it can actually be worn. (Use pieces of yarn for ties to
secure the hat on your head.)
• Make it strong so that it doesn't fall apart.
• Try to make it so it really works. (magic potion helps.)
• When you finish your hat, try it out by making some art. Be able to
explain to others how your hat works.
Want To Do More? Explore the world of hats. There are many different kinds
of hats and headgear around the world that are worn for many different reasons.
Try to find as many different kinds of hats, head-dresses and crowns as you can.
For more artrageous art projects, visit the @rt room at <www.arts.ufl.edu/art/rt_room>
26
Art Postcard Games
The following games involve students in “structured play” using small art prints to explore art concepts. These
games require carefully selecting examples and groups of art works beforehand in order to focus students’ attention
on certain similarities and differences in works of art.
Interpreting Art Works
[This game requires selecting prints with narrative content] Have
pairs of students select 3 or 4 postcards without knowing the purpose
of the selection. Teach or review the parts of a story such as “the
setting” which is the scene for some action, “the plot” which is the
unfolding of the action, and “the climax” of the action. Ask the students
to arrange their cards in a sequence to illustrate an imaginary story.
Have them present their story to others in oral or written form.
Place a group of cards on a table which are active (abstract or nonobjective) or which show narrative action by realistic figures. Have
each group of students select one card without knowing the purpose
of the game. Discuss dramatization possibilities together. Determine
“rules” of the game (e.g., words or no words, props or no props, etc.,)
Provide time to determine the action appropriate to the selected cards.
Place all cards in a location so everyone can see them. Each group
in turn presents their dramatization. The audience then makes
informed guesses on which work is being dramatized. Discuss the
reasons for choices of action made by the students. Variation: Have
students (in groups of 4 to 5) make the “sounds” their selected work
would make. The audience then guesses which card was selected.
Classifying and Categorizing Art Works
One of the more interesting games to play with art postcards involves
asking students to sort a group of art prints into self-determined
categories. Have each group spread the cards out in front of them
and then say, “Place these prints into groups that you think go
together.” Afterwards, have each group explain how and why they
grouped their prints. Identify works which were difficult to classify
Are their similarities in the ways groups completed the task?
Sort a group of art prints into theme categories such as landscapes,
still lifes, portraits and ideas. Possible subcategories might include
real and imaginary events. Share and reflect on the results. Discuss
characteristics of prints found difficult to classify.
Define the terms “realistic,” “abstract” and “nonobjective.” Show an
example of each. Have students sort a group of art prints according
to these categories. Subdivide categories if possible. Identify works
that were difficult to classify. Share and reflect on the results.
Group art prints according to time periods (e.g. , works completed in
the 14th century, 15th century and so on.) Select the category
containing the largest number of prints and make inferences regarding
what the works suggest about the art (and culture) of the time period.
Determine ways to verify conclusions drawn. Share results.
27
Classify art prints according to emotions or moods expressed in the
works. Students may invent their own categories or they may be
given descriptive words such as “exciting,” “playful,” “calm, “sad,”
“indifferent,” and “mad” and asked to sort their prints accordingly.
Select a work from each category and determine what the artist has
done to convey the emotion. Share results. Identify works which were
difficult to classify. Discuss the personal and universal quality of
emotions.
Sort art prints according to the nationality of the artist. (See back of
prints.) Compare works within each category and identify similarities.
Contrast works among categories and identify differences. Identify
interrelationships across groups.
Ordering & Ranking Art Works
Before doing the following activities, the teacher should explain how
a continuum consists of two extremes with the middle portion
displaying characteristics common to both ends.
Have students rank a group of art prints in order from 1 (least liked)
to 10 (best liked) among the group. Share rankings and criteria used
to make decisions. Determine why a certain print was ranked fifth
and the next one sixth. Decide if the group ranking reflects “popular”
values among the public. Conduct a survey to verify conclusions
drawn.
Place art prints on a continuum from oldest to most recent. Ask
students to draw conclusions regarding the history of art as reflected
in their time continuum. Discuss conclusions and indicate the basis
for decisions made.
Sequence a group of 10 art prints from the most to least beautiful.
Share the criteria used to justify the order. Discuss the personal and
universal quality of “beauty.”
Place art prints on a continuum according to the depth shown (i.e.,
infinite/deep space to decorative/flat space). Identify and discuss
ways artists show depth in a work (e.g., size, color, overlapping,
perspective and so on).
Rank a group of art prints in order from 1 (most likely to be popular)
to 10 (least likely to be popular) with the general public. Share
rankings and criteria used to make decisions. Discuss issues related
to “art in public places.” Predict how the ranking might change
according to the audience (e.g., big city vs. small town, parents vs.
children and so on).
Rank a group of art prints in order from 1 (most significant) to 10
(least significant). Share the criteria used to justify the order. Find
examples of “great art” and determine what makes them significant.
Place art prints on a continuum from “active-noisy” to “quiet-still.”
Select a print and ask “What has the artist done to make this a ______
painting?” Try other polar pairs such as warm/cool, lonely/crowded
or sharp/soft.
Have students invent their own art postcard games to play.
"Ask Mr. van Gogh"
Directions: Your group will be given a set of prints of art work by Vincent van Gogh. Look over
the images and then arrange them into groups that you feel go together. Once your group has
completed this task, respond to the following items:
1. What do all the works seem to have in common? (list 2-3 similar characteristics below)
2. If Mr. van Gogh were to walk into the classroom right now, what questions would you
want to ask him? (write your questions below)
a.
b.
c.
3. Next, place the postcards in chronological order from oldest to most recent. Then,
think of a few more questions to ask Mr. Van Gogh if he were in the classroom right
now:
a.
b.
c.
4. Lastly, choose one of your questions and write down the answer you think Mr. van
Gogh might give (and be prepared to give a reason for your answer.)
5. Since Mr. van Gogh is no longer alive, where might you find answers to your
questions?
29
Art Worksheet: Letter to an Artist
Your Name: __________________________________ Grade Level: _________
Directions: Choose a work of art from the Letters to an Artist envelope. Look at
the work closely. What do you see in the painting? What do you think about this
painting? What questions would you like to ask the artist about this painting?
(Information on the artist and the work can be found on the back of the postcard.)
Once you have finished examining this painting, write a letter to the artist. You may
say anything you wish.
Title of the Work: ____________________________________________________
Artist’s Name: __________________________ Today’s Date: _____________
Dear
(use the other side if necessary)
30
Teaching Thinking: Recommended Reading
Alexander, P. A. & Judy, J. E. (1988). The interaction of
domain-specific and strategic knowledge in academic
performance. Review of Educational Research. 58
(4), 375-404.
Amabile, T. M. (1983). The social psychology of
creativity. New York: Spring-Verlag.
Anderson, R. C. (1984). Some reflections on the
acquisition of knowledge. Educational Researcher,
13 (9), 5-10.
Beyer, B.K. (1987). Practical strategies for the
teaching of thinking. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.,
Bloom, B., et al. (1956). Taxonomy of educational
objectives, Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York:
David McKay Company.
Bolin, P. E. (1996). We are what we ask? Art Education,
49 (5), 6-10.
Brady, M. (1989). What’s worth teaching? Albany:
SUNY Press.
Brandt, R. (1984). Teaching of thinking, for thinking,
about thinking. Educational Leadership, 42 (1), 3.
Bruner, J.S. (1968). Toward a theory of instruction.
New York: Random House.
Bruner, J. S. (1963). The process of education. New
York: Random House.
Clark, G. A., Day, M. D. & Greer, D. W. (1987).
Discipline-based art education: Becoming students
of art. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 21 (2), 129193.
Costa, A. L. (1991). The school as a home for the
mind. Palatine, IL: Skylight Publishing.
Costa, A. L. (1985). (Ed. ) Developing minds: A
resource book for teaching thinking. Alexandria,
VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development..
de Bono, E. (1983). The direct teaching of thinking as
a skill. Phi Delta Kappan, 64 (10), 703-708.
de Bono, E. (1976). Teaching thinking. London:
Temple Smith Ltd.
de Bono, E. (1969). The mechanism of mind. London:
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Related Web Sites
Teaching Thinking Skills by Kathleen Cotton
NorthWest Regional Educational Laboratory
November 1991
www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/6/cu11.html
Framing Essential Questions
From Now On
Vol 6|No 1|September|1996
http://www.fno.org/sept96/questions.html
Strategies for Teaching Critical Thinking.
ERIC/AE Digest by Bonnie Potts (1994).
www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed385606.html
Teaching Thinking Online: Better or Worse
than Face to Face? by William Peirce 2000
academic.pg.cc.md.us/~wpeirce/MCCCTR/ttol.html
Teaching Thinking: an Introduction to the
Research Literature by John Nisbet (1990)
The Scotish Council for Research in Education
www.scre.ac.uk/spotlight/spotlight26.html
What is a Thinking Curriculum? by T.F.
Fennimore and M.B. Tinzmann (1990).
www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/rpl_esys/thinking.htm
Understanding Thought Processes for
Improved Teaching of Thinking by Janine Huot
(1998)
fox.nstn.ca/~huot/model-tk.html
The Art of Questioning by Dennis Palmer Wolf
http://www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/resources/workshops/
artofquestioning.html
Classroom Strategies to Engender Student
Questioning
http://www.questioning.org/toolbox.html
Teaching Thinking
by Nikana (2000)
www.school.za/edict/edfort/teaching.htm
The Thinking Classroom
learnweb.harvard.edu/alps/thinking/
Habits of Mind
www.habits-of-mind.net/
The Br anco Weiss Institute for the
Development of Thinking
www.brancoweiss.org.il/new/thinking/tqtmain.html