Equal Opportunities Work
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G O T E B O R GU N I V E R S I T Y2 O O 2
cOrpsoRc
UNIVERSITY
Printed in Sweden
Elanders Graphic Systems AB 2002
Equal Opportunities Work
Theories about Practice
By Eua Mark
G O T E B o R G U N I V E R S I T Y2 O O 2
Foreword............
............r.
...........2
Working for equal opportunities,fair treatment and quality........4
1. Introduction............
...............4
2. Arguments put forward by the Swedishnational authorities in favor of an equal
opportunities policy
............4
3. Working for equal opportunities..............
.................7
4. Equal opportunities work as a matter of quality
........................
S
5. Equal opportunities,quality and the male norm
......................
10
6. Equal opportunities work and the differences betweenthe sexes
t2
7. Equal opportunities as a matter of justice...
t7
The genderperspectiveand equalopportunitieswork.................
20
1. Introduction............
..........20
2. The genderperspective,researchquality and equal opportunities..............................22
3. Gender research,awarenessof sexand genderand education............
......29
Sexualharassmentand equalopportunitieswork........................,32
1. Introduction............
2. Theory and practice................
3. What is sexualharassment?...............
4. Sexuallvoffensivebehavior...
.............32
...............32
......................33
................35
5. Equal opportunitieswork and the |aw.............
..........37
6. Sexualharassmentand the genderperspective
......40
7. Power in the structural and phenomenologicalsenses
8. Gender. socialization and autonomy.
.............41
43
Foreword
What makes equal opportunities work so difficult to accomplish?The answer,of
course,has to do with various kinds of resistanceand exercisingof power. But
effective, efficient equal opportunitieswork also requiresclear thinking. I hope
this text might contributeto dispelling someconfusion.
It is difficult to pursue equal opportunities work today for many reasons,
including the fact that the terms and concepts used are vague and require
clearer definitions, and that the arguments put forward tend not to be
sufficiently well thought-through and that traditional arguments may be
repeatedwithout critical consideration.This text attempts to sharpenthe terms
and the arguments,taking equal opportunities work in practice as its point of
departure. If we are to work effectively in the area of equality of opportunity
we do need to think about it more clearly. However, that will not be sufficient
in itself.
The notions and arguments analyzedbelow were taken from two fields of
practical work with equal opportunities - the political and the organizational.
As the title implies, this text proposes theories about what practitioners are
doing. All suchterms and ways of reasoningare, of course,national by nature,
and must be seen in their respectivecontexts.In our increasingly globalized
world, we must also learn to consider our national phenomena in an
internationalperspective.This helps us to understandthem more thoroughly.
This text has been translatedfrom Swedishinto English in hopesof triggering
a dialogue on equal opportunities work in an international context.
Studies of universities and other institutes of higher education have confirmed
the notion that they are "bastions of masculinity". A number of efforts have been
made to produce policies promoting equal opportunities between women and
men, with a view to counteractingthis situation.Thesepolicies have focusedon
bringing about institutional reform and achieving organizations where greater
equality prevails.
However, progress in this area is slow, and today our universities and
institutes of higher educationare still anything but models of equality. What
can we do, in reality, to bring about changesso our organizations better reflect
equal opportunities?What should our action plans contain, and how should
responsibilities be delegated? The time has come to make a critical
examinationof different ways of pursuing equal opportunities,and to debate
how we should work in this field. We need to know more about the various
interpretations of the problem complex surrounding equality, about different
perspectives on the impediments to equality within organizations, about the
different ways in which efforts to achieveequal opportunitiesbetweenwomen
and men have been institutionalized at universities and institutes of higher
education,and about what measuresneed to be taken so that existing policies
produceresults.
One of the aims of this booklet is to begin building up a theoretical
foundation for work in the areaof equal opportunities,to draw up theorieson
the basis of a survey of practices.I hope that these theories will provide a
justification for the implementingof strategicmeasures,which should, in turn,
provide greater opportunities for the underrepresentedsex. This, in turn,
should motivate both sexesto participate in further work to promote equality.
Another aim underlying this booklet is to producea constructiveanalysisof
the contradictions in the information available in official (Swedish
government) publications on the subject of equal opportunities between
women and men.
I wish to stressthat this text is not an attempt to draw up a specific equal
opportunities policy. Rather, it is my aspiration to provide material for
discussion, useful as a tool in furthering equal opportunities work at the
reader's own level. Such discussions must always be rooted in practical
experience, and this experience may also serve as implicit arguments.
Working for equal opportunities, fair treatment and quality
1. Introduction
Why should any organizatton put effort into improving its equal opportunities
policy? Simply in order to comply with the legislation? Out of a desire to
abolish prevailing injustices? As part of an overall reform and development
program for the organizationin question?
It is crucial that everyoneinvolved in work with equal opportunitiespolicy
think through personal answers to those questions. In fact, doing so is a
prerequisiteto being able to accomplishanything in relation to those efforts.
This is true not leastbecauseworking with equality issuesoften implies having
one's views subjected to skeptical scrutiny. This makes it all the more
important to be able to motivate what we are doing, for ourselves and others.
This presentationis based on a description of how equal opportunities
policies are justified by the powers that be in Sweden. We examine their
argumentation,highlight their hidden agendasand assumptions,and examine
different possible interpretations.The aim of this booklet is to provide a
platform for discussion of why any organization should put time and energy
into developingand pursuingan equal opportunitiespolicy.
2. Arguments put forward by the Swedish national authorities in favor of
an equal opportunities policy
A Swedish government document entitled Jiimstrilldhetspolitiken ( "F;qual
Opportunity Policy " 1996/97:41)statesthe following objectives for an equal
opportunitiespolicy:
The objectives for an equal opportunities policy have been
established. They are that women and men are to have the same
options, rights and obligations in all the significant spheresof human
life. An even distribution of power and influence betweenwomen and
men also meansthat they should have the samepotential for financial
independence,and be subject to the same terms and conditions with
regard to entrepreneurship,employment and working life, as well as
the same opportunities for further training and skill enhancementat
I
work. It also means equal accessto education, and possibilities for
self-fulfillment, pursuing interests and talents, and sharing
responsibility for the home and children, as well as the absenceof
sexualized(sex/gender-related)violence in their lives.r
The overarching motivation underlying this equal opportunities policy is thus
justice -- fair treatment -- and its main points of departure are: the prevailing
imbalanceof power betweenwomen and men, the imbalancebetweenthem with
regard to financial independence,and the imbalance between them with regard
to responsibility for children and the home. The aim is to achieve a structural
transformationof society, includes a redistribution of rights and obligations in
favor of the underrepresentedsex would take place. The need for this
transformation is based on insights regarding the different living conditions that
apply to men and women today: a picture of society reflecting a division by
sexes.
The justice-based argument for equal opportunities is underpinned in
another way by the powers that be in their formulation of the application of
equal opportunities to comprehensiveschool education. A report from the
Ministry of Educationon equal opportunitiesstates:
Equal opportunities at school means that girls and boys are to have
equivalentterms and conditionsto discover,test and developtheir full
potential as human beings.For this to be possible,knowledge must be
made available as to the differences and similarities between the
sexes,and as to the impact of sex role affiliation on education.2
In this context, equal opportunitiesare seenas meaningthat both sexeshave an
equal chance to develop their human potential. A prime prerequisite for equal
opportunities at school is a deeper understanding of the impact of sex role
affiliation, and its pedagogical consequencesfor the individual. Thus equal
opportunities become both a subject for study, and a matter for consideration in
terms of teaching methods.3Once again, the prime mover is justice, but with a
1
Swedish government circular 1996197:41Jiimstiilldhetspolitiken,("Equal Opportunities Policy", p. 5). See also
Draft bill 1993194:147Delad makt, delat ansvar ("Shared Power, Shared Responsibility"), Government circular
l999l2O0O:24 Jtimstiilldhetspolitiken infdr 2000talet, ('Equat Opportunities Policy Entering the Twenty-First
Century", p. 6).
2
Offi.iul communication from government ministries 1994:98 Vi iir alla olika, ("We'reAll Different," p. 20).
"
This view is repeated in the draft bill:1994/95:164 Jtimsttilldhet mellan kvinnor och mrin inom
utbildningsomrddet, ("Equal Opportunities Between Women and Men in the Field of Education, p. l2).
substantiallydifferent argument in terms of comprehensiveschooling than in
other areasof society.
It should be clear from the aboveboth that the Swedishauthorities' view of
equal opportunitiesin public educationis basedon the assumptionthat there
are fundamentaldifferencesbetween the sexes,and also that this view is at
least somewhatdifferently motivatedthan the generaljustification for an equal
opportunitiespolicy. In the generalpolicy, the focus is more at the structural
level. But when it comes to equal opportunities at school, the focus is
completelyindividual.
In the discussionpursuedby the Swedishauthoritiesof equal opportunities
at universities and institutes of higher education,a third justification for an
equal opportunities policy arises.There, it is seen not only as a democratic
right, and thus a matter of justice, but also as a matter of quality. Briefly:
having an equal opportunitiespolicy is a meansof improving quality.a
What this means, concretely, in the sphere of higher education, is that
working for equal opportunities is said to improve the quality of scientific,
scholarly and educational performance.5Efforts being made in terms of equal
opportunitiesare also to be included when the Swedish National Agency for
Higher Education makes quality assessments.
This makes equal opportunities
work justifiable not only from the point of view of justice, but also of costbenefit.6
How, then, should equal opportunities work be justified within any
organization? As we have seen, the two main arguments of the Swedish
authorities are the justice argumentand the quality argument.What differences
result when each of these argumentsis implemented?What do discussions
about equalopportunitiespolicies actuallymeanin relation to quality? Isn't the
justice argumentsufficient in itself?
4
Equal opportunities work as a quality issue is one of the main themes of the final report from the "JAST"
group (the Working Group on Equal Opportunities in Higher Education and Research. See Official
communication from government ministries 1997:56 Jiimstiilldhet ft)r kunskap, insikt och kvalitet ("Equal
opportunities for knowledge, insights and quality". Further, see Official communication from government
ministries 1994:l3O Kaftlciggning och utviirdering av jiimstiilldhetsprojekt inom universitet och hdgskolor
("Surveying and Assessing the Quality of Equal Opportunities Projects at Universities and Other Institutes of
Higher Education", pp. l -15).
5
Offi.iul communication from government ministrie s 1997.56Jrimsttiltdhet fbr kunskap, insikt och kvalitet,
("Equal Opportunitiesfor Knowledge, Insights and Quality". p.100).
6
One additional way ofjustifying work for equal opportunities from a cost-benefit point of view is to clarify
that equal opportunities work is profitbearing. See report from Nutek (the Swedish National Board for Industrial
and Technical Development) 1999: 19 Jcimstrilldhet & linsamhet (Equal Opportunities and Profitability'). This
particular argument for equal opportunities work falls beyond the scope ofthis article.
3. Working for equal opportunities
Before going into the details of and discussingthe different argumentsfor equal
opportunities,let us examinehow work for equalopportunitiesis pursued.In the
Swedish government commission report on equal opportunities, different
approachesare described.
One is implementing active measures to ensure that all existing
organizations comply fully with the Equal Opportunities Act. Another is
regardingequal opportunitieswork as one aspectof the vital changesthat need
to be brought about in organizations,with a view to making each workplace a
fairer place,and to improving quality.
In the first case, the structure of each existing organization is taken as a
given, as the basis from which change may be achieved. For instance,one
ambition might be to increasethe representationof the underrepresented
sex in
managementor leadershippositions,but without calling the traditional role of
the managementinto questionT.The secondcaseis more idyllic or utopian,and
seesequal opportunities as one of the things that could characterize a more
perfect organization,i.e. that it would acknowledgethe equal right to existence
of both sexes.
In other words, we must distinguish betweenefforts to increaseequality of
opportunity for both sexes within the framework of existing society, and
efforts to achieveequality of opportunity in a future, but presentlynon-existent
society, with a different paradigm of values relating to sex and gender. In the
first case,working for equal opportunities often implies adapting women to the
world of men, and marginalizing"female experience".Society is being guided
in a male direction, and male thinking is what determines what aims and
positions are worth striving for. The way of life of men is regarded as the
general, gender-neutral norm. One pertinent example is the way girls and
women are encouraged to adapt and to apply for admission to programs in
technology.
.|
'
It is necessaryto distinguish between increased representation, in numbers, of the underrepresentedsex, and
the distribution of the underrepresentedsex in the organizational hierarchy. Better representation of the
underrepresentedsex may reflect the intention and desire ofthe organization to create even distribution of
women and men, while the distribution of the underrepresentedsex in the organizational hierarchy reflects the
representation of women and men at different levels in the organization, and thus reflects career potential. The
recruitment policy of an organization may reflect equal opportunities, but still not enable womenand men to
climb the career ladder equally. See report from Nutek (the Swedish National Board for Industrial and Technical
Development) 1999:19 Jiimstiilldhet & Ldnsamhet (Equal Opportunities and Profitability").
There has long been strong emphasis on education, preferably in
technologyor the natural sciences,in order to fulfill the needsof trade
and industry. Substantial resources have also been invested in
persuadinggirls and young women to make "non-traditional" choices
in terms of what they would study. such campaigns have been
described as a way of promoting equal opportunities. At the same
time, a large number of other areasof competencein which women
have traditionally been dominant, have ceased to be considered
important enoughto be worth studying.Nor have there been nearly as
many drives to encourage young men to make non-traditional
choices.8
Thus it becomesclear that working for a utopian kind of equal opportunities
meanstouching on fundamentalorganizationalchanges,focusing on new, nontraditional norns and patterns evolving from the experience and conditions of
life of both women and men.
This requires fundamentalchange,not just increasing the numbers of the
underrepresentedsex in any existing organizationor the value of female ideas
in a structure defined by men, or enabling the underrepresentedsex to more
easily be promotedto high positionsin an existing organization.
who benefits from efforts to improve equality of opportunity? The
underrepresentedsex? Everyone in an organization? Although there is no
question that a majority of the underrepresentedsex, the sex that may be
subject to harassmentor discrimination, is in favor of such work, there are
strong arguments for the idea that equal opportunities work can benefit
everyone working at an organization.Seen in this way, equal opportunities
work is one aspect of change, contributing to making new, different
organizationsthat are better for both women and men.
4. Equal opportunities work as a matter of quality
What arguments can be put forward for equal opportunities? Various kinds of
quality argumentsare often used in this context, so let us examine them. They
give rise to the following type of questions:'Doesthe assertionhold water that
working for equal opportunities is one aspect of quality development at a
university?Can efforts to achieveequality of collaborationbetweenwomen and
men really improve the quality of the work carried out at an organization?After
8
Gunne.ud, E., & Werners son, Vad lever vi fi)r? Om jcimstciltdhet som frihet eller ndng,SOU (Swedish
GovernmentCommission Report 1997:158,p. 106 What are We Living for? On Equal Opportunities as Freedom
or Coercion")
examining these issues, we move on to equal opportunities as a matter of
justice.e
To begin with the conceptof "quality" is defined in different ways:
L Quality in the descriptive,value-judgmentalsense.Attributing quality to
somethingmay be an expressionof a value judgment, an assessmentof
something,be it an object or a phenomenonor an individual, on a given
scaleof values.In everydayspeech,we speakof things as being of good
or poor quality, and use words like "quality improvement,',etc.
2. Quality in the senseof a characteristicof things or processes.
3. Primary and secondary qualities. Philosophers distinguish between
primary and secondaryqualities. Democritos (500 B.C.) was the first
philosopher to distinguish between regarding characteristicsas being
inherentto the thing itsell or primary, and dependentfor their existence
on a subjective comprehensionof the thing, or secondary. Primary
characteristics include scope, strength, movement and size, white
secondarycharacteristicsinclude color, sound,smell and taste.Secondary
characteristicshave a subjectiveexistence,and come into being in our
consciousness as a result of the interplay between the primary
characteristicsof the thing and our organsof sensoryperception.
So if we assumethat equal opportunities work in an organization is part of the
quality development work of that organization, what are we implying that the
equal opportunitieswork is meantto contributeto developing?
Considering quality in the value-judgmentalsense,one relevant answer to
that question would be that it is the quality of whatever the organization
producesthat is meant to be improved. Universities and institutes of higher
educationproduce cumulative products:spokenor written processes.In other
words, it is the quality of theseprocessesthat is to be improved. In addition to
which there is quality improvement in the organizationitself, such as improved
management.
Thus we are dealing with quality in the senseof positive evaluationsand of
the characteristicsof a process.What characteristicsare we talking about?The
fundamentalthought is that the perspectivethat includes the views of both
sexesis better than a single-sexperspective.The experienceof both sexesis to
be drawn upon, and this will generatemore issuesand more potential solutions
to problems, as well as taking the values of both women and men into account
9
In ty view, it is essentialnot to be misted by the discussionon quality, and thus to neglect the link between
equal opportunities and justice. The cost-benefit argument must not be allowed to gain the upper hand, at the
expense of respect for basic human values. What value would the cost-benefit argument have in a recession?
t0
and promoting a critical stance.Quite simply, equality of opportunitiesgives
rise to a creative climate, and one that encourageslearning. Equality of
opportunitiesalso has a pedagogicaldimension.Good teachingis teachingthat
is able to integrate new experience,and add new knowledge to the existing
worldview. For this reason,it is vital for the studentsto be able to relate what
they are being taught to themselvesand their own experience.And for this to
be possible, the experienceof both sexes must somehow be present in the
teachingsituation.
Another quality-related argument is referred to as the "argument for the
talent repository". Work with equal opportunitiesgeneratesadditional qualityraising features in that it means additional competence.If both sexes a.re
permitted to work and operateon equal terms in the organization, it draws on
the talent repository of the underrepresented sex that remains latent in
organizationswhere equal opportunities do not prevail. Thus the quality level
of the knowledge processis raised.If everyoneinvolved in a creativeprocess
is aware of the perspectiveof both sexes,the quality of the processimproves.
Moreover, more individuals in the organization will be acknowledged as
possessinguseful talents.
5. Equal opportunities, quality and the male norm
It is necessaryto justify equal opportunitieswork in other ways than in relation
to justice, because privileged groups tend to obstruct redistribution or reequilibrationof power.
Seeingwork for equal opportunitiesas a processthat improvesthe quality of
research and education provides utility arguments for such work being
important and being a matter relevant to all the membersof an organization.In
other words, achieving equality betweenwomen and men is not only desirable
for the underrepresentedsex, the sex that is being infringed upon or
discriminatedagainst.It is not in the interestof any specific group, but in the
interestof all. We would like to believe that true equality of opportunity is of
benefit to all, for instance in that it improves the atmosphereat the workplace,
and makesit both more creativeand more dvnamic.l0
l0
Equul opportunities are a matter ofboth give and take. A society characterized by equal opportunities
assumesthat both women and men are prepared to refrain from power and privilege. For instance, women will
have to divest themselves of power in the home so that men can take their share, and men will have to be
prepared to refrain from some power and influence in both working life and politics so that women can take their
share: In these two cases,however, the kinds ofpower in question are different and cannot immediately be
compared.
1l
Certainly, this makesthe quality argumentseductiveat first glance.But one
obvious question is: why do we still have an imbalance of power, working
duties and perspectivesif equality of opportunity would raise the quality of our
workplaces?
Quality arguments are not as self-evident in the context of equal
opportunities as they are often made out to be. We have seen that quality
assessments
are basedon values.What values?Whose?Values that have long
been regardedas part of the male nonn have governedour societies,and thus
there is a clear risk that the definition of quality on which quality assessments
are basedwill be a "male" one. In that case,high quality would mean whatever
worked to the benefit of the perspectiveof the powers that be.
We might say of quality as is said of beauty,that it is in the eye of the
beholder.Becausemale valueshave long been the norm, the concept
of quality has also been defined on male terms. Peoplein positions of
power generally considerit a safeguardof high quality that their own
definition of quality be the acceptedone. As most decision-makersare
men, male valuesare thus upheld.ll
This insight may be associatedwith the difference between primary and
secondaryqualities presentedabove. We found there that secondaryqualities
have subjectiveexistences,contingentupon our way of perceiving phenomena
in the world aroundus.
Let us apply a subjectivist view of values: values are an expressionof a
subjectiveattitudebelonging to the subject.The idea that valuesare subjective
and attributed to occurrences is at the core of the discussion about equal
opportunitieswork as a quality issue,becauseit containsa clear risk -- that all
the talk about quality is actually judgments pronounced by a party with a
vestedinterest,and basedon subjectiveassessments
and on the male nonn.
If, without thinking the matter through, we allow equal opportunitieswork
to be part of generalquality improvementwork, without being responsiveto
the fact that high quality is often defined in a way that favors the perspectiveof
the powers that be, what we are actually doing is promoting a situation in
which diversity is being reduced,and a single-genderinterpretativeprivilege is
being further consolidated.We have seenhow arguing that equal opportunities
have a quality-promoting effect on the operations of the organization as a
1l
Offi.iul communication from government ministries 1997:56 Jiimstrilldhet fdr kunskap, insikt och kvalitet,
("Equal Opportunities for Knowledge, Insight and Quality" p. 34.)
72
whole is one way of justifying work for equal opportunities,but if this way of
reasoningis to have any other effect than to uphold the existing absenceof
equal opportunities, one qualification must be added: the content of the
organization must already bear traces of two sexes.
The claim that equal opportunitiesimprove quality in the senseof providing
an increaseddiversity of perspective,views on knowledge,researchdisciplines
and competencerests on the assumptionthat power is already reasonably
evenly distributed betweenwomen and men, and that this fairer delegationof
power has had an impact on the organization.
6. Equal opportunities work and the differences between the sexes
The equating, on the part of the Swedish national authorities, of equal
opportunities and quality improvements rests on yet another, not nearly so
obvious premise:the assumptionthat women and men are essentiallydifferent.l2
This is expressedin different ways. One example is the assumption that female
leadership is qualitatively different from that of men.r3Another is that the kind
of experienceand perspectiveswomen representdiffers from that representedby
men.
Should successful pursuit of equality of opportunity be based on the
similarities or the differences between women and men? The answer to this
question is that it is logically possible to base equal opportunities work on
other assumptions.Moreover, there is a link between the argumentswe prefer
and our choice with regard to whether we seethe similarities or the differences
betweenthe sexesas uppermost.
The expression"equality" readily leads us to think that in order for equality
to be possible,people must already be equal. And there may be more than a
grain of truth to that thought. Women and men both belong to the species
"human
being", rather than "animal", &S Aristotle pointed out. Their very
humanity endows them with a common value; they are thinking, feeling,
acting, self-consciousbeings. Equality, in the senseof equality between the
sexes,may be justified on this account.
12
thi, can be further divided both empirically and normatively. There is a difference berween
the idea that
women and men are different and that women and men should be different.
l3
Cun *" know what female management style is? Are there not too few women in managerial
positions for
them to have been able to formulate their own kind of leadership? See Wahl,
A., Ftiretagsi-edningsom
konstruktion av manlighet, Kvinnovetensl<aptigtidskrifi, lgg6li. ("Executive
management as a construction of
masculinity'' in Kv innov etenskap li g tids krifi ).
r3
But equal opportunitiesare also compatible with the assumptionthat there
are fundamental differences between the sexes:women and men are different
but have equal value and are to have the same rights and obligations. Thus
working for equal opportunitiescan also be motivated on basis of the need to
respectour differences.la
Returning to the arguments for equal opportunities put forward by the
Swedish authorities,we can seea link with the assumptionthat the sexesare
different. Basically, Swedish equal opportunities policy is rooted in the
assumptionthat there are fundamental differences between women and men in
that they live under different terms and conditions of existence.For instance,
women have substantially less power, social influence and financial
independence.Here, the differencesbetweenthe sexesare describedin tenns
of their factual situations. Women and men live in different spheres of
economicand social reality.
When the national authoritiesargue for equal opportunities at school, the
assumption that the sexes are different takes on a slightly different meaning.
There, it is assumed that boys and girls, men and women, are different by
"nature"l5,
and they have the right to be treatedsomeonedifferently, because
of thesedifferencesin their "natures".
In the first case,when differencesbetweenthe sexesare describedin terms
of factual circumstancesand living conditions, the aim of working for equal
opportunities is expressedas a "striving for likeness" and equal rights and
status. Ideally, the sexes should live under equivalent conditions, meaning
"sharedpower
and sharedresponsibility" which, appropriately,was the title of
the Swedishgovernment'sdraft bill on equalopportunitiespolicy, put for ward
in 199311994.
In the other case,however, when it is assumedthat the differencesbetween
the sexes are explained by their being different by nature, equality of
opportunity is about respectingthe dffirences in ways such as knowing about
and using the differencebetweenthe sexesso that girls and boys can be given
the educationalstimuli they require.
14
Th"." are at least two problem complexes here:
l. What is the basis of this difference? Is it ontological, or the result of social construction,or a combination?
2. How is this difference described? Is the female described as a deviation from the male norm?
15
I huu" found it difficult to describe this thought exactly and adequately. Using the term "nature" brings to
mind something based in biology. Speaking of human nature in senseof a social construction is inappropriate
becausethe basic ring to the term is biological. However, it is beyond the scope of this paper to take a stand on
whether sex is biological or socially constructed.
r4
A third variation on the themeof equal opportunitieswork as a quality issue
is sometimesalso raised. This is that our sexual affiliation has an impact on
our experience,ways of thinking, and ideals.The consequenceis that men and
women develop different perspectives,and think differently. And if these
differences are allowed to interact in a fertile, dynamic process, creativity in
the formation and transfer of knowledge will be promoted.
In one sense,it is unproblematic to addressthe differences between the
sexesas factual differences.Society is not permeatedby equality today, these
differencesexist and have beenproven time and again.Generallyspeaking,the
aim of all efforts to achieve equality of opportunity is that women and men
should have the samerights, obligations and options in their private lives, in
their family situations, and professionally.This is a formal enunciation of
equal opportunities,and, with a view to achieving it, many formal obstacles
have also been abolishedthrough legislation and explicit political efforts. But
the indisputablefact remains:our society is far from equal. For this reason,it
is essentialto stressthat men and women are not only meant to have the same
rights, but also the same accessto these formal rights, and that men must
become aware of both the explicit and the implicit strategiesthat counteract
equal opportunities.
However, equal opportunitiespolicies often rest on the unspoken premise
that women should live as men have been living, that a society permeatedby
equality will be a society where the living conditions of women are similar to
the living conditions of men today. From a political point of view, for
example, it has been regarded as more important to get women onto the labor
market than to get men to stay home and look after the children. Once again,
the male norrn has been taken for granted, as a kind of gender-neutraltruism.
In the field of education, equal opportunities have been linked to the
differences between the sexes,with girls being assumedto be different by
nature from boys, and women being assumedto be different by nature from
men, being assumedto be different by nature and therefore to have the right to
different treatmentin school,eachbeing approachedon the basis of his or her
respective prerequisites.In this light, an understandingof the differences
betweenthe sexesand the pedagogicalconsequencesof these differencesare
seento be necessaryto working for equal opportunities.
Another point of departurefor regarding working for equal opportunities as
part of the general quality development work at any organization is that there
are fundamentaldifferencesbetweenthe sexesin life experienceand ways of
thinking. The quality discussionis based on the idea that the two sexesare
I5
complementary, and can bring different things to a workplace. (Here, there is
an undertone of social construction, a hint that our sexual affiliation results in
our encountering different attitudes and thus being shaped by different
experience).
The government level debate on equal opportunities is thus intimately
intertwined with various assumptionsabout the differencesbetweenthe sexes.
How, then, are we to see the relationship between equal opportunities work
and the issueof the similarities and differencesbetweenthe sexes?
To begin with, let us state that both the justice and the quality arguments
may be based on assumptions either of inherent similarity or difference
betweenthe sexes.
If we begin with justice, we may point out the similarity betweenthe sexes,
we may even call descriptions of difference mythologizing. This would
indicate that there are no differences between the sexes, and that they must
thereforehave equal rights. However, this argumentis associatedwith the risk
that the underrepresentedsex will be forced into the sametraps as the other.
It is equally possible to argue for equal opportunitiesas a matter of justice
by highlighting the differences between the sexes and simultaneously
demanding that they be regarded as of equal value, and have equal rights.
However, there are also risks associatedwith seeing equality of opportunity as
meaning respectfor differencesbetween the sexes,as this may lead to freezing
stereotypical gender roles into place. Claming that it is important to be
responsiveto each individual may result in locking both sexesinto their own
respectivetraps, and inhibiting individuals from crossing traditional genderrelated boundaries. The sexes are different, and, it is understood, should
remain so.
As we have seen,the discussionof quality is basedmainly on the idea that
the sexesare different. It is, though, perfectly possible to construct a quality
"talent
argument on the basis of the similarity between the sexes. The
repository" argumentis one suchexample.
We have seen that the assumptions both of similarity and of difference
between the sexes may be used to justify equal opportunities work. In my
opinion, both theseviews lead to restrictedfreedom of choice for both women
and men.
Another way of seeing equal opportunities work is to see it as primarily a
matter of the freedom and rights of the individual to choose a lifestyle, to
T6
define him or herself.r6In line with this view, equal opportunities work
providesindividuals of both sexeswith greateropportunitiesfor self-fulfillment,
not becausethey are valued either differently or similarly, in accordancewith
patriarchalpatterns,but by having greaterfreedom to test sides of themselves
and to experiment in life. A society permeatedby equal opportunities is a
society that allows different people to have different extents of personal
masculinity and femininity, and to have the freedom to create their own
personalway of life.
16
Gunn"rud, E., & Wernersson,Vad lever vi frir? Om jiimstalldhet som frihet eller tving, SOU 1997:158,s.
106. (Swedish Government Commission Report 1997:158,p. 106 (What are We Living for? On Equal
Opportunities as Freedom or Coercion").
T7
7. Equal opportunities as a matter of justice
What are the implications of seeing equal opportunities work as a matter of
justice? This question is addressedbelow, the point of departure being that
working for equality of opportunity means aiming to increasethe freedom of
self-definition of each individual. This gives rise to the corollary question:what
is the relationshipbetweenequal opportunities,justice and personalfreedom?
It is a basic tenet of liberalism that there is a relationship betweenjustice
and freedom.On the one hand,we have the inviolable right of the individual to
free choice in mattersof life and living. The freedomto manageone's own life
is a fundamentalfreedom,but the statemay also have the right to restrict this
freedom. On what grounds?Examplesoften used are when the rights of one
individual violate those of another.or when an individual voluntarily waives
certainrights.
One way of describingjustice is to call it the free right of an individual to
choosea courseof action. Naturally, this right is bound by certain limitations,
such as that this choice must not violate the basic rights of others.Justiceand
respectfor an individual's freedom of choice with regard to course of action
are thus interlinked with the rights of all individuals to freely fulfill
themselves.
Let us go on to assumethat the aim of equal opportunities work is to
increasethe freedom of the individual. What doesthat mean?r1A humanbeing
is an agent, a thinking, feeling and acting being, who acts in a context. In
thinking, feeling and acting, we are constantlyrelating to the world aroundus.
As agents,we are beings in the world, we exist in situationsthat determineour
actions to some extent, and restrict their potential, as well as the extent to
which we are self-determining.
"relatively" selfWe possessa certain amount of freedom and we are
determining beings. But if we return to the idea that we act in a context, it
"relatively" free and only "relatively" selfbecomesclear that we are only
determining.Self-determiningactionsare also contingenton things beyondthe
control of the agent. Take an example as simple as the fact that we require
opportunities. We are able to act with self-determination, but in order to
exercisethis ability, the opportunitiesand circumstancesmust be such that we
are able to utilize our capacitiesto the fullest. Beyond this, many of our self17
B.lo*, I use an individual perspective,rather than discussingthe relationship betweenthe agent and his or
her fellow human beings. Increased freedom for one agent may, ofcourse, mean reduced freedom for another.
18
determineddecisionscannot be implementedowing to circumstancesbeyond
our control.
In our capacitiesas acting beings,we make different life choices,we weight
up different coursesof action againstone anotherand decide how we will act.
Or we may throw ourselves headlong and without much reflection into a
courseof action. Alternately,forces we neitherknow of nor believe we possess
may subconsciously
guideus.
The freedom to createoneselfis, of course,also relative to a given context.
Our environment shapesus, our social circumstances,our societal situation,
but we also shapeourselves.We cannotchooseto be absolutelyanything at all,
becausethe context in which we live does not permit a full range of choices.
Neither, however, are we predestinedto be a certain way, but we do have a
certain scopeof freedom of choice to createand recreateourselves.The aim is
to be able to affirm different sidesof ourselves,and allow thesesidesto crossfertilize.
So what does all this talk of greater freedom actually mean? One way of
describing greater freedom is simply to say that the individual has more
options.The more choicesI have,the freer I am. Equality of opportunity in an
organization may be seen as one way of increasing the number of options
available to those working there. Let us link this to the difference between
thinking about equal opportunitieswork in existing and in hypotheticalfuture
otganizations. There is a major difference between working to have the
underrepresented
sex given greaterfreedom of choice in an existing structure,
an actual organization, and working to ensurethat in a future, not yet existing
organization,both sexeswill have more options available to them. This future
organtzationwould offer freedom of choice in a way that does not exist today.
Let us now assume that the aim of equal opportunities endeavorsis to
increaseindividual freedomin terms of way of life and self-definition. Seenin
this way, does equal opportunitieswork becomea questionof individuality or
an issueof equal importanceto both sexes?
Our universities are examplesof male-dominatedstructures,organizations
shapedby men on men's terms.one way of justifying equality of opportunity,
if the aim of equal opportunitieswork is seenas improving the situation of the
underrepresented
sex in an existing organization,is to say that it will increase
individual freedom, meaning greater freedom of choice for the
underrepresentedsex. For instance, giving the underrepresentedsex more
careeroptions.
T9
Is there not, then, a risk in this casethat working for equal opportunitieswill
increasemale dominancein the organization-- at the level of content -- even if
the number of people of the underrepresentedsex in the organization
increases?In that case,there is not necessarilya change in the stereotypical
patterns of the traditional gender structure, and the assertion will be that
whether or not to work within the structure is the free choice of each
individual. The individual does have more options,but in terms of contentthe
various options are still defined on the basis of male terms and conditions.
Thus at the structurallevel. male dominanceis further consolidated.ls
Another way of looking at equal opportunities work is to see it as a step
towards creating a future organization structured so as to bear traces of both
sexes.The asymmetricalpower relationshipbetweenthe sexeswould be done
away with, and there would be greaterfreedom of choice for both sexes.The
scope of opportunities for every individual would expand. It would then be
possible to violate the contemporarystereotypicalgender order, which is so
restrictive today in terms of enabling the individual to develop him or herself
completelyfreely.
18
Th" fo[o*ing question then arises: If the number of people of the underrepresentedsex in an organization
increases,does this necessarily mean that the content of the organization also changes so that it bears structural
traces of two sexes?Or is what happens that the male norm is simply upheld?
20
The genderperspectiveand equal opportunitieswork
1. Introduction
This text is a study of the different relationshipsbetween gender researchand
equal opportunities work in practice. At least at first glance it may seem
surprising that we would wish to examine the problem complex relating to
gender analysis and equal opportunitieswork, since from a historical point of
view gender research grew out of women's studies and researchinto equal
opportunities.However, developmentin both thesedisciplineshas given rise to
a situationin which we must, in fact, re-examinethe various ties that bind them.
The three standpointsexpressedby the Swedish powers that be and described
below form the point of departurefor this section:
1. The Swedish authoritiesmaintain that genderresearchraisesthe quality
of all research,for two reasons:firstly becauseit expands perspectivesin
scholarly research,contributes new knowledge, etc. and secondly because
genderresearchencouragesequality of opportunity.le
2. The Swedish authorities maintain that encouragingcoursework with a
genderperspectiveis one way of putting equal opportunitiesinto practice.The
Higher EducationAgency, for example,was commissionedby the government
to draw up coursesrelating to genderfor the undergraduatedegreeprograms in
law and economics.The governmentalso encouragesthe application of the
genderperspectivein studiesin all undergraduatedisciplines.2o
3. The Swedish authorities also maintain that it is possible to formulate
equal opportunitieswork both with and without a genderperspective.
These three assertions indicate three problem complexes that are often
confused with one another. Each of them contains, in its turn, a number of
conceptualdifficulties. This text goes on to analyzethese conceptualissues
and to discuss questions of the following type: Is it implicit in equal
opportunities work to encourage courses and research with a gender
perspective? Is offering courses with a gender perspective one way of
19
Offi"iul government communicatio n 1999120(nl:24,Jiimstiilldhetspolitiken inf6r 2000-taler, (.Equal
Opportunities Entering the Twenty-First Century" p. 65).
20rura.
p.os.
2l
sex?And what is the
improving recruitmentstatisticsfor the underrepresented
relationshipbetweengenderresearchand equal opportunitieswork in practice.
22
2. The gender perspective, research quality and equal opportunities
A retrospective look at the arguments put forward by the powers that be in
Swedenin justification of the three assertionsgiven above provides a point of
departurefor discussingthem.
In relation to the first assertion, the assumption that gender research
increases the overall quality of research, there are two main lines of
argument:21
a. Genderresearchincreasesgeneralresearchquality becauseresearchusing
that perspective broadens the area of knowledge covered by any given
discipline, enriches the self-awarenessof science, expands the theoretical
core of research, generates new knowledge and new approaches,and
increasesthe number of relevantquestions.22
b. Genderresearchincreasesoverall researchquality becauseit contributes
to greaterequality of opportunity.23This can, in turn, be justified in different
ways:
(i) Researchbasedon a genderperspectivemakeswomen visible, increases
their self-esteemand provides them with female role models. Genderresearch
creates disciplines marked by greater equality of opportunity because it
increasesthe numberof women researchers.
(ii) Gender researchexposessex-or-gender-related
power hierarchiesand
identifies obstaclesto equal opportunities, as well as contributing to enabling
us to abolishtheseimpedimentsto equal opportunities.2a
The second point above touches on the relationship between a gender
perspective, coursework and equal opportunities work. What makes
encouragingthe development of courses with a gender perspectivepart of
equal opportunities work in practice? The idea is that by introducing the
gender perspectivein courses,we take a step towards equality of opportunity,
becausewe contribute in an important way to fairer recruitment of women and
men to all disciplines, and to efforts to break down the sexgregatedlabor
market.25
2l
Offi.iul communication from government ministrie s 1996:26 Genusperspektiv i forskningen (Gender
Perspective in Research)
-Ibid. p. 9-19.
'r2,
""
Ibid. p. 9-19.
))
24ruia.p. u.
25
Offi.iut government communicatio n 199912000:24,s.65, Jiimstiilldhetspolitiken infdr 2000-taler, ("Equal
Opportunities Entering the Twenty-First Century" p. 65).
23
The third point touches on the relationship between gender researchand
equal opportunities work. The idea is that equal opportunities work can both be
formulated using a gender perspective,and without using it. Thus we must
distinguishbetweengenderstudiesand equal opportunitieswork in practice.
Sometimesgender becomesabuzz word in the public debates,and is uses
interchangeablywith equalopportunitiesThis resultsin misunderstandings
and
ambiguities, which is why the Working Group on Equal Opportunities in
Higher Education and Research( known in Swedish as the "JAST" group, an
acronym which also means"yeast") insists on the necessityof distinguishing
between these terms. Gender is primarily a theoretical concept, and a tool for
the analysisand descriptionof power relationshipsbetweenmen and women,
or the male and the female, at different levels in society, culture and history.
Equal opportunities is a matter of fair representationof women and men, and
of allowing the knowledge, experienceand perspectivesof both women and
men to penetrateeducationand researchto equivalentextents.26
Theseargumentsare discussedone at a time below, beginning with the idea that
researchon genderimprovesthe overall quatity of research.
How is "genderresearch"defined?Genderresearchis an umbrella
term usedto denotean extensive,dynamicresearchfield. Gender
researchdistinguishesbetweenresearchabout women and men, where
women or the feminine and men or the masculine are the objects of
research,and researchcarriedout from a genderperspective.The
problem of how to define a genderperspectiveis inherentto this field
of research,and there are various,sometimescontradictorv.
solutions.2T
However, the word "gender" is frequently used to designate an analytical
tool applicable to a large number of phenomena, such as our identity,
otganizations,relationships,institutions,laws, and texts,just to mention a few.
In the particularcontext of equal opportunities,a genderperspectiveis often
defined as the perspectiverelating to sex and power. The links betweenthese
26
Offi"iuf communication from government ministrie s 1997.56,Jiimstiilldhetfiir kunskap, insikt och kvalitet,
(Equal Opportunities for Knowledge, Insight and
euality, p.35).
1
"'1
Gothlin, E., Kcin eller Genus, Nationella sekretariatetftr genusforskning,2O00. "Sex or Gender", a booklet
based on a lecture Eva Gothlin held at the conference entitled "The gender perspective in research and
education" (Kdnsperspektiv iforskning och underttisnlng) in Gciteborg in 1999.
24
two terms ate highlighted, including the asymmetrical, hierarchically
structured relationships between men and women or between what is
considered"feminine" and what is considered"masculine". In the latter case,
the feminine and the masculine are regardedas structuresthat can be borne by
both women and men, thus shifting the focus from the individual to the
structural level. Applying a gender perspectiveto equal opportunities work
means studying the relationshipsbetweenpower and sex in contexts such as
organizations.Below, the term genderperspectiveis usedin that sense.
Let us now return to the two lines of argument about how a gender
perspectivepromotes researchand raises its quality. There are two different
ways usedof legitimatisinggenderresearch:one is that its researchperspective
allows neglected areas to come to the fore, gives us new approaches,new
knowledge, etc. The other is that gender research promotes equal
opportunities.
It should be clear that thesetwo ways of legitimatizing genderresearchmust
not be confused.In the first case,what is being discussedis the significanceof
gender researchwithin science and scholarship,in the second case it is a
matter of one potential field of application of gender reseurch: using the
knowledge gainedthrough it in equal opportunitieswork in practice.I hesitate
to claim, a priori, that gender research has an overall positive impact on
researchquality. Of course it is a good thing when researchexpandsto new
fields and new problem complexes. But what determines the quality of
researchis, in my view, more the content of its hypothesesand arguments,
methods,empirical tools and analysesthan its subjectmatter.This is as true of
genderresearchas of any other researchdiscipline.
Is it appropriateto use equal opportunitiesto legitimatize genderresearch?
Is doing gender researchalso doing equal opportunities work? Above, it is
clear that gender researchis legitimatised through equal opportunities work in
at least two ways: in that it contributes to equality of opportunity at
universities, and in that it provides a theoretical foundation for wellfunctioning equal opportunitieswork.
The connection between promoting gender research and recruiting the
underrepresented
sex is not a perfectly obvious one, and it is questionablehow
much weight this argumentcan tolerate.Genderresearchmay be seenas one
way of improving equality of opportunity, in that carrying out gender research
is one way of promoting greater equality in the researchenvironment, and the
recruitment of more female researchscholars.However, the extensionof this
argumentis basedon the preconceptionthat women should do their research
25
from a genderperspective.Not all women researchersare gendertheorists,nor
should they be. This truism must be borne in mind. The generalproblem of the
need to recruit more women into researchneither can nor should be solved by
earmarking funding for gender research.Female researchersshould not, any
more than male researchers,be isolated to any particular pigeonhole, to
separateproblems or disciplines.Nor should they be primarily financed with
"separate"
funding. Why should women have less freedom of choice?There is
anotherobvious risk, that this women's niche will be sidesteppedin relation to
"mainstream"
research,regardedas peripheral and far from the cutting edge of
research.
Moreover, the matter of who does gender research should be a genderneutral one. The field shouldbe equally open to men as to women.
Another way of using equal opportunities to Iegitimatize gender research
arises becausethe results of gender researchare eminently useful in equal
opportunitieswork in practice.Genderresearchdeepensour insights into the
problem complexessurroundingequal opportunities work, which is far more
than simply a matter of bringing an influence to bear on attitudes and
achieving fairer representationof both sexes,it is also vital to learn more abut
the underlying mechanisms.And not until that knowledge is applied in
practice can we find well-functioning strategiesand methods for practical
work with equal opportunities.
This does not, however, mean that gender research is part of equal
opportunitieswork, but ratherthat the resultsof genderresearchare applicable
to equal opportunitieswork. In other words: the findings from genderresearch
provide a point of departurefor carrying out successfulequal opportunities
work .28
This insight, that the findings from gender research provide a point of
departure for carrying out successful equal opportunities work but that they
must not be seen as part of the work itself, is probably the underlying
assumption of the statementof the Working Group on Equal Opportunities in
Higher Education and Researchto the effect that it is essentialto distinguish
betweengenderresearchand equal opportunitieswork. In the quotationabove,
gender as a research perspectiveis distinguished from equal opportunities
work in practice, the latter being describedas a political activity the aim of
which is to achieve fair representationbetweenthe sexes,in such a way that
2^8^fn"."
is a more powerful thesis claiming that gender research is an essential prerequisite for well-functioning,
effective equal opportunities work. Personally, I am inclined to agree.
26
both women and men will be able to leave their mark on education and
research.
The quotation referred to above also leads us to ask whether or not gender
research is normative. I discuss this question below, passing first through the
area where the question of how to define a feminist researcher is discussed.
Ulla M. Holm provides the following answer:
A feminist researcherdeclaresher stancein termsof women's politics,
i.e., she takes feminist stands and is a spokespersonfor ieminist
issues. Her research has explicitly normative aims. Her political
involvement meansspeakingout in favor of the liberation of *o*1
from various forms of oppression and discrimination. Her theoretical
considerationsrest on this involvement and are an indispensablepart
of this liberation process.2e
Here, Holm intertwinestwo ideasthat may also be separated,In her view, a
feminist researcheris characterizedby her political involvement, and in doing
feminist research she strives for women's liberation. Thus, the aim of her
research is emancipative. Moreover, a feminist's research is based on
analytical or theoretical perspectivesrooted in her politicat involvement.
According to Holm, this is a theoreticalgenderperspective.All feministsreject
androcentricperspectives,and some feminists also want to see gynocentric
perspectivesdeveloped.3o
Let us now make an analyticaldistinction betweenbasing one's researchon
somekind of theoreticalgenderperspectiveand working for women's political
or social rights in society. We might initially call these two activities
"feminism
in researchtheory" and "feminism in politics".
These two terms may be combined in four different ways, characterizing
four kinds of researchers:
1. Researcherswho are feminists in both the theoretical and the political
senses,and whoseresearchoften has explicitly emancipativeaims.
29
Hot., lJ., Modrande och praxis,Daidalos 1993, (..Mothering and praxis,,, p.33).
30ruia.p.tz.
In this quotation, it is understood that women researchersare being discussed. Can a man
be a feminist? Cannot
both women and men make analyses on the basis of a gender persfective and work to promote
equality of
opportunity? Or is it necessary.to have personal experience ofbeing subordinated owing
to on"', ,"* in order to
call oneself a feminist, in which casemen are excluded.Shall we .u=ytnut feminism."qoir.,
personalexperience
but that there can be gender researchersof both sexes?
27
2. Researcherswho are feminists in relation to theory but not in a political
sense. They will tend to make descriptive analyses based on a
perspectiveof gendertheory,without normativeobjectives.
3. Researcherswho are not feministsin either sense.
4. Researcherswho are not feminists in the theoretical sensebut who are
feminists in the political sense.Their researchis not emancipativein its
objectives, but these researcherswish to work to promote women's
liberation and the fulfillment of women's rights in other ways, for
instance through different kinds of equal opportunities work, through
joining women's networks,acting as mentors,etc.
It should be pointed out this set of analyticaldistinctions.In reality, most people
who refer to themselves as feminists are probably both theoretically and
politically engaged. Calling oneself a feminist is a declaration of political
ambitions.Still, the distinctionshave their function.
It is important to keep these four categoriesclear and not to confuse them.
To begin with, let us statethat genderresearchersare not necessarilyintent on
working for equal opportunities. Gender researchrtray have entirely different
aims. It is perfectly possible, and in my view quite suitable, to have a term
such as "gender research"that does not contains specifically normative aims.
Not until we do will we be able to highlight the problem complex containing
the field of tension between gender analysis and equal opportunities work.
There is no doubt that gender analyses do have their uses in equal
opportunities work in practice, and can provide a solid foundation for such
work. But gender researchper se does not have to be normative. It can be
carriedout as the pure pursuit of knowledge.
In summary,the resultsof genderresearchboth can and should be appliedto
equal opportunities work in practice. However, there is some question as to
whether equal opportunities work in practice must encouragegender research.
In practice, equal opportunities work requires not only the gender perspective
but other perspectivesas well. Equal opportunities work rests on an eclectic
theoretical foundation that also includes organizational theory, didactics,
sociology and psychology.
What, then, does it mean to pursueequal opportunitieswork from a gender
perspective?For example, the results of gender research may be used to
confirm that power is unfairly distributed to the advantage of men, that
women's reality is often described as an exception to the male norm, and that
the relationship between the sexes is in flux. And not until we have that
backgroundcan we make it clear why equal opportunitieswork is necessary,
28
or explain what fundamentalchangesin societywould have to take place if we
were to introduce a fair distribution of power betweenthe sexes.Although our
gender analysis was not performed to promote equal opportunities, it still gives
rise to questionssuch as the following: Why is there inequality today? Should
things not change?What would the consequences
of such changesbe?
Equal opportunitieswork without a genderperspectiveoften meansthat the
number of people of the underrepresented
sex in the (existing) organizationin
question increases,for example through recruitment campaigns.As we have
seen,such measuresmay be justified both in terms of justice and of quality
improvements.
Imposing a genderperspectiveon equal opportunitieswork meansworking
to ensurechangeswith a view to altering the structureof the organizationand
throwing its established norms and aims into question. This is a deeper
approach,in which equal opportunitieswork is basedon an understandingof
both the lack of equality in societyand of the mechanismsthat pose obstacles
to equality and that uphold unfair relationships between the sexes. This
understandingis vital to achieving sustainableequality of opportunity-and real
changein an organization.
What are the actual differences between working with equal opportunities
with and without a genderperspective?We can elucidatethis by examining an
example, using an explanatory model known as " the male as normative".
Equal opportunitieswork without a genderperspectivecan, for instance,mean
not taking account of the male norm. The practical consequenceis often that
the "shortcomings"of women or girls are highlighted: their lack of interestin
technologyand the natural sciences,their inability to "help themselvesto their
fair share", their disinterest in holding managementpositions, ad infinitum.
And it would then be these "faults" that were used to determine how equal
opportunities work in practice was formulated. Networks of mentors would be
set up, recruitment campaigns waged with a view to rectifying the problems
and thus increasingthe numbersof the underrepresented
sex,just to mention a
few examples.
Working with equal opportunitieson the basis of a gender perspective,on
the other hand, would mean consideringthe problem complex surroundingthe
male norm, and would cast an entirely different light on the matter. The
problem would no longer be regardedas a problem of women as individuals,
but rather as a problem in the organization and the surrounding society. This
would open people's eyes to the general structural discrimination of women
and women's experience.The aim of equal opportunitieswork would then be
29
to bring about comprehensivechangesin the organizationas one step in an indepth transformationof society.
To me, it seems indubitably to be the case that the gender perspective
providesa foundationfor well-functioning equalopportunitieswork. However,
we must not place blind faith in this perspective. As mentioned above,
effective equal opportunities work that successfullyincreasesthe room for
rnaneuver of the underrepresentedsex also requires perspectives from
disciplines other than gender research, such as organizational theory and
individual psychology.
3. Gender research, awarenessof sex and gender and education
To begin with, let us consider what it meansto be aware of sex and gender
when teaching, to organize the teaching situation with that awarenessin
mind.31
It is often maintained in this context that there must be equal and equally
self-evident room for both female and male perspectives in every teaching
situation. This requires awareness of elements that may be sexually
discriminating, on the part of teachersand students,in textbooks and in the
classroom situation, and of the invisibility (and masking) of women's
knowledge and perspectivesin the textbooks as well as in the classroom
situation. Awarenessof sex and genderin the classroommeansensuring that
the reading list contains works by both men and women, as well as ensuring
that the studentshave teachersof both sexes.In addition, the roles of both
female and male researchersand their work in the discipline must be clarified,
and teaching forms and methodsmust take the learning needs,knowledge gaps
and learning strategiesof both women and men into account.
How should the integration of awarenessof sex and gender in teachingbe
motivated? It can be done both in terms of equal opportunities, and without
referring to equality of opportunity at all. One way of justifying the need for
this awarenesswithout factoring in equal opportunities is to be purely didactic
about it. Above, we have described the view that different educational
3I
In this context, the authorities use expressions like "teaching with a gender perspective", see, for example,
Official Government Communication l999l2OC{J-24,Jrimstiilldhetspolitiken inftir 2000+aler, ('Equal
Opportunities Policy for the Twenty-first Century'', p. 65). My reasoning is based on a distinction between
organizing teaching with an awarenessofsex and gender, in other words taking sex/gender into account when
planning teaching, and teaching with a gender perspective. These mean two different things. One is teaching
about gender research, the other is analyzing the teaching situation from a gender perspective.
30
approachesneedto be usedfor girls and women than for boys and men, so that
they can develop their competence and learn in the optimal way. Taking
awarenessof sex and gender into account in the teaching situation is also
rooted in the idea that the needsof the two sexesare different in the classroom
situation. Girls define problems differently than boys, ask different questions
and imagine different solutions, and so they also need different educational
approaches.
Another didactic argumentfor being aware of sex and gender in the teaching
situation is basedon the insight that good teaching is teachingthat integrates
new experienceand knowledgewith a previously existing worldview. In other
words, the studentor pupil must be able to relate what the teacheris driving at
to him or herself and to personalexperience.To do this I must feel that the
experience of my sex is represented in the classroom. This is also a
prerequisitefor my being able to be sure of my own perspective,to come to
know that basis of my own thinking and argumentation.If I am not familiar
with it, I will not be able to developinto an independent,critical thinker.
It is also possible to justify the importanceof awarenessof sex and gender
in the teaching situation by saying that it promotes equality of opportunity.
Equal opportunitiesas a matter of justice require that school be a place where
girls and are treatedequivalently.In this respect,equivalent treatmentmeans
having respectfor the fact that girls and women need to be taught in different
ways than do boys and men. This, too, requiresawarenessof sex and genderin
the teachingsituation.As we saw in the sectionon equal opportunities,quality
andjustice, it is possibleto arguethat equality of opportunity generateshigher
quality in that it leads to skill enhancement.Introducing an awtuenessof sex
and genderinto the classroomsituation can also be seenas a way of utilizing
the female competencethe societyof the future will need.Femalecompetence
is an unexploited reserveon the labor market. And this is precisely how the
powers that be justify the introduction of gender into schools, as a way of
recruiting the underrepresented
sex.
It is worth pointing out how the differencesbetween the sexes are, once
again, a theme in the argumentsrelating to awarenessof sex and gender and
education.Does this eventually turn into a trap, when we insist on justifying
awarenessof sex and gender in the classroom in terms of the inherent
differencesbetweenthe sexes?
Let us distinguish between awarenessof sex and gender in the classroom
and investigatingthe teachingsituation with a genderperspective.How do we
define the latter? In my view, there are at least two options: teaching about
3I
gender research and analyzing the teaching situation through a gender
perspective, for example regarding a certain subject area through the gender
perspective or analyzing the classroom situation through the gender
perspective,by which I mean applying the perspectiveof power relations to
the sexesin the contextsof seminarculture, knowledgedissemination,reading
lists, etc. This is a way of sheddinglight on the problem complex of sex and
genderinsteadof (unreflectingly?)taking fundamentaldifferencesbetweenthe
sexesfor granted.New light is shed on the differencesbetweenthe sexesby
using the explanatorymodel of the male norm, for instance.
Both teaching about genderresearchand examining the teaching situation
through the gender perspectivemay be related back to equal opportunities
work, becauseboth these activities pave the way for gender awarenessand
insights about the need for equal opportunitieswork. They also pave the way
for critical attitudes and approaches,which, in turn, encourage independent,
critical thinking of all kinds.
32
Sexual harassment and equal opportunities
work
l.Introduction
On I July 1998 the provisions of the Swedish Equal Opportunities Act
regulating the obligation of an employer to prevent and counteract sexual
harassmentat the workplace were made more stringent. In short, the aim of this
amendmentwas to accentuatethe fact that sexual harassmentin working life is
not acceptable,to introduce a definition of sexual harassment.and to stressthe
obligationsof the employerto implementactive measuresto prevent,counteract
and deal with sexual harassment.A regulation was addedmaking the employer
liable to pay damagesif no measuresare taken in relation to reports of sexual
harassment.
This means that work to prevent sexual harassmentis, today, a legislated
aspectof equal opportunitieswork in Sweden.But what should an individual
actively working with equal opportunities do when the problem of sexual
harassmentarises?Is it a legal issue?A comprehensiveproblem in the work
environment?A matter of knowledge?Or is it a question of knowing how to
handleand report sexualharassment?
2. Theory and practice
The aim of this text is to discuss sexual harassmentagainst the backdrop of
working with equal opportunities in practice.
How does one formulate a theory about what happensin practice?This is a
highly problematic question. It is easy, for instance, either to
overintellectualize the matter, to shroud it in mystification, or to oversimplify
it in terms of black-and-whitedichotomies.How can such pitfalls -- the gross
dichotomies, the oversimplified views, and the altogether-too-heady
expositionsabout practices-- be avoided?They are often relatedto somekind
of theoreticalblock, such as trying to use one's pet theory as too sweepinga
point of departure, or not modifying an initial hypothesis after an encounter
with concreteexperience.
To formulate a useabletheory about practice,one should oscillate between
practical and theoreticalendeavors,as well as testing various theorieson the
same phenomenon.It is vital to take account of the full range of concrete
experience to be analyzed, rather than disregarding that which may be in
33
conflict with the theory being applied. I prefer an eclectic method in which
different theories are used to deal with different aspects of the experience
under study.
Sometimes it is necessaryto combine concepts from different areas in
creative ways, or to invent new ones, in order to develop an appropriate
conceptualapparatus.It may be necessaryto "start from scratch", by using
concrete experience as the platform and then "designing" the analysis so
different aspectsof this experienceis reflectedand described.The objective is
to analyze the practice in a manner that both does justice to the empirical
factors and avoids both overintellectualizaton and over simplifications.
The expression "sexual harassment" is used, as described below, to
designatea large number of extremely varied phenomena.In my view, this
makes it vital to put forward a multifaceted analysis before formulating an
action plan, if it is to work in practice.Moreover, this analysismust be much
more than the product of deskwork. It must emanatefrom experienceof people
working with sexualharassment.
3. What is sexual harassment?
How is sexualharassmentdefined?We find the following definition in section6
of the SwedishEqual OpportunitiesAct:
It is incumbent upon the employer to take measuresto prevent and
counteractany employee'sbeing subjectedto sexual harassmentor to
the negative consequencesof someone'sbeing reported for sexual
harassment.Sexual harassmentis defined as any unwelcomebehavior
related to sex and gender or unwelcomebehavior of a sexual nature
that violatesthe integrity of the employeeat the workplace.32
The expression"sexual harassment"is usedto denotetwo different phenomena:
sex-or-gender-relatedinsults and offensive actions of a sexual nature. One
exampleof the first type of sexualharassmentis when someoneis bullied, made
invisible, not take seriously,worked against,or ignored owing to his or her sex.
Offensive actions of a sexualnaturemay include sexual allusions in comments,
sexualjokes, touching, offensive looks or requestsfor sexualfavors in exchange
for reward or payment.
32
Th" content of this section is based on the preparatory work for a Swedish government draft bill 1997/98:55
Kv innofrid ("Protection of Women").
34
The core of the definition of sexual harassmentlies in the actions being
unwelcomeby the individual at whom they are aimed.It is not possibleto state
exactly how the person affectedshould indicate that the behavior of the other
party is not desirable.It may be done verbally or in writing. In some cases,
however, it is clear even without anything being done by the person affected
that the behavior of the subjecting party is undesirable and entails sexual
harassment.
The definition of sexual harassmentis basedon a subjectivecriterion: it is
up to the personbeing subjectedto the behavior to decide whether or not it is
desirableand what is offensive.This subjectivecriterion is basedon the right
of every individual to integrity and self-determination.
Why do we legislate about sexual harassmentat all? Sexual harassment
violatesthe right of the individual to personalintegrity and self-determination.
This does not only affect the personbeing subjectedto it, but impacts on the
entire workplace. Harassmentleads to tension in the atmosphere,and to many
people feeling insecure.People are upset, sensethat there is some kind of
abusive situation, and withdraw. At such a workplace, not only the person
being subjectedto the behavior in question works less than optimally -- even
his or her workmates' capacities to perform at work are affected. In other
words: productivity and creativity diminish.
Men harasswomen, women harassmen, men harassmen and women harass
women. Studies, however, indicate that the most frequent type of sexual
harassmentis when men harasswomen. For this reason it is assertedin the
preparatory work for a draft bill submitted to the Swedish parliament and
entitled Kvinnofrid ("Protection of Women") that it is important to consider
sexual harassmentfrom the perspectiveof sex/genderand power relations.
Sexual harassmentis an abuseof power on the part of the perpetrator, and it is
also one aspect of more systematic oppression of women. This is what
distinguishesit from bullying in general. Sexual harassmentis a means of
keeping women subordinate. For this reason, too, sexual harassmentis
consideredan issuerelatedto equal opportunities,which explains why the law
on sexual harassmentis an amendmentto the Equal Opportunities Act.
It is incumbent upon every employer to take measures to prevent and
counteractany employee's being subjectedto sexual harassment.Moreover,
the employer may be held liable to pay damagesif he does not institute an
investigation when someoneis reported for sexual harassment.The employer
must clearly take the stand that sexual harassmentwill not be toleratedat the
35
workplace. There must be a policy and routines for how reports of sexual
harassmentare to be dealt with, and the employeesmust know it.
It is first and foremost up to the person who has been subjectedto ensure
that the employer is aware that sexual harassmenthas occurred. However,
many people fear that they will not be believed. For this reason,it may be up
to a workmate or a trade union representativeto make what is going on known
to the employer. If the employer is to be obligated by law to act, on pain of
being held liable, the personwho has been subjectedmust at least confirm the
occuffenceof the sexualharassment.
In the preparatorywork for the Equal Opportunities Act, it is pointed out
that what measuresshould be taken when an individual experiencesthat he or
sheis begin sexuallyharassedmust be determinedfrom caseto case.However,
in all cases,the employer must immediately speak with the parties concerned
with a view to clarifying the circumstances surrounding the alleged
harassment.It is also statedthat the employer must try to obtain some idea of
the veracity of the information given by both parties, and decide what
measuresare neededto preventfurther occurrences.
4. Sexually offensive behavior
Let us now reexaminethe definition of sexual harassmentin somewhatgreater
detail, focusing on three of its main components:"harassment","unwelcome"
and "unwelcome behavior related to sex./gender".
The verb "to harass" normally implies conscious and intentional subjection
of an individual to ongoing discomfort.At any workplace,there are, however,
always actions of a sexually harassingnature but where the person performing
them does not intentionally mean to harass.The consciousintention may be
"to be nice" or to seekcontact.But even when the consciousintention is "to be
nice", the function of the action may be an offensive one, keeping the person
toward whom it is aimed from accomplishing things and from being
comfortable at the workplace. Although sexual harassmentmay be perfectly
conscious, it is often unconscious behaviot'3, and it is important to
acknowledge the gray zone of possible unconscious behavior. And the
intention of the harassing party may also be misinterpreted by the person at
whom it is aimed.For instance,there are caseswhere the one party has had no
33
Fo, u more detailed discussionof consciousand unconsciousaspectsof sexual harassment,see Mark, E., Vad
"What
dr sexuella trakasserier? (
is Sexual Harrassment?" in) Hriften ftr kritiska studier no.4, 1997.
35
scxual intention at all, but where the action has been interpreted as sexual by
tbc persontoward whom it was aimed, possibly as a kind of wish fulfillment.
When an action is said to be unwelcome,this does not always mean it was
not desiredby the person at whom it was aimed. And what about the person
who is being insulted -- does he or she always feel offended?Probably not. It
is not uncommon that a person subjectedto sexual harassmentconsidersthat
behavior a natural part of the patriarchal culture, while an outsider may think it
would be perfectly in order for that personto feel harassed.It is also possible
that the personwho was subjectedwill, later in life, retrospectivelychangehis
or her opinion and decide that he or she was truly being insulted at the time.3a
In that case, has the subjective criterion been fulfilled? The person being
harassedwill absolutely not want to file either an informal or a formal report.
This happensvery frequently
Unwelcomebehaviorrelating to a persons'se>r/gender
may be referredto as
"sexually offensive behavior". Sexually offensive
behavior is not usually a
consciousintent to offend, is not always physical behavior, and is not always
perceived as offensive by the person at whom it is aimed. Nonetheless,
sexuallyoffensive behavior is a seriousproblem in the work environment.Yet
it is not always regardedas such. Such behavior often consistsof quite small
commentsand innuendos,not per se always seriousenough to be very upset
about. Moreover, it is so common that we cannot reasonably be expected to
react to every single occunence.Often, sexually offensive behavior is even
part of the workplace culture and climate. But an individual who is
consistentlyor frequently subjectedto sexually offensive behavior is deeply
affected by it in the long run, irrespective of the extent to which he or she is
aware of it at the time. He or she may simply react with a feeling of not being
happy at the workplace,of fatigue, of lack of energy,of sensingthat he or she
is unwelcome, of diminished self-confidence, etc. Small insults have
cumulative effects, and eventually the reaction is explosive, at which point
othersmay react with surpriseand uncertainty:isn't this personexaggerating?
The small incident that triggered the reaction may not have been very serious.
However, it must be seenas part of a cumulative seriesof sexual insults and
innuendos.
This kind of sexuallyoffensivebehavioris not what one normally associates
with sexual harassment.In "Protection of Women", the expression "sexual
harassment"is describedas sometimesmisleading.It must be recalled that in
34
ttid. p. zt.
37
this context "sexual" meansrelated both to an individual's sex/genderand to
the sex act, as well as relatedto gender,and includeseverythingfrom sexually
offensive behavior and languageto any number of insulting actions somehow
having to do with sex/genderand sexualaffitiation. This acceptedterm is also
usedin the presentcontext,in awarenessof its limitations.
Clearly, there are problemsassociatedwith using it. Not only may the word
"sexual"
exacerbatecommunicationabout contextswhere non-sexualacts fall
under the umbrella of a conceptincluding the word sexual,but in addition this
may make working with sexual harassmentmore difficult, in that it is often a
matter of dealing with innuendo than with specifically sex-or-gender-related
acts. There is also a risk of temptation to oversexualize the problem in efforts
to be taken seriously.
The main issue at our workplaces is related not to sexual acts but to more or
less conscious sexually offensive behavior, often more of a verbal than a
physical nature.This also makesit difficult to rectify, since the changewould
have to involve a basic attitude shift, perhapsnot at the workplace so much as
in societyas a whole.
Sexually offensive behavior, sometimes unconsciously performed and
sometimesnot even perceived by the person at whom it is aimed, is an
expressionof institutionalized attitudes and power relations. It is subtle but
highly effective, and makes it more difficult for the underrepresentedsex to be
free and unencumbered at the workplace. In reality, sexually offensive
behavior underminesequality betweenthe sexesand this, in my view, is what
should be accentuatedwhen working to defeatsexualharassment.
5. Equal opportunities work and the law
Like much other legislation,the legal stipulationsprohibiting sexualharassment
give rise to difficulties of interpretation when they are implemented. As do most
legal acts, it contains ambiguitieswhich have to be clarified in concretecases
when the law is to be applied. Praxis is what definesthis kind of prohibition. Is
the fact that the law is basedon a subjectivecriterion to be seento meanthat the
person against whom the offense has been committed also has to admit feeling
sexually harassed?The main rule applied in the administrationof justice is that
every individual must take responsibilityfor his or her own actions.But that is
on the assumption that we act consciously and intentionally, and there are
exceptionsto this rule, laws in relation to which we nray be held responsible
even for unintentional, unconsciousactions. The ban on sexual harassmentis
38
particularly problematic, because such harassmenttakes place in situations
where the parties involved have highly differing opinions regarding what is
going on along the spectrum ranging from kind, encouraging attitudes to
sexually offensive behavior. How are matters decided in a court of law when
one person'sword standsagainstanother's?
The preparatory work for the Equal Opportunities Act indicates that it is to
be up to the personbeing subjectedto the behavior to decide whether or not it
is acceptable,and to define what is offensive. Are we to read this as meaning
that the way one human being approachesanother may only be defined as
sexual harassmentif and only if the one party goes on trying to approach the
other after an initial rejection? And if so, what are we to do about the very
common reaction among people who are subjectedto such behavior: feelings
of guilt and shameand the concomitantsilence?
Although the legal complexitiesof theseissuesare beyond the scopeof this
booklet, let us make a cursoryexaminationof the relationshipbetweenthe law
and equal opportunitieswork. Of course,pursuing equal opportunitieswork at
one's organization includes ensuring that the Equal Opportunities Act is
complied with. But that is not sufficient. We must also seethe legislation as an
opening to work with all sex and gender related problems in the work
environment,in the broadestand deepestsenseof the terms. If an unwelcome
approachcannot be regardedas a violation of the law, does that necessarily
make it unproblematicin terms of equality of opportunity?Of coursenot.
Another intention stated in the preliminary work for the legislation is that
the Act is to safeguardindividual integrity at work and in the workplace.
Although sexuallyoffensive behaviorthat takesplace outsidethe workplaceis
not criminaltzed under the Equal Opportunities Act, it may be punishable by
law pursuant to the Penal Code. If a teacher is at a party with his or her
students,is he or she on duty? If he or she makes a sexual approach to a
student, is that criminal, if not as a violation of the Equal Opportunities Act
then perhaps under the heading of "sexual molestation"? And if it is not
punishable by law at all, what can we do about it in our capacity as equal
opportunitiesofficials at our placesof work?
Working with sexual harassmentmust mean more than ensuring that the
Equal OpportunitiesAct is complied with. In my view, it is vital that we not
become fixated with the idea of filing formal reports or making informal
verbal ones, or with wondering about what punishmentmight fit the offense,
or with identifying the perpetrator. All these things may, of course, be
necessary,but truly comprehensiveequal opportunities work must focus on
39
pteventiott, on intotncration, asd os creatrng a gsod.scsrk e\xiron$\ent tor both
sexes.
Let us return for a moment to the example of the teacherwho attendsa party
with his or her students.Even if it is not punishableby law to approacha
studentit is, nevertheless,often eminently inappropriatein the given situation.
No one can forbid two consentingadults from falling in love, but becausea
studentis in a dependencyrelation to his or her teacher,it is certainly in order
to discuss the inappropriatenessof that kind of relationship. Is a pupil or a
studentable to say no to a teacher?
What are the best ways of pursuingequal opportunitieswork? In the section
above on equal opportunities,quality and justice, I statedthat one way is by
implementing concrete measures to ensure compliance with the Equal
Opportunities Act at any existing organization. Another is to regard equal
opportunities work as one part of the processof reforming an organization.
Equal opportunitieswork as part of a processof changeis basically a matterof
disseminationof knowledge.
Changing an organization so that it better reflects equality of opportunity is
often a matter of training the people who work there so they become aware of
the structuresand relationships to which they have previously been blind:
introducing a perspectiverelating to unfair treatmentof people on the basisof
their sex/genderwith a view to creating an organization the content of which
reflects traces of two sexes, and where work is carried out under terms and
conditions establishedby both sexes.What knowledge, then, is required in
order to pursuesuccessfulequal opportunitieswork?
To a large extent,the relationsbetweenthe sexesat any given workplaceare
largely unconsciousand unconsideredrather than being part of any thoughtthrough approach.Concrete measurestaken with a view to improving equality
of opportunity have very little effect as long as this remains the case.
Workplacesneedto developknowledgeprocessesthat raise awarenessof these
unconsciousattitudes, and until they do so there will be no motivation for
implementingmeasuresto improve equal opportunities.This essentialand also
preventive work entails explaining the often covert mechanismsunderlying
sexually offensive behavior and comments. We need to investigate the
mechanismsthat lead to inequality being maintained,and to take an open stand
againstthe abuseof power associatedwith sexualharassment.Another field of
knowledge that is a prerequisite for equal opportunities work is gender
analysis,the ability to see the world from the perspectivesof sex/genderand
power.
40
6. Sexual harassment and the gender perspective
Regardingsexualharassmentfrom a genderperspective(defined as a sex/gender
and power perspective)is rewarding in many ways. Such a perspectivesees
sexual harassmentas a way for the overrepresentedsex to exercisepower over
the underrepresented
sex, and to keep its membersin a subordinateposition. The
common denominator is the very idea that sexual harassmententails various
meansof exercisingpower. It is oppressionof a memberof the underrepresented
sex so that he or shefeels insulted,threatened,frightened,humiliated,powerless
and compelled into obedience.As we have seen above, this is not always
intentional, consciousexerciseof power, but can just as easily be unintentional
and unconscious.
Sexual harassmentoften takesplace in a situation where power is unevenly
distributed between the sexes, and where the male sex is hierarchically
superiorto the female sex. As men tend to be more often in power positions,
they are most often also the ones to commit sexualharassment.Moreover, the
person subjectedto the harassmentis often in a dependencyrelation to the
individual doing the harassing,who may be an advisor, a teacher,a supervisor
or someonein a managerialposition. These are also often people who are in
the know and whosejobs include helping others to develop and learn. These
individuals are often automatically treated with respect and trust, as well as
sometimesadmiration simply by virtue of their positions, and it is easy to take
advantageof such a position.3s
In equal opportunities contexts, the debate around sex/genderhas often
"gender
focused on the hypothesis that there is a supra-individual level, a
order". One central idea in this context is that the structures a"restronger than
the individual, and if the individual is replaced,the structureswill remain.This
may reveal itself, for instance,in the fact that women in managementpositions
sometimesalso prove to be harassers,as well as men. Quite simply, it is
inherent to the structure for people in managerial positions to behave in a
certain way. A structuralgenderperspectiveprovides one explanationof how
harassmentcan be "passeddown" at a workplace,that certain ways of acting
and behavingare tied to a particularposition.
If an individual is subjectedto sexual harassmentand brings it up, either
formally or informally, it is common for the managementto react by claiming
35
Th"r. may, however, be an elementof sexual harassmentin other relationshipsas well, for instancethe
harassing party may be the subordinate one, for instance when a students harasseshis or her teacher.
41
that the personin questionis particularly problematic.The genderperspective
shows that, instead, the problem is about the general structure of the
workplace.
People involved in working to combat sexual harassmentknow from
experiencethat the main problem is not the one people tend to be concerned
about -- that there will be unfoundedreportsof sexualharassment.Instead,the
main problem is the compact silence of the sexually harassed.Many fewer
repofts of sexual harassmentare lodged than would be reflective of the actual
occurence of harassment.This silencecan also be at least partially explained
through the gender perspective as a perspective relating to sex/gender and
power. The harassedindividual is often in a dependencyposition in relation to
the harasser,is often in a subordinateposition in the power relationship.The
fear of retaliation is great in such a situation. But other perspectives than
simply the gender perspective are necessary if we are to analyze sexual
harassmentin a way that opensup for equal opportunities work in practice.
An institutionalized position may be held by different individuals. The
position is a socially-establishedpattern of action and must be distinguished
from the individual holding it. Although there is something to be said for
highlighting the institutionalized position rather than the individual, it may be
jut as fruitful to do the opposite, and emphasizethe role of the individual at the
expenseof the institutionalizedposition.
Although it is true that, consciously or unconsciously, we do take over
attitudes associatedwith different institutionalized positions, there is also a
personaldimensionin termsof how the individual respondsto the expectations
associatedwith different social positions. We have the freedom to choose our
way of relating to social expectations: we may adopt them unthinkingly, we
may consciouslyacceptthem, we may revolt againstthem, etc.
In awarenessof the ambiguity of this situation, let us then distinguish
betweenthe gender perspectivein a structural senseand gender as an aspectof
our identity, and let us also distinguishbetweenpower in a structuralsenseand
power in a phenomenologicalsense.
7. Power in the structural and phenomenological senses
Imposing a gender perspectivemeansusing se></gender
or sexual affiliation as
an analytical instrument, a tool to be applied to different phenomena and
different levels of analysis. As we have seen, it is extremely useful in the
42
analysisof sexualharassmentto usethe genderperspectiveat the structurallevel
in the form of a perspectiverelating to sex/genderand power.
This reveals a structural imbalance between the sexes in an organization.
The organization is run by men and is shaped on the basis of their needs.
Sexual harassmentis one of the mechanismsunderpinningthe maintenanceof
this male supremacy,and is an exampleof what happenswhen the freedom of
maneuverof the underrepresented
sex is reducedand controlled. What we are
now discussing is sex/genderat the structural level, although there are, of
course,individual women and men whose actions will not correspondto this
description.
Human identity is extremely complex. We are corporeal beings,
autonomousagents,social, communicators,etc.36When we relate gender to
our identity, we must examine the relationship between sex/genderand each of
these aspects.And they must be examined both individually and in their
interrelations. For instance, regarding the relationship between gender and
socialization gives rise to other analytical problems than examining the
relationship between gender and autonomy. In addition, we must distinguish
between gender in the structural sense and gender as one aspect of human
identity.
Above, we have discussedpower at the structurallevel, for instancepower
in its capacity as the influence of the organization on its members when it
comesto jargon or the social atmosphere.Sexual harassmentis often, in fact,
part of that jargon or atmosphere.
Moving on to examine sex/genderas one aspect of our identity at the level
of the individual psyche, the discussionof power shifts to a different level.
Here, what is at issueis how we experiencepower, i.e. power as apprehended
"from inside". This
may be referred to as power in the phenomenological
sense,power as perceivedthrough our experience.Let us now link power in
the phenomenologicalsenseto sexualharassment.How is this form of exercise
of power experienced"from inside"?
Naturally, a person subjectedto sexual harassmentmay react in any number
of different ways, and there are risks associatedwith generalizing. However, it
is not unusual for the situation to be experienced as uncertain and vague, in
spite of the belief that we "know" what things are like for the underrepresented
sex in an organization characterized by inequality. A person subjected to
harassmentoften loses his or her footing and becomesconfused. He or she
36
See Mark, Eva., Siiitvbilder och jagkonstitution,Acta Philosophica Gothoburgensia, no.7, 1998. ("Selfimages and Ego Constitution")
43
turns the blame inward, is ashamed,is afraid of reprisals,does not trust her or
her own experience,and protects the perpetrator.There may also be some
resistanceto admitting that one is a "victim" of unfair treatment.It is both a
difficult and a painful insight in itself to admit that one is being treated
unjustly. Human beings also possessa certain healthy resistanceto being
defined as victims.
A frequent result of resisting the insight that one is being subjectedto
structuralinjustice is that one ceasesto trust one's own observations,feelings
and thoughts,and begins to regard some side of oneself -- such as poor selfconfidence,the idea that one is incompetent,etc. -- as being at the root of the
problem.
The relatively small number of both formal reports and informal complaints
lodged is mainly attributed to the fact that the person being subjectedto the
harassmentfaults him or herselfwith the problem.Another factor is the way in
which sexual harassmenthas become a more or less acceptedelement of an
organization's culture, so the person often feels there will be no help
forthcoming.
8. Gender, socialization and autonomy
One consequenceof using genderin the structuralsenseis that superiority and
subordinationof positions in a hierarchy are accentuated,and the exerciseof
power associated with this phenomenon becomes clear. The following
stereotype appears: the female is subordinate, powerless and subjected to
various forms of more or less covert exerciseof power. The male is typically
superior,hasfreedomof action, and is in possessionof both formal and informal
power.
There is a clear risk in this respectthat the genderperspectivewill result in
an exaggerationof the way we discuss women as victims: the victims of
oppression,the victims of failure, limitations and narrow options. In addition
to which we will regard the surrounding society as oppressive and
discriminating.
We live in a world permeatedby neitherjustice nor equality. If we are to
achievea society where equal opportunitiesreign, there is no questionthat we
must point out the incongruitiesand develop satisfactorytools with which to
analyze them. The gender perspectivein the structural sense is one such
instrument.But the result of such analysesmust not be a policy of discontent
which lacks clout and is associatedwith bitternessover lost opportunities.
44
In this context,gendermust be highlighted as one aspectof our identity, and
we must see its relationship to the autonomy aspect of the ego of every
individual. We must also stressthat woman is a human being with freedomto
act, an independentagent who can bring an influence to bear. We must then
seethat sexual harassrnentis, precisely,an impediment to action, a restriction
on freedomof action.
Our behavior is rooted both in socialization and autonomy, to different
extentsand in different ways for every individual. Certain socially-determined
positions imply very little autonomy. There are occasions on which we
unreflectingly fulfill the expectationsof others and act as if we were virtually
"socially determined". But
there are other occasionson which we act with
great independenceand in violation of social conventionsand expectations.
Of course,not everything is possible.We live in a world that restricts our
options for action. To some extent, these restrictions are attributable to the
unequal conditions applying to women and men. This is the context in which
we, as agents, can act. But we can also change the context in which we
operate. This is the aim of working with sexual harassment:to change the
work environmentto one in which suchoffensesdo not occur.
It is possible to reform basic structures,both in an organization and in
society as a whole. But doing so is extremely demanding and requires
acceptingthe notion that things could be different, analyzingthe situation and
being able to see its opportunities, possessingthe capacity to bring about
change,and having the opportunity to utilize this ability.
To a large extent,equal opportunitieswork with a view to combatingsexual
harassmentis about circulating information that will enableevery individual to
personally analyze the situation in order to open up to efforts to achieve
change.Such an analysiscan give a person who is being harassedthe power
and the energyto act insteadof remaining in an enervatingstateof confusion.
And it may sow the seedsof self-insightin the harasser.
+>
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GOTEBORG
UNIVERSITY