Graduate Journal of Asia-Pacific Studies
2:1 (2004), 21-31
A Righter Shade of Pale: Literary Portrayals of
Passing in a Colonial World
ȱ
KathyȱOOIȱ
UniversityȱofȱAucklandȱ
ȱ
‘Toȱcomeȱfromȱaȱbackgroundȱofȱbeingȱwhite,ȱChristianȱandȱsoȬcalledȱ‘civilised’,ȱwasȱtoȱ
beȱright;ȱwasȱtoȱhaveȱtheȱpowerȱofȱlawȱandȱstateȱandȱwealth,ȱaȱcertainȱwayȱofȱthinkingȱ
andȱfeelingȱonȱyourȱside.’1
PatriciaȱGrace,ȱBabyȱNoȬEyesȱ
ȱ
IFȱ COLONIALISMȱ isȱ asȱ blatantlyȱ biasedȱ asȱ Patriciaȱ Grace’sȱ novelȱ Babyȱ NoȬEyesȱ
suggests,ȱ whatȱ actionsȱ mayȱ colonizedȱ subjectsȱ resortȱ toȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ surviveȱ theȱ
conditionsȱ thatȱ areȱ imposedȱ uponȱ them?ȱ Myȱ articleȱ looksȱ atȱ theȱ recentȱ writingsȱ ofȱ
threeȱ indigenousȱ women,ȱ Louiseȱ Erdrich’sȱ fictionalȱ novelȱ Tracks,ȱ Sallyȱ Morgan’sȱ
biographicalȱtestimonioȱMyȱPlaceȱandȱMihiȱEdwards’ȱautobiographiesȱMihipeka:ȱEarlyȱ
Years,ȱMihipeka:ȱTimeȱofȱTurmoilȱandȱMihipeka:ȱCallȱofȱanȱElder,ȱwhichȱsuggestȱthatȱoneȱ
possibleȱanswerȱliesȱinȱtheȱactȱofȱ‘racialȱpassing’.ȱJustȱwhatȱracialȱpassingȱconstitutes,ȱ
andȱ howȱ itȱ relatesȱ toȱ essentialistȱ understandingsȱ ofȱ racialȱ identity,ȱ willȱ beȱ myȱ firstȱ
pointȱofȱdiscussion.ȱIȱcontendȱthatȱpassingȱdoesȱnotȱsimplyȱentailȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱaȱ
‘false’ȱracialȱidentity,ȱandȱmyȱexaminationȱofȱportrayalsȱofȱpassingȱinȱliteratureȱtracesȱ
waysȱ inȱ whichȱ passingȱ isȱ understoodȱ andȱ representedȱ toȱ aȱ widerȱ audience.ȱ Myȱ
discussionȱ focusesȱ onȱ howȱ eachȱ textȱ depictsȱ theȱ passersȱ attitudeȱ towardsȱ theȱ
Europeanȱ societyȱ theyȱ wishȱ toȱ blendȱ into,ȱ andȱ theȱ economic,ȱ religious,ȱ andȱ
educationalȱfactorsȱthatȱareȱinvolvedȱinȱshapingȱtheȱpassers’ȱmindsets.ȱȱ
ItȱisȱimportantȱtoȱnoteȱthatȱErdrich’sȱTracksȱisȱfictional,ȱwhereasȱMorgan’sȱMyȱ
Placeȱ andȱ Edwards’ȱ Mihipekaȱ volumesȱ areȱ biographicalȱ inȱ nature.ȱ However,ȱ ratherȱ
thanȱpolarisingȱtheȱfictionȱofȱpassingȱinȱTracksȱagainstȱtheȱrealȱlifeȬstoriesȱofȱpassingȱ
inȱ Myȱ Placeȱ andȱ theȱ Mihipekaȱ volumes,ȱ myȱ discussionȱ adoptsȱ theȱ stanceȱ thatȱ theȱ
passersȱofȱ eachȱ textȱ areȱ toȱ beȱ readȱ asȱ carefullyȱcraftedȱ characters,ȱ vehiclesȱ throughȱ
whichȱErdrich,ȱMorganȱandȱEdwardsȱattemptȱtoȱunderstandȱandȱrepresentȱpassing.ȱ
AlthoughȱtheȱpassersȱinȱMorgan’sȱandȱEdwards’ȱtextsȱareȱbasedȱonȱpeopleȱinȱrealȱlife,ȱ
Iȱargueȱthatȱbiographicalȱwritingȱdoesȱnotȱsimplyȱfunctionȱasȱaȱtransparentȱwindowȱ
toȱ theȱ past.ȱ Theȱ actȱofȱ representingȱ anȱ ‘actual’ȱpersonȱ throughȱ literatureȱ involvesȱ aȱ
degreeȱofȱdeliberatedȱconstructionȱonȱtheȱwriter’sȱpart,ȱevenȱifȱitȱmayȱnotȱbeȱentirelyȱ
theȱproductȱofȱtheȱwriter’sȱimagination.ȱConsequently,ȱmyȱanalysisȱisȱlimitedȱtoȱtheȱ
literaryȱ portrayalsȱ ofȱ theȱ passersȱ inȱ Tracks,ȱ Myȱ Placeȱ andȱ theȱ Mihipekaȱ volumes,ȱ asȱ
opposedȱtoȱaȱcommentaryȱonȱpassersȱinȱrealȱlife.ȱȱ
Althoughȱ theȱ colonialȱ conditionsȱ Nativeȱ Americanȱ Indians,ȱ Australianȱ
AboriginalsȱandȱNewȱZealandȱMaoriȱfacedȱwereȱnotȱidenticalȱtoȱeachȱother,ȱIȱbelieveȱ
itȱisȱanȱinterestingȱexerciseȱtoȱcompareȱtheȱnarrativesȱofȱwomenȱfromȱthreeȱdifferentȱ
indigenousȱ communitiesȱ andȱ outlineȱ theȱ connectionsȱ andȱ contrastsȱ Iȱ seeȱ betweenȱ
Ooi/A Righter Shade of Pale
21
theirȱstories.ȱAȱcommonȱfeatureȱthatȱTracks,ȱMyȱPlaceȱandȱtheȱMihipekaȱvolumesȱshareȱ
isȱthatȱalthoughȱtheyȱwereȱwrittenȱwithinȱtheȱlastȱtwentyȱyears,ȱtheirȱnarrativesȱareȱ
setȱinȱtheȱearlyȱtoȱmidȬtwentiethȱcentury.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱhowȱtheȱtextsȱdepictȱpassing,ȱ
andȱ theȱ colonialȱ conditionsȱ ofȱ theȱ past,ȱ isȱ suggestiveȱ ofȱ Erdrich’s,ȱ Morgan’sȱ andȱ
Edwards’ȱ personalȱ negotiationȱ withȱ passingȱ andȱ historyȱ asȱopposedȱ toȱ aȱ definitiveȱ
andȱtimelessȱstatementȱonȱpassingȱasȱaȱwhole.ȱȱ
ȱ
PassingȱandȱRacialȱIdentityȱ
‘Forȱallȱpracticalȱpurposesȱ“passing”ȱmeansȱthatȱaȱNegroȱbecomesȱaȱwhiteȱman,ȱthatȱ
is,ȱmovesȱfromȱtheȱlowerȱtoȱtheȱhigherȱcaste.ȱInȱtheȱAmericanȱcasteȱorder,ȱthisȱcanȱbeȱ
accomplishedȱ onlyȱ byȱ theȱ deceptionȱ ofȱ theȱ whiteȱ peopleȱ withȱ whomȱ theȱ passerȱ
comesȱtoȱassociateȱandȱbyȱaȱconspiracyȱofȱsilenceȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱotherȱNegroesȱwhoȱ
mightȱknowȱaboutȱit.’2ȱSociologistȱGunnarȱMyrdal’sȱdefinitionȱexemplifiesȱaȱcommonȱ
presumptionȱthatȱpassingȱisȱanȱactȱofȱpretence,ȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱaȱ‘false’ȱracialȱidentityȱ
thatȱ isȱ simplyȱ motivatedȱ byȱ theȱ individual’sȱ desireȱ forȱ socialȱ andȱ economicȱ gain.ȱ
Broadlyȱspeaking,ȱpassingȱinvolvesȱindividualsȱofȱmixedȱancestryȱwho,ȱinȱhavingȱtheȱ
physicalȱ appearanceȱ toȱ makeȱ itȱ viable,ȱ projectȱ themselvesȱ asȱ fullȬbloodedȱ andȱ
belongingȱ toȱ onlyȱ oneȱ racialȱ group.ȱ Myrdal’sȱ definitionȱ ofȱ theȱ passerȱ asȱ ‘Negro’ȱ
ignoresȱ theȱ mixedȱ ancestryȱ ofȱ theȱ passer,ȱ whichȱ isȱ whatȱ enablesȱ passingȱ toȱ beȱ
possibleȱinȱtheȱfirstȱplace.ȱMyrdal’sȱessentialistȱunderstandingȱofȱraceȱappearsȱtoȱstillȱ
beȱ influencedȱ byȱ theȱ ‘Oneȱ Dropȱ Rule’,ȱ aȱ legalȱ practiceȱ inȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Statesȱ inȱ theȱ
1850s.ȱTheȱ‘OneȱDropȱRule’ȱclassifiedȱanȱindividualȱasȱ‘white’ȱifȱallȱtheȱindividual’sȱ
ancestorsȱwereȱofȱEuropeanȱdescent;ȱconversely,ȱoneȱwasȱconsideredȱ‘Negro’ȱifȱanyȱofȱ
theȱindividual’sȱancestorsȱwereȱAfricanȱAmerican,ȱtheȱnameȱofȱtheȱruleȱthusȱreferringȱ
toȱ theȱ beliefȱ thatȱ itȱ takesȱ onlyȱ oneȱ dropȱ ofȱ Africanȱ bloodȱ forȱ anȱ individualȱ toȱ beȱ
classifiedȱ asȱ ‘Negro’.3ȱ Thisȱ dichotomousȱ approachȱ toȱ raceȱ mayȱ beȱ theȱ basisȱ forȱ
Myrdal’sȱ problematicȱ assumptionȱ thatȱ theȱ passer’sȱ ‘true’ȱ identityȱ isȱ unequivocallyȱ
‘Negro’,ȱevenȱthoughȱtheȱpasserȱhasȱEuropeanȱancestryȱasȱwell.ȱMyrdal’sȱattemptȱtoȱ
assignȱracialȱidentityȱintoȱanȱeither/orȱparadigmȱdeniesȱthoseȱwithȱmixedȱancestryȱtheȱ
legitimacyȱ toȱ makeȱ claimsȱ onȱ allȱ portionsȱ ofȱ theirȱ genealogy.ȱ Ironically,ȱ althoughȱ
constructsȱ ofȱ ‘race’ȱ emphasizeȱ bloodlinesȱ asȱ theȱ meansȱ toȱ determineȱ one’sȱ racialȱ
classification,ȱ ‘passing’ȱ asȱ itȱ isȱ understoodȱ inȱ Myrdal’sȱ terms,ȱ condemnsȱ theȱ
individualȱ whoȱ hasȱ theȱ biologicalȱ linkȱ toȱ identifyȱ withȱ aȱ groupȱ forȱ attemptingȱ toȱ
‘deceive’.ȱ Wereȱ theȱ mixedȱ ancestriesȱ ofȱ individualsȱ acceptedȱ asȱ theyȱ areȱ andȱ notȱ
ascribedȱ toȱ eitherȱ oneȱ racialȱ labelȱ orȱ another,ȱ theȱ phenomenonȱ ofȱ ‘passing’ȱ wouldȱ
ceaseȱtoȱexist.ȱSoȱlongȱasȱ‘race’ȱisȱperceivedȱtoȱconstituteȱbiologicallyȱdistinctȱgroups,ȱ
withȱ noȱ opportunitiesȱ forȱ anȱ overlap,ȱ theȱ constructedȱ bordersȱ thatȱ distinguishȱ oneȱ
raceȱfromȱanotherȱremainȱtoȱbeȱ‘passed’ȱthrough.ȱȱ ȱ
Homiȱ K.ȱ Bhabha’sȱ workȱ onȱ culturalȱ hybridityȱ challengesȱ dualisticȱ notionsȱ ofȱ
raceȱandȱisȱthereforeȱpertinentȱtoȱtheȱconceptȱofȱpassing.ȱRatherȱthanȱlimitingȱtheȱideaȱ
ofȱcultureȱtoȱtheȱheritageȱeachȱethnicȱgroupȱpossesses,ȱBhabhaȱarguesȱthatȱcultureȱisȱ
dynamicȱ andȱ alwaysȱ formingȱ atȱ theȱ siteȱ ofȱ interactionȱ betweenȱ twoȱ groups.4ȱ Inȱ aȱ
colonialȱcontext,ȱtheȱcontactȱbetweenȱtheȱculturesȱofȱtheȱcoloniserȱandȱtheȱcolonisedȱ
producesȱaȱthirdȱandȱequallyȱlegitimateȱhybridȱculture.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱcolonisersȱseekȱ
toȱ transmitȱ theirȱculturalȱ valuesȱ andȱ practicesȱontoȱ theȱcolonised,ȱ Bhabhaȱcontendsȱ
thatȱ theȱ colonisedȱ doȱ notȱ becomeȱ exactȱ replicasȱ ofȱ theirȱ colonisers.5ȱ Instead,ȱ theȱ
colonisedȱmayȱadoptȱcertainȱpracticesȱofȱtheȱcoloniser,ȱbutȱinȱdoingȱso,ȱthatȱpracticeȱisȱ
22
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appropriatedȱ toȱ theȱ colonisedȱ contextȱ andȱ newȱ meaningsȱ areȱ investedȱ inȱ it.ȱ Thisȱ
processȱ ofȱ hybridizationȱ isȱ whatȱ Iȱ argueȱ takesȱ placeȱ inȱ Tracks,ȱ Myȱ Placeȱ andȱ theȱ
Mihipekaȱ volumes.ȱ Erdrich,ȱ Morganȱ andȱ Edwardsȱ presentȱ passingȱ asȱ anȱ
appropriationȱofȱtheȱcoloniser’sȱculture,ȱnotȱasȱaȱcompleteȱassimilationȱintoȱit.ȱȱ
Passingȱproducesȱanȱunsettlingȱeffectȱonȱtheȱbeliefȱthatȱone’sȱracialȱidentityȱcanȱ
beȱdiscernedȱbyȱsight.ȱTermedȱtheȱ‘logicȱofȱvisibility’ȱbyȱLindaȱSchlossberg6,ȱinstancesȱ
ofȱ successfulȱ passingȱ exposeȱ howȱ untenableȱ suchȱ anȱ approachȱ is.ȱ Asȱ Adrianȱ Piperȱ
pointsȱout,ȱthereȱisȱnoȱparticularȱsetȱofȱphysicalȱcharacteristicsȱthatȱallȱdescendentsȱofȱ
aȱ racialȱ groupȱ share;ȱ racialȱ kinshipȱ isȱ notȱ locatedȱ inȱ biologyȱ butȱ inȱ ‘theȱ sharedȱ
experienceȱ ofȱ beingȱ visuallyȱ orȱ cognitivelyȱ identified’ȱ asȱ ‘other’ȱ byȱ society,ȱ andȱ
undergoingȱ ‘theȱ damagingȱ effectsȱ ofȱ thatȱ identification.’7ȱ Passingȱ provokesȱ anxietyȱ
andȱmoralȱcondemnationȱbecauseȱitȱilluminatesȱhowȱshiftyȱtheȱconstructionȱofȱraceȱis,ȱ
yet,ȱasȱSchlossbergȱpointsȱout,ȱitȱisȱnotȱnecessarilyȱanȱactȱofȱsubversion.8ȱIndividualsȱ
whoȱpassȱgenerallyȱfeelȱthatȱtheyȱareȱofȱaȱminorityȱidentityȱandȱwishȱtoȱblendȱintoȱtheȱ
mainstream.ȱByȱpassingȱasȱaȱmemberȱofȱtheȱpresumedȱnorm,ȱtheȱindividualȱrendersȱ
hisȱ orȱ herȱ minorityȱ identityȱ invisible.ȱ However,ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ passingȱ doesȱ notȱ
conspicuouslyȱchallengeȱtheȱlargerȱsocialȱhierarchiesȱinȱplace,ȱitȱsubvertsȱinȱenablingȱ
theȱpasserȱtoȱslipȱthroughȱtheȱboundariesȱthatȱwereȱdesignedȱtoȱkeepȱtheȱpasserȱout.ȱ
Byȱattainingȱtheȱprivilegesȱthatȱareȱofficiallyȱunavailableȱtoȱthoseȱofȱtheȱpasser’sȱrace,ȱ
theȱpasserȱfloutsȱtheȱsystem,ȱevenȱifȱheȱorȱsheȱdoesȱnotȱtakeȱpoliticalȱactionȱagainstȱit.ȱ
Myȱ ensuingȱ discussionȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ Tracks,ȱ Myȱ Placeȱ andȱ theȱ Mihipekaȱ volumes’ȱ
representationȱofȱtheȱpassersȱcaptureȱthisȱtensionȱbetweenȱsubversiveȱresistanceȱandȱ
complicity.ȱȱ
Aȱskeletalȱoutlineȱofȱeachȱnarrativeȱisȱinȱorderȱhere.ȱTheȱnovelȱTracksȱfeaturesȱ
theȱstrugglesȱofȱaȱChippewaȱcommunityȱlivingȱonȱaȱreservationȱnearȱNorthȱDakota.ȱ
Pauline,ȱ whoȱ hasȱ Chippewaȱ andȱ Europeanȱ ancestry,ȱ soȱ desiresȱ toȱ beȱ acceptedȱ asȱ aȱ
fullȬbloodedȱEuropean,ȱsheȱeventuallyȱconvincesȱherselfȱthatȱherȱChippewaȱancestryȱ
isȱ aȱ ‘mistake’.ȱ Paulineȱ subsequentlyȱ takesȱ onȱ theȱ missionaryȱ roleȱ ofȱ herȱ Europeanȱ
colonizersȱ inȱ seekingȱ toȱ convertȱ theȱ ‘heathen’ȱ Chippewaȱ communityȱ sheȱ hadȱ
originallyȱ grownȱ upȱ in.ȱ Inȱ Myȱ Place,ȱ theȱ realȱ lifeȬstoriesȱ ofȱ threeȱ womenȱ withȱ
Aboriginalȱancestryȱareȱrecounted.ȱSallyȱbeginsȱwithȱherȱtaleȱofȱgrowingȱupȱunawareȱ
ofȱherȱAboriginalȱancestryȱbecauseȱherȱmotherȱGladysȱandȱgrandmotherȱDaisyȱhaveȱ
spentȱ mostȱ ofȱ theirȱ livesȱ passing.ȱ Theȱ narrativeȱ isȱ thenȱ takenȱ upȱ byȱ Gladys,ȱ andȱ
finallyȱ Daisy,ȱ whoȱ eachȱ retellȱ theirȱ experiencesȱ ofȱ colonialȱ conditionsȱ fromȱ aȱ firstȱ
personȱ perspective.ȱ Becauseȱ Gladysȱ andȱ Daisyȱ areȱ theȱ charactersȱ whoȱ makeȱ aȱ
consciousȱeffortȱtoȱpass,ȱmyȱdiscussionȱwillȱconcentrateȱlargelyȱonȱtheseȱtwoȱwomenȱ
ratherȱ thanȱ Sally.ȱ Finally,ȱ Mihipeka:ȱ Earlyȱ Years,ȱ Mihipeka:ȱ Timeȱ ofȱ Turmoilȱ andȱ
Mihipeka:ȱ Callȱ ofȱ anȱ Elderȱ areȱ theȱ threeȱ volumesȱ ofȱ Mihiȱ Edwards’ȱ autobiography.ȱ
BroughtȱupȱbyȱherȱMaoriȱgrandparents,ȱMihi’sȱprideȱinȱbeingȱpartȱMaoriȱsoonȱfadesȱ
whenȱsheȱundergoesȱtheȱEuropeanȱeducationȱsystem.ȱInȱherȱbeliefȱthatȱsheȱwillȱgainȱ
betterȱeconomicȱandȱsocialȱopportunities,ȱMihiȱchoosesȱtoȱpassȱforȱmuchȱofȱherȱadultȱ
yearsȱbutȱeventuallyȱexperiencesȱaȱchangeȱofȱheartȱandȱreaffirmsȱherȱMaoriȱidentityȱ
onceȱmore.ȱȱ
ȱ
MoneyȱTalksȱ
Uponȱ encounteringȱ Europeanȱ society,ȱ Mihi,ȱ Daisy,ȱ Gladysȱ andȱ Paulineȱ becomeȱ
acutelyȱ awareȱ ofȱ theȱ economicȱ marginalityȱ ofȱ theirȱ ownȱ indigenousȱ communities.ȱ
Ooi/A Righter Shade of Pale
23
Paulineȱ andȱ Mihiȱ growȱ discontentȱ withȱ theȱ humbleȱ lifestyleȱ theirȱ Chippewaȱ andȱ
Maoriȱcommunitiesȱrespectivelyȱoffer.ȱTheȱEuropeanȱ(Pakeha)ȱschoolȱthatȱMihiȱgoesȱ
toȱ ‘wasȱ veryȱ nice,ȱ notȱ likeȱ atȱ home.ȱ Iȱ wasȱ feelingȱ whakamaȱ [ashamed]ȱ aboutȱ ourȱ
houseȱwhenȱIȱsawȱtheȱschool.’9ȱInȱMyȱPlace,ȱGladys’sȱattitudeȱtoȱEuropeanȱsociety’sȱ
affluenceȱ altersȱ overȱ time.ȱ Broughtȱ upȱ inȱ aȱ householdȱ withȱ privilegedȱ Europeanȱ
children,ȱsheȱ initiallyȱfailsȱ toȱunderstandȱ thatȱ asȱtheȱ Aboriginalȱ servant’sȱ daughter,ȱ
sheȱisȱconsideredȱinferior.ȱRealizationȱonlyȱstrikesȱherȱwhenȱJuneȱreceivesȱaȱEuropeanȱ
princessȱ dollȱ andȱ sheȱ getsȱ aȱ blackȱ servantȱ dollȱ thatȱ isȱ dressedȱ likeȱ herȱ mother.ȱ ‘Iȱ
staredȱ atȱ thisȱ dollȱ forȱ aȱ minute.ȱ Iȱ wasȱ completelyȱ stunned.ȱ That’sȱ me,ȱ Iȱ thought,ȱ Iȱ
wantedȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ princess,ȱ notȱ aȱ servant.ȱ Iȱ wasȱ soȱ upsetȱ thatȱ whenȱ Aliceȱ placedȱ theȱ
blackȱ dollȱ inȱ myȱ arms,ȱ Iȱ couldn’tȱ helpȱ flingingȱ itȱ ontoȱ theȱ floorȱ andȱ screaming,ȱ “Iȱ
don’tȱwantȱaȱblackȱdoll,ȱIȱdon’tȱwantȱaȱblackȱdoll.”’10ȱȱ
ToȱGladys,ȱtheȱdollȱfunctionsȱasȱanȱunwelcomeȱreminderȱofȱherȱmother’sȱlowlyȱ
statusȱinȱtheȱhousehold,ȱwhichȱinȱturnȱdestabilizesȱGladys’sȱownȱsenseȱofȱbelonging.ȱ
‘Iȱ wasȱ suddenlyȱ unsureȱ ofȱ myȱ placeȱ inȱ theȱ world.ȱ Iȱ stillȱ ateȱ withȱ theȱ familyȱ inȱ theȱ
diningȬroom,ȱ butȱ Iȱ feltȱ likeȱ anȱ outsider,ȱ especiallyȱ whenȱ Aliceȱ wouldȱ ringȱ aȱ littleȱ
brassȱ bellȱ andȱ myȱ motherȱ wouldȱ comeȱ inȱ andȱ waitȱ onȱ us.’11ȱ Althoughȱ Gladysȱ hadȱ
beenȱreceivingȱaȱprivilegedȱchild’sȱtreatmentȱinȱtheȱDrakeȬBrockmanȱhousehold,ȱtheȱ
dollȱabruptlyȱshattersȱherȱfantasyȱthatȱsheȱisȱacceptedȱasȱaȱfullyȬfledgedȱmemberȱofȱ
theȱfamily.ȱMyȱPlaceȱstronglyȱhintsȱthatȱGladys’sȱfatherȱisȱHowardȱDrakeȬBrockman,ȱ
theȱ patriarchȱ ofȱ theȱ household;ȱ thusȱ sheȱ isȱ technicallyȱ theirȱ family.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ
DrakeȬBrockman’sȱ approachȱ toȱ raceȱ appearsȱ toȱ beȱ basedȱ onȱ theȱ sameȱ logicȱ asȱ theȱ
‘Oneȱ Dropȱ Rule.’ȱ Becauseȱ Gladysȱ hasȱ Aboriginalȱ ancestry,ȱ sheȱ isȱ immediatelyȱ
disqualifiedȱfromȱbeingȱaȱlegitimateȱmemberȱofȱtheirȱfamilyȱandȱisȱconvenientlyȱcastȱ
asȱunequivocallyȱ‘Aboriginal’ȱandȱbiologicallyȱdistinct.ȱAsȱaȱresultȱofȱtheirȱrespectiveȱ
racialȱmakeup,ȱHoward’sȱtwoȱdaughters,ȱGladysȱandȱJune,ȱareȱconditionedȱtoȱaspireȱ
towardsȱdifferentȱfates,ȱsymbolizedȱbyȱtheȱclassȱdifferencesȱbetweenȱtheȱprincessȱdollȱ
andȱtheȱservantȱdoll.ȱȱ
Althoughȱ theȱ passersȱ inȱ eachȱ textȱ covetȱ Europeanȱ society’sȱ affluence,ȱ theȱ
narrativesȱsuggestȱthatȱacquiringȱmaterialȱpossessionsȱdoesȱnotȱnecessarilyȱequateȱtoȱ
aȱ betterȱ life.ȱ Tracksȱ indicatesȱ thatȱ notȱ everyȱ commodityȱ fromȱ Europeanȱ cultureȱ isȱ
appropriateȱforȱtheȱindigenous.ȱPaulineȱenviesȱEuropeanȱgirlsȱforȱtheirȱpatentȱleatherȱ
shoes,ȱyetȱinȱ theȱ harshȱ winterȱ conditionsȱofȱ theȱChippewaȱ reservation,ȱ thisȱ styleȱofȱ
shoeȱ isȱ shownȱ toȱ nearlyȱ costȱ Luluȱ herȱ lifeȱ becauseȱ itȱ offersȱ noȱ protectionȱ fromȱ
frostbite.ȱ Inȱ Mihipeka:ȱ Timeȱ ofȱ Turmoil,ȱ Mihiȱ isȱ shownȱ toȱ realizeȱ thatȱ materialȱ
possessionsȱareȱhindrancesȱthatȱdetractȱfromȱhowȱlifeȱwasȱmeantȱtoȱbeȱlived.ȱ‘Iȱhaveȱ
seenȱourȱoldȱfolkȱ riseȱinȱ theȱ earlyȱ morningȱsayingȱ karakiaȱ [prayers]ȱ outside,ȱ toȱ theȱ
trees,ȱtheȱsky,ȱtheȱrisingȱsun,ȱthankingȱwhoeverȱitȱwasȱforȱtheȱday.ȱItȱwouldȱbeȱlovelyȱ
toȱ returnȱ toȱ theirȱ way,ȱ toȱ escapeȱ theȱ hasslesȱ ofȱ wonderingȱ ifȱ Iȱ willȱ haveȱ enoughȱ
moneyȱ toȱ payȱ myȱ rentȱ orȱ buyȱ aȱ pairȱ ofȱ silkȱ stockings!ȱ Heavenȱ helpȱ meȱ ifȱ Iȱ ladderȱ
them!ȱItȱwasȱeasierȱwhenȱweȱranȱaround,ȱnoȱshoesȱandȱstockings.’12ȱInȱthisȱinstance,ȱ
Mihiȱ constructsȱ aȱ binaryȱoppositionȱ betweenȱ theȱ pastȱ asȱidealȱinȱitsȱsimplicity,ȱ andȱ
theȱpresentȱasȱtroubledȱinȱitsȱmaterialisticȱoutlook.ȱInȱdoingȱso,ȱMihi’sȱrosyȱpictureȱofȱ
theȱ pastȱignoresȱ theȱ hungerȱ thatȱ hadȱ transpiredȱoutȱofȱherȱ grandparents’ȱ economicȱ
marginality.ȱHowever,ȱonȱanotherȱoccasion,ȱMihi’sȱmemoryȱofȱtheȱpastȱisȱlessȱidyllicȱ
whenȱsheȱcomparesȱitȱtoȱherȱpresentȱobservationȱofȱanȱaffluentȱEuropeanȱfamily.ȱ‘Iȱ
wonderȱifȱ[theȱO’ȱConnors]ȱeverȱgetȱsick.ȱWhenȱIȱwasȱwithȱmyȱKuiȱweȱoftenȱonlyȱhadȱ
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oneȱ realȱ mealȱ aȱ day.ȱ Weȱ hadȱ veryȱ littleȱ atȱ otherȱ times.ȱ Theseȱ peopleȱ haveȱ earlyȱ
morningȱteaȱatȱsevenȱinȱtheȱmorning,ȱthenȱbreakfast,ȱandȱmidmorningȱteaȱthenȱlunch.ȱ
Thenȱ afternoonȱ tea,ȱ dinnerȱ atȱ sevenȱ atȱ night,ȱ supperȱ atȱ tenȱ o’ȱ clock.’13ȱ Mihiȱ
experiencesȱaȱmixtureȱofȱresentmentȱagainstȱtheȱasymmetricalȱeffectsȱofȱtheȱcolonialȱ
systemȱasȱwellȱasȱanȱanxietyȱtoȱfitȱintoȱitȱandȱthrive.ȱȱ
Starvationȱstrikesȱ theȱ indigenousȱ communityȱofȱeachȱ text,ȱ andȱinȱ Myȱ Place,ȱitȱ
alsoȱ affectsȱ Europeanȱ peopleȱ asȱ well.ȱ Thisȱ contrastsȱ withȱ theȱ Mihipekaȱ volumes,ȱ
whichȱ neatlyȱ divideȱ economicȱ capacitiesȱ alongȱ racialȱ lines.ȱ Becauseȱ Mihiȱ equatesȱ
povertyȱ withȱ ‘Maoriness’ȱ andȱ affluenceȱ withȱ ‘Europeanness’,ȱ herȱ desireȱ toȱ escapeȱ
economicȱ marginalityȱ necessitatesȱ herȱ separationȱ fromȱ herȱ Maoriȱ communityȱ andȱ
identity.ȱ Inȱ comparison,ȱ Daisyȱ constructsȱ herȱ experienceȱ ofȱ extremeȱ economicȱ
struggleȱ asȱ aȱ catalystȱ forȱ reaffirmingȱ herȱ senseȱ ofȱ beingȱ Aboriginal.ȱ ‘Ifȱ Iȱ knewȱ
someoneȱwhoȱwasȱhungry,ȱI’dȱgiveȱthemȱfood…Youȱcan’tȱbeȱrottenȱtoȱpeopleȱwhenȱ
theyȱ inȱ trouble,ȱ that’sȱ notȱ theȱ blackfella’sȱ way.’14ȱ Withȱ Tracks,ȱ starvationȱ isȱ
inextricablyȱ tiedȱ toȱ Chippewaȱ landȱ loss.ȱ ‘Starvationȱ makesȱ foolsȱ ofȱ anyone.ȱ Inȱ theȱ
pastȱ someȱ hadȱ soldȱ theirȱ allotmentȱ landȱ forȱ oneȱ hundredȱ poundweightȱ [sic]ȱ ofȱ
flour.’15ȱLikeȱMihi,ȱPauline’sȱsurveillanceȱofȱEuropeanȱsociety’sȱeconomicȱadvantageȱ
motivatesȱ herȱ toȱ alignȱherselfȱ withȱ theȱ dominantȱ group.ȱ Butȱ unlikeȱ Pauline,ȱ Mihi’sȱ
observationȱ ofȱ Maoriȱ landȱ lossȱ increasesȱ Mihi’sȱ allegianceȱ toȱ theȱ indigenousȱ
communityȱ ratherȱ thanȱ Europeanȱ society.ȱ Mihiȱ portraysȱ colonizationȱ asȱ aȱ doubleȬ
prongedȱ processȱ ofȱ physicalȱ landȱ dispossessionȱ andȱ culturalȱ displacementȱ ofȱ
indigenousȱvalues,ȱsinceȱMaoriȱareȱstrippedȱofȱbothȱtheirȱlandȱandȱtheirȱspiritualȱwayȱ
ofȱlife.ȱ‘Thereȱisȱveryȱlittleȱthoughtȱtoȱtheȱspiritualityȱnow.ȱWeȱareȱwalkingȱaȱpathwayȱ
toȱsadness,ȱnoȱmeaning.ȱWeȱareȱonȱaȱlostȱtrail.’16ȱHowever,ȱalthoughȱMihiȱcondemnsȱ
theȱ capitalistȱ valuesȱ colonialismȱ introduced,ȱ sheȱ concedesȱ thatȱ itȱ isȱ impossibleȱ toȱ
avoidȱtheȱsystemȱifȱoneȱisȱtoȱsurvive.ȱ‘Allȱ[Pakeha]ȱthinkȱaboutȱisȱmakingȱmoneyȱandȱ
moreȱ money.ȱ (EvenȱIȱ amȱ reachingȱ andȱclawingȱ toȱgetȱsomeȱ becauseȱ Iȱ knowȱIȱcan’tȱ
existȱwithoutȱit).’ȱ17ȱȱ
Inȱ Myȱ Place,ȱ Daisyȱ expressesȱ aȱ similarȱ beliefȱ thatȱ Europeansȱ areȱ primarilyȱ
drivenȱbyȱtheȱdesireȱforȱwealth,ȱwhichȱmakesȱthemȱunethicalȱinȱotherȱfacetsȱofȱlife.ȱ
Daisyȱ constructsȱ herselfȱ asȱ anȱ objectȱ ofȱ labourȱ thatȱ isȱ exploited,ȱ exhaustedȱ thenȱ
discardedȱbyȱtheȱDrakeȬBrockmans.ȱDaisyȱbitterlyȱrecountsȱthatȱAliceȱ‘kickedȱmeȱout.ȱ
Iȱwasȱjustȱusedȱup.ȱIȱbeenȱworkin’ȱforȱthatȱfamilyȱallȱthoseȱyears,ȱrightȱsinceȱIȱwasȱaȱ
littleȱchild,ȱandȱthat’sȱhowȱIȱgetȱtreated.’18ȱThereȱisȱsubstantialȱevidenceȱinȱMyȱPlaceȱtoȱ
suggestȱthatȱDaisyȱisȱbiologicallyȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱDrakeȬBrockmans.ȱSheȱperceivesȱthatȱ
theȱDrakeȬBrockmansȱwillinglyȱsacrificedȱtheirȱfamilialȱrelationshipȱwithȱherȱinȱtheirȱ
commodificationȱ ofȱ herȱ asȱ aȱ sourceȱ ofȱ labour.ȱ Daisy’sȱ experienceȱ ofȱ Europeanȱ
society’sȱ driveȱ forȱ wealthȱ reinforcesȱ herȱ senseȱ ofȱ beingȱ otherȱ fromȱ them.ȱ
Comparatively,ȱ theȱ spoilsȱ ofȱ capitalismȱ lureȱ Paulineȱ towardsȱ beingȱ aȱ memberȱ ofȱ
Europeanȱ society,ȱ attractingȱ herȱ toȱ subscribeȱ toȱ Europeanȱ society’sȱ religion.ȱ ‘Ourȱ
Lord,ȱwhoȱhadȱobviouslyȱmadeȱtheȱwhitesȱmoreȱshrewd,ȱasȱtheyȱgrewȱinȱnumber,ȱallȱ
around,ȱsomeȱevenȱowningȱautomobilesȱwhileȱtheȱIndiansȱrecededȱandȱcoughedȱtoȱ
deathȱandȱdrank.ȱItȱwasȱclearȱthatȱIndiansȱwereȱnotȱprotectedȱbyȱtheȱthingȱinȱtheȱlakeȱ
orȱ byȱ theȱ otherȱ Manitousȱ whoȱ livedȱ inȱ trees,ȱ theȱ bush.’19ȱ Theȱ economicȱ powerȱ ofȱ
Europeanȱ societyȱ convincesȱ Paulineȱ thatȱ theȱ Christianȱ Godȱ mustȱ beȱ aȱ superiorȱ
providerȱtoȱChippewaȱgods.ȱIronically,ȱthoughȱChristianityȱteachesȱthatȱtheȱafterlifeȱ
Ooi/A Righter Shade of Pale
25
supersedesȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ theȱ materialȱ world,ȱ itȱisȱ Europeanȱsociety’sȱ abilityȱ toȱ
thriveȱinȱtheȱmaterialȱworldȱthatȱconvincesȱPaulineȱtoȱconvertȱspiritually.ȱȱ
ȱ
AȱMatterȱofȱFaithȱ
Byȱ embracingȱ Catholicism,ȱ Paulineȱ equipsȱ herselfȱ withȱ aȱ religiousȱ doctrineȱ thatȱ
rendersȱtheȱChippewaȱspiritualȱbeliefȱsystemȱasȱpaganȱandȱthereforeȱwrong.ȱErdrichȱ
makesȱitȱclearȱthatȱPaulineȱdoesȱnotȱadoptȱCatholicismȱinȱaȱstraightforwardȱmanner,ȱ
butȱappropriatesȱitȱtoȱserveȱherȱindividualȱneeds.ȱPaulineȱthusȱexemplifiesȱBhabha’sȱ
argumentȱthatȱoneȱculture’sȱadoptionȱofȱanother’sȱpracticesȱisȱanȱactȱofȱhybridization.ȱ
Althoughȱ Paulineȱ becomesȱ convincedȱ thatȱ sheȱ isȱ aȱ fullȬbloodedȱ European,ȱ herȱ
practiceȱ ofȱ Catholicismȱ isȱ highlyȱ unconventional.ȱ Catholicismȱ callsȱ forȱ theȱ beliefȱ inȱ
onlyȱGod,ȱbutȱasȱaȱnoviceȱnun,ȱPaulineȱstillȱsubconsciouslyȱbelievesȱinȱtheȱpowerȱofȱ
Misshepeshu,ȱ theȱ Chippewaȱ supernaturalȱ beingȱ thatȱ isȱ rumouredȱ toȱ ruleȱ Lakeȱ
Matchimanito.ȱ Anotherȱ ambivalentȱ momentȱ arisesȱ whenȱ Paulineȱpraysȱ toȱ Godȱandȱ
addressesȱhimȱasȱ‘LordȱandȱAuthorȱofȱallȱLies’ȱasȱopposedȱtoȱ‘LordȱandȱAuthorȱofȱallȱ
Lives.’20ȱ Theȱ slipȱ ofȱ tongueȱ isȱ openȱ toȱ aȱ psychoanalyticȱ interpretationȱ thatȱ
subconsciouslyȱPaulineȱdoesȱnotȱfullyȱendorseȱCatholicȱdoctrineȱorȱitsȱGod.ȱPaulineȱ
alsoȱtakesȱtheȱpracticeȱofȱselfȬprivationȱtoȱextremes,ȱallowingȱherselfȱtoȱurinateȱonlyȱ
twiceȱaȱday,ȱputtingȱburrsȱinȱtheȱarmpitsȱofȱherȱdressȱandȱwearingȱshoesȱtheȱwrongȱ
wayȱround.ȱTheȱCatholicȱassertionȱthatȱnoȱhumanȱisȱgreaterȱthanȱGodȱisȱtransgressedȱ
byȱ Pauline’sȱ beliefȱ sheȱ isȱ God’sȱ saviour.ȱ ‘Becauseȱ myȱ ownȱ Godȱ wasȱ lamblikeȱ andȱ
meekȱ andȱ Iȱ hadȱ strengthened,ȱ daily,ȱonȱ Hisȱ testsȱ andȱ privations,ȱitȱ wasȱIȱ whoȱ wasȱ
armoredȱ [sic]ȱ andȱ armed…Iȱ wouldȱ beȱ Hisȱ champion,ȱ Hisȱ saviorȱ too.’21ȱ Sheȱ warpsȱ
Catholicismȱ inȱ aȱ wayȱ thatȱ compensatesȱ forȱ herȱ historyȱ ofȱ feelingȱ neglectedȱ byȱ theȱ
Chippewaȱ community.ȱ Althoughȱ Paulineȱ hasȱ hyperbolicȱ notionsȱ thatȱ sheȱ isȱ
indispensableȱtoȱCatholicism,ȱTracksȱgivesȱnoȱrecordȱofȱherȱsuccessȱinȱconvertingȱanyȱ
Chippewaȱtoȱtheȱfaith.ȱConsequently,ȱitȱisȱnotȱherȱbutȱtheȱEuropeanȱFatherȱDamienȱ
whoȱmoreȱcloselyȱfulfilsȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱChippewa’sȱ‘saviour’ȱinȱhisȱattemptsȱtoȱhelpȱ
theȱtribeȱretainȱtheirȱland.ȱȱ
Tracksȱ revealsȱ theȱ contradictionȱ ofȱ theȱ church’sȱ positionȱ inȱ attemptingȱ toȱ
convertȱ Chippewaȱ whileȱ simultaneouslyȱ refusingȱ toȱ acceptȱ womenȱ withȱ Indianȱ
ancestryȱasȱnuns.22ȱInȱCallȱofȱanȱElder,ȱracismȱisȱagainȱshownȱtoȱdeflectȱtheȱcredibilityȱ
ofȱChristianȱteachingsȱtoȱMaori.ȱMihiȱassertsȱthatȱalthoughȱsheȱacceptedȱChristianityȱ
easilyȱenough,ȱtheȱracismȱofȱtheȱsocietyȱthatȱintroducedȱtheȱreligionȱunderminedȱtheȱ
integrityȱofȱwhatȱitȱpreached.ȱ‘SoȱIȱtriedȱhardȱtoȱbeȱgood,ȱlivingȱinȱfearȱallȱtheȱtime.ȱIȱ
saidȱ myȱ Pakehaȱ prayersȱ forȱ fearȱ Iȱ wouldȱ beȱ burnt.ȱ Butȱ Iȱ foundȱ itȱ hardȱ toȱ beȱ goodȱ
whenȱnonȬMaoriȱchildrenȱcalledȱmeȱaȱblackȱbitchȱorȱblackȱnigger…Iȱwouldȱlookȱupȱtoȱ
theȱ heavensȱ andȱ shoutȱ toȱ Godȱ whyȱ heȱ madeȱ usȱ allȱ different,ȱ butȱ heȱ neverȱ didȱ
answer.’23ȱȱ
Inȱ comparison,ȱ Gladysȱ inȱ Myȱ Placeȱ hasȱ aȱ positiveȱ responseȱ toȱ Christianity,ȱ
drawingȱstrengthȱfromȱitsȱteachingsȱtoȱhelpȱherȱcopeȱthroughȱhardȱtimes.ȱHowever,ȱ
GladysȱalsoȱfindsȱprotectionȱfromȱAboriginalȱspirits.ȱ‘Theȱthingȱthatȱhelpedȱmeȱmostȱ
wasȱtheȱmusicȱIȱusedȱtoȱhearȱatȱnight.ȱAsȱIȱgrewȱolder,ȱIȱrealizedȱitȱwasȱAboriginalȱ
music,ȱlikeȱsomeȱblackfellasȱwereȱhavingȱaȱcorroboreeȱjustȱforȱme…AfterȱI’dȱheardȱit,ȱ
Iȱ knewȱ Iȱ couldȱ goȱ toȱ sleep.ȱ Itȱ wasȱ thatȱ sameȱ feelingȱ ofȱ protection.’24ȱ Gladys’sȱ
subscriptionȱ toȱ severalȱ systemsȱ ofȱ beliefsȱ doesȱ notȱ abideȱ byȱ Christianity’sȱ
monotheisticȱdemands.ȱThroughȱher,ȱMyȱPlaceȱdemonstratesȱhowȱanȱindividualȱmayȱ
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notȱtotallyȱadhereȱtoȱtheȱconventionsȱofȱanyȱoneȱsystem,ȱbutȱcanȱselectivelyȱcombineȱ
aspectsȱ fromȱ variousȱ beliefsȱ toȱ serveȱ one’sȱ individualȱ needs.ȱ Conversely,ȱ
Christianity’sȱmonotheismȱisȱaȱstumblingȱblockȱforȱMihiȱbecauseȱitȱseemsȱtoȱvalidateȱ
actsȱofȱculturalȱintolerance.ȱ‘Weȱwereȱaccusedȱofȱworshippingȱourȱcarvingsȱasȱidols.ȱ
Theyȱsaidȱweȱwereȱsatanic.ȱIȱwasȱupsetȱwhenȱIȱrealizedȱwhatȱtheȱmissionariesȱwereȱ
doingȱtoȱus,ȱtellingȱusȱtoȱturnȱourȱbacksȱonȱourȱtupuna,ȱbecauseȱourȱcarvingsȱportrayȱ
ourȱbeginnings,ȱourȱwhakapapa.’25ȱȱ
Nonetheless,ȱ Mihiȱ doesȱ notȱ completelyȱ debunkȱ Christianityȱ andȱ attemptsȱ toȱ
findȱsomeȱcommonȱgroundȱbetweenȱbothȱbeliefȱsystems.ȱ‘Itȱwasȱnotȱhardȱtoȱacceptȱ
Christianity.ȱ Weȱ alreadyȱ believedȱ inȱ Ioȱ MatuaȬnui,ȱ ourȱ nameȱ forȱ God.ȱ Iȱ goȱ toȱ anyȱ
church,ȱnotȱrecognizingȱtheȱdifferentȱdenominations,ȱbecauseȱmyȱoldȱpeopleȱtaughtȱ
meȱthereȱisȱonlyȱoneȱGod.’26ȱByȱsuggestingȱthatȱMaoriȱhaveȱalwaysȱworshippedȱtheȱ
sameȱ Godȱ Christianityȱ upholds,ȱ Mihiȱ nullifiesȱ theȱ reasonsȱ byȱ whichȱ colonialismȱ
justifiedȱitsȱpractices.ȱSheȱinvertsȱcolonialȱrhetoricȱbyȱcontendingȱitȱwasȱtheȱcolonistsȱ
whoȱintroducedȱsinȱtoȱwhatȱhadȱpreviouslyȱbeenȱaȱprelapsarianȱexistenceȱforȱMaori.ȱ
Beforeȱ colonialism,ȱ Mihiȱ believesȱ ‘thereȱ wasȱ noȱ suchȱ thingȱ asȱ naughtyȱ
children…Thereȱ wereȱ noȱ streetkidsȱ orȱ groupsȱ –ȱ noȱ jailsȱ fullȱ ofȱ Maoriȱ people.’27ȱ Inȱ
Mihi’sȱ eyes,ȱ theȱ arrivalȱ ofȱ theȱ peopleȱ whoȱ ostensiblyȱ soughtȱ toȱ saveȱ Maoriȱ soulsȱ
actuallyȱ corruptedȱ Maoriȱ intoȱ sin.ȱ ‘Throughȱ colonizationȱ weȱ haveȱ learntȱ toȱ beȱ
drunkards,ȱrapists,ȱmurderers,ȱburglarsȱandȱliars.’28ȱȱ
LikeȱMihi,ȱDaisyȱstrugglesȱwithȱcertainȱaspectsȱofȱChristianityȱbutȱappropriatesȱ
otherȱ elementsȱ toȱ satisfyȱ herȱ needsȱ asȱ anȱ oppressed,ȱ indigenousȱ subject.ȱ Daisyȱ
representsȱChristianityȱasȱaȱmovementȱthatȱisȱblindȱtoȱtheȱexperiencesȱofȱAboriginalȱ
womenȱinȱ aȱcolonialȱ world.ȱ ‘Oneȱ time,ȱ heȱ wentȱonȱ andȱon,ȱ tellin’ȱusȱ howȱ weȱ mustȱ
saveȱourselvesȱforȱmarriage.ȱItȱwasȱveryȱembarrassing,ȱweȱcouldn’tȱlookȱatȱhim.ȱMostȱ
ofȱusȱhadȱalreadyȱbeenȱtakenȱbyȱwhiteȱmen.ȱWeȱfeltȱreallyȱ‘shamed.’29ȱNonetheless,ȱ
conceptsȱlikeȱJudgmentȱDayȱappealȱtoȱher,ȱsinceȱtheyȱseemȱtoȱofferȱtheȱonlyȱmeansȱofȱ
dolingȱoutȱjusticeȱtoȱherȱformerȱoppressors.ȱ‘Godȱwillȱmakeȱthemȱpayȱforȱtheirȱlies.ȱ
He’sȱ gotȱ peopleȱ likeȱ thatȱ underȱ theȱ whip.’30ȱ Becauseȱ Daisyȱ interpretsȱ theȱ Christianȱ
Godȱasȱaȱchampionȱofȱtheȱoppressed,ȱsheȱpresumesȱHeȱ mustȱbeȱsympatheticȱtoȱtheȱ
Aboriginalȱcause.ȱParadoxically,ȱalthoughȱcolonistsȱhaveȱdispossessedȱDaisyȱofȱlandȱ
rightsȱ inȱ theȱ materialȱ world,ȱ theȱ Christianȱconceptȱofȱheavenȱ theyȱintroduceȱ makesȱ
theȱ ideaȱofȱ landȱownershipȱfeasibleȱ toȱDaisy,ȱ evenȱ thoughȱitȱ mustȱ beȱ postponedȱ toȱ
theȱafterlife.ȱ‘God’sȱgotȱaȱspotȱupȱthereȱforȱme,ȱIȱdunnoȱwhatȱit’sȱlike,ȱbutȱit’sȱaȱspot.ȱ
Probablyȱ aȱ bitȱ ofȱ bush,ȱ eh?’31ȱ Byȱ reworkingȱ Christianȱ teachingsȱ inȱ favourȱ ofȱ herȱ
colonizedȱ context,ȱ Daisyȱ exemplifiesȱ Bhabha’sȱ conceptȱ ofȱ culturalȱ hybridity.32ȱ Sheȱ
doesȱ notȱ simplyȱ adoptȱ theȱ predominantȱ teachingsȱ ofȱ Christianityȱ asȱ theyȱ areȱ
understoodȱ inȱ Europeanȱ society,ȱ butȱ transformsȱ themȱ intoȱ new,ȱ uniqueȱ beliefȱ
systems,ȱasȱtheȱresultȱofȱbeingȱcaughtȱinȱtheȱculturalȱcollision/collusionȱofȱEuropeanȱ
andȱAboriginalȱinteractions.ȱȱ
ȱȱ
HardȱLessonsȱ
Inȱ Myȱ Place,ȱ theȱ chapterȱ containingȱ Sally’sȱ firstȱ encounterȱ withȱ theȱ Europeanȱ
educationȱ systemȱ isȱ significantlyȱ entitledȱ ‘Theȱ Factory’.ȱ Morganȱ appearsȱ toȱ beȱ
alludingȱtoȱtheȱeducationȱsystem’sȱpolicyȱofȱassimilatingȱAboriginalsȱintoȱEuropeanȱ
cultureȱinȱorderȱtoȱproduceȱaȱstandardizedȱAustralianȱwhoȱabidesȱbyȱtheȱdominantȱ
discourse.ȱSally’sȱsisterȱJill,ȱwhoȱcompliesȱwithȱtheȱsystem,ȱpredictablyȱdenigratesȱherȱ
Ooi/A Righter Shade of Pale
27
indigenousȱ ancestry.ȱ ‘It’sȱ aȱ terribleȱ thingȱ toȱ beȱ Aboriginal.ȱ Nobodyȱ wantsȱ toȱ knowȱ
you.’33ȱ Theȱ educationȱ systemȱ isȱ representedȱ asȱ Eurocentricȱ inȱ theȱ incidentȱ whereȱ
Sally’sȱ teacherȱ criticizesȱ herȱ artworkȱ becauseȱ itȱ hasȱ whatȱ Sallyȱ laterȱ realisesȱ isȱ anȱ
Aboriginalȱstyle.ȱ‘Heȱheldȱupȱoneȱofȱmyȱdrawingsȱinȱfrontȱofȱtheȱclassȱoneȱdayȱandȱ
pointedȱoutȱeverythingȱwrongȱwithȱit.ȱThereȱwasȱnoȱperspective,ȱIȱwasȱtheȱonlyȱoneȱ
withȱnoȱhorizontalȱline.ȱMyȱpeopleȱwereȱflatȱandȱfloating…Onȱandȱonȱheȱwent.ȱByȱ
theȱendȱofȱtenȱminutes,ȱtheȱwholeȱclassȱwasȱlaughingȱandȱIȱfeltȱveryȱsmall.’34ȱȱ
Likeȱ Sallyȱ andȱ Jill,ȱ Mihiȱ inȱ Earlyȱ Yearsȱ learnsȱ throughȱ schoolȱ thatȱ herȱ
indigenousȱidentityȱisȱintolerableȱtoȱEuropeanȱsociety.ȱAnyoneȱcaughtȱspeakingȱtheȱ
Maoriȱlanguageȱ(teȱreoȱMaori)ȱinȱschoolȱisȱbeaten,ȱandȱinȱaȱspanȱofȱfifteenȱyears,ȱ‘theȱ
childrenȱ inȱ thatȱ areaȱ whereȱ Iȱ livedȱ didȱ notȱ speakȱ Maoriȱ anymore.’35ȱ Inȱ eachȱ ofȱ theȱ
Mihipekaȱvolumes,ȱMihiȱvehementlyȱcondemnsȱtheȱEuropeanȱeducationȱsystemȱforȱitsȱ
bigotry.ȱ ‘Whenȱ Iȱ thinkȱ back,ȱ thereȱ wasȱ noȱcommonȱ senseȱ used,ȱonlyȱ hatredȱforȱ theȱ
Maori.’36ȱ Evenȱ aȱ momentȱofȱ seemingȱ kindnessȱonȱtheȱ partȱofȱherȱ Pakehaȱ teacherȱisȱ
underminedȱ byȱ theȱ teacher’sȱ condescendingȱ tone.ȱ ‘Iȱ willȱ bringȱ youȱ someȱ clothesȱ
tomorrow,ȱ thenȱ youȱ won’tȱ lookȱ awful.ȱ Youȱ canȱ lookȱ better.’37ȱ Althoughȱ wellȱ
intentioned,ȱ Missȱ Greensideȱ representsȱ theȱ Europeanȱ educationȱ system’sȱ failureȱ toȱ
sensitivelyȱ dealȱ withȱ theȱ alienationȱ Maoriȱ feelȱ asȱ aȱ resultȱ ofȱ theirȱ economicȱ
marginality.ȱ Ratherȱ thanȱ encouragingȱ toleranceȱ andȱ understandingȱ fromȱ theȱ
Europeanȱstudents,ȱMissȱGreensideȱputsȱtheȱonusȱonȱMihiȱtoȱmatchȱupȱtoȱprivilegedȱ
Europeanȱstandardsȱofȱwhatȱisȱacceptableȱdressing.ȱInȱturn,ȱMihiȱisȱanxiousȱtoȱhaveȱ
theȱ sameȱ materialȱ thingsȱ Europeanȱ childrenȱ own,ȱ soȱ thatȱ herȱ obviousnessȱ asȱ anȱ
‘other’ȱisȱlessȱpronounced.ȱMihi’sȱneedsȱplaceȱanȱaddedȱburdenȱonȱherȱgrandparents’ȱ
financialȱ worries.ȱ Itȱ isȱ oneȱ exampleȱ ofȱ howȱ theȱ effectsȱ ofȱ theȱ Europeanȱ educationȱ
systemȱ permeateȱ toȱ affectȱ theȱ wholeȱ indigenousȱ community,ȱ notȱ justȱ theȱ childrenȱ
whoȱattendȱtheȱschools.ȱȱ
Eachȱ textȱ expressesȱ aȱ concernȱ thatȱ theȱ Europeanȱ educationȱ systemȱ posesȱ aȱ
threatȱ toȱ theȱ influenceȱ indigenousȱ eldersȱ haveȱ overȱ theirȱ young.ȱ Tracksȱ doesȱ notȱ
containȱ scenesȱ thatȱ depictȱ Chippewaȱ undergoingȱ theȱ Europeanȱ educationȱ system,ȱ
butȱ itȱ pointsȱ theȱ fingerȱ atȱ governmentȱ schoolsȱ forȱ influencingȱ youngȱ Chippewaȱ toȱ
turnȱawayȱfromȱtheirȱcommunity’sȱinterests:ȱ‘theȱyoung,ȱlikeȱLuluȱandȱNector,ȱwillȱ
returnȱfromȱtheȱgovernmentȱschoolsȱblindedȱandȱdeafened.’38ȱWhileȱPaulineȱisȱgleefulȱ
atȱ thisȱ prospect,ȱ Nanapushȱ complainsȱ aboutȱ theȱ lossȱ ofȱ theȱ oldȱ waysȱ andȱ hisȱ
diminishingȱroleȱasȱanȱelder.ȱHeȱgrumblesȱtoȱLulu,ȱ‘Yourȱmotherȱalwaysȱshowedȱtheȱ
properȱ respectȱ toȱ me…Sheȱ neverȱ tappedȱ herȱ fingersȱ onȱ herȱ uncoveredȱ knees,ȱ
shuffledȱ andȱ twistedȱ andȱ madeȱ facesȱ outȱ theȱ windowȱ likeȱ you.’39ȱ However,ȱ Lulu’sȱ
showȱofȱboredomȱpalesȱinȱcomparisonȱtoȱPaulineȱwhoȱthoroughlyȱderidesȱChippewaȱ
eldersȱ byȱ callingȱ themȱ ‘tremblingȱ oldȱ fools.’40ȱ Itȱ mayȱ beȱ temptingȱ toȱ presumeȱ
Pauline’sȱconventȱeducationȱcausesȱherȱdislocationȱfromȱtheȱindigenousȱcommunity.ȱ
However,ȱ Tracksȱ underminesȱ thisȱ readingȱ byȱ showingȱ thatȱ Nanapushȱ receivedȱ aȱ
Jesuitȱeducation,ȱyetȱheȱ‘ranȱbackȱtoȱtheȱwoodsȱandȱforgotȱallȱ[his]ȱprayers.’41ȱErdrichȱ
indicatesȱ thatȱ Pauline’sȱ alienationȱ fromȱ theȱ Chippewaȱ communityȱ doesȱ notȱ solelyȱ
originateȱ fromȱ herȱ Europeanȱ education,ȱ butȱ thatȱ herȱ educationȱ reinforcesȱ herȱ
alreadyȬexistingȱdissatisfaction.ȱ
InȱEarlyȱYears,ȱMihiȱsuggestsȱthatȱprohibitingȱteȱreoȱMaoriȱinȱschoolȱinevitablyȱ
fracturesȱ theȱ relationshipsȱ betweenȱ youngȱ andȱoldȱ Maori.ȱ ‘Myȱ grandmotherȱ didn’tȱ
wantȱmeȱtoȱgoȱtoȱschoolȱbecauseȱsheȱthoughtȱthatȱonceȱIȱwentȱtoȱschool,ȱandȱtheȱotherȱ
28
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childrenȱtoo,ȱthatȱweȱwouldȱloseȱourȱownȱlanguage.ȱTheȱoldȱpeopleȱandȱtheȱparentsȱ
wouldȱnotȱthenȱhaveȱanyȱmanaȱoverȱtheirȱchildrenȱandȱgrandchildren.’42ȱTrueȱtoȱherȱ
grandmother’sȱworstȱfears,ȱoneȱdayȱofȱschoolingȱisȱenoughȱforȱMihiȱtoȱannounceȱthat,ȱ
inȱfuture,ȱ sheȱ shouldȱonlyȱ beȱ spokenȱ toȱinȱ English.ȱ ForȱMihi’sȱ grandmother,ȱlosingȱ
herȱformerȱmeansȱofȱcommunicationȱwithȱherȱgranddaughterȱisȱtantamountȱtoȱlosingȱ
theȱ person.ȱ ‘Theȱ Pakehaȱ hasȱ won.ȱ Heȱ takesȱ myȱ land,ȱ myȱ mana.ȱ Nowȱ heȱ takesȱ myȱ
mokopuna.’43ȱ Educationȱ alsoȱ threatensȱ theȱ relationshipsȱ betweenȱ youngȱ andȱ oldȱ
Aboriginalsȱinȱ Myȱ Place.ȱItȱ isȱ theȱprofessedȱ reasonȱ Daisyȱ andȱ Gladysȱ areȱ separatedȱ
fromȱ theirȱ mothers,ȱyetȱ Gladysȱ pointsȱoutȱ thatȱ theȱ systemȱonlyȱtrainedȱ Aboriginalsȱ
forȱ menialȱ labour.ȱ ‘Allȱ theȱ Aboriginalȱ girlsȱ wereȱ sentȱ outȱ asȱ domesticsȱ onceȱ theyȱ
reachedȱ fourteen.ȱ Onlyȱ theȱ whiteȱ kidsȱ wereȱ trainedȱ forȱ anything.’44ȱ Daisy,ȱ whoȱ isȱ
preventedȱ fromȱ goingȱ toȱ school,ȱ isȱ neverthelessȱ affectedȱ byȱ theȱ educationȱ systemȱ
becauseȱ itsȱ absenceȱ seemsȱ toȱ signifyȱ herȱ inferiorityȱ toȱ theȱ childrenȱ whoȱ doȱ receiveȱ
schooling.ȱ‘AllȱtheȱtimeȱIȱkeptȱwonderin’ȱwhenȱtheyȱwereȱgoin’ȱtoȱsendȱmeȱtoȱschool.ȱ
Iȱ sawȱ someȱ whiteȱ kidsȱ goin’ȱ toȱ school,ȱ butȱ notȱ me.ȱ Iȱ neverȱ askedȱ themȱ whyȱ theyȱ
didn’tȱ sendȱ me,ȱ Iȱ wasȱ tooȱ ‘shamed.’45ȱ Theȱ Europeanȱ educationȱ systemȱ appearsȱ toȱ
placeȱ aȱ doubleȬbindȱ onȱ theȱ passers.ȱ Theȱ womenȱ whoȱ goȱ toȱ schoolȱ learnȱ toȱ feelȱ
inferiorȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱtheirȱexposure;ȱconversely,ȱDaisyȱfeelsȱequallyȱinferiorȱbecauseȱ
sheȱ isȱ deniedȱ herȱ education.ȱ Theȱ Europeanȱ educationȱ system,ȱ althoughȱ portrayedȱ
negativelyȱ inȱ allȱ theȱ narratives,ȱ figuresȱ asȱ aȱ systemȱ thatȱ cannotȱ beȱ avoidedȱ
indefinitely.ȱ Daisy,ȱ whoȱ constantlyȱ fearsȱ Europeanȱ officials,ȱ illuminatesȱ theȱ
powerlessnessȱ thatȱ comesȱ fromȱ aȱ lackȱ ofȱ educationȱ inȱ andȱ understandingȱ ofȱ theȱ
workingsȱ ofȱ theȱ colonialȱ system.ȱ Inȱ Mihipeka:ȱ Earlyȱ Years,ȱ Mihi’sȱ grandmotherȱ isȱ
adamantȱ thatȱMihiȱ mustȱundergoȱ theȱ Europeanȱeducationȱsystem.ȱ ‘Mihi,ȱ youȱ mustȱ
tryȱ andȱ learnȱ asȱ muchȱ asȱ youȱ canȱ aboutȱ theȱ lawsȱ ofȱ justiceȱ theyȱ sayȱ theȱ Pakehaȱ
teachesȱ youȱ soȱ youȱ willȱ understand.’46ȱ However,ȱ thisȱ demandȱ requiresȱ Mihiȱ toȱ
balanceȱ betweenȱ receivingȱ theȱ educationȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ benefitȱ theȱ indigenousȱ andȱ
resistingȱ theȱ colonialȱ ideologiesȱ thatȱ areȱ enforcedȱ inȱ theȱ process.ȱ Mihi’sȱ narrativeȱ
suggestsȱ theȱ irreconcilabilityȱ ofȱ suchȱ aȱ tension.ȱ Sheȱ succumbsȱ toȱ theȱ prevailingȱ
colonialȱ ideologiesȱ thatȱ areȱ taughtȱ inȱ schoolȱ andȱ losesȱ herȱ initialȱ resolveȱ toȱ neverȱ
pass.ȱ ‘Iȱ mustȱ hurryȱ andȱ learnȱ toȱ beȱ likeȱ aȱ Pakeha,ȱ wearȱ prettyȱ dressesȱ likeȱ ourȱ
teacher.’47ȱȱ
Theȱ practicesȱ employedȱ byȱ theȱ Europeanȱ educationȱ systemȱ reflectȱ theȱ socialȱ
climateȱofȱitsȱtime.ȱInȱcontainingȱnarrativesȱfromȱthreeȱgenerations,ȱMyȱPlaceȱregistersȱ
theȱshiftingȱattitudesȱofȱEuropeanȱAustraliansȱtoȱAboriginals.ȱInȱDaisy’sȱgenerationȱatȱ
theȱturnȱofȱtheȱtwentiethȱcentury,ȱAboriginalȱchildrenȱareȱbeatenȱforȱspeakingȱinȱtheirȱ
Aboriginalȱ tongue.ȱ Fourȱ generationsȱ later,ȱ inȱ theȱ 1980s,ȱ Sally’sȱ childȱ canȱ proudlyȱ
declareȱ toȱ hisȱ classȱ hisȱ ‘goodȱ news’ȱ thatȱ heȱ hasȱ Aboriginalȱ ancestry.48ȱ Sally,ȱ whoȱ
undergoesȱ theȱ educationȱ systemȱ inȱ aȱ timeȱ between,ȱ reportsȱ thatȱ thoughȱ thereȱ isȱ
ostensiblyȱaffirmativeȱactionȱforȱAboriginals,ȱthereȱisȱanȱunderlyingȱracismȱwithinȱtheȱ
systemȱ thatȱ expectsȱ Aboriginalsȱ toȱ fail.ȱ Becauseȱ Sallyȱ succeedsȱ academically,ȱ herȱ
Aboriginalityȱ isȱ calledȱ intoȱ question.ȱ ‘Theȱ departmentȱ neverȱ expectedȱ anyȱ ofȱ theirȱ
Aboriginalȱ studentsȱ toȱ doȱ wellȱ atȱ tertiaryȱ studies.ȱ Theyȱ wouldȱ haveȱ consideredȱ itȱ
moreȱ inȱ keepingȱifȱ weȱ bothȱfailedȱconsistently.’49ȱ Inȱ Mihi’sȱcase,ȱherȱ generationȱareȱ
forbiddenȱ fromȱ speakingȱ teȱ reoȱ Maoriȱ andȱ learnȱ toȱ beȱ ashamedȱ ofȱ theirȱ culture.ȱ
However,ȱoneȱgenerationȱlater,ȱMihiȱisȱinvitedȱtoȱteachȱteȱreoȱandȱtikangaȱMaoriȱtoȱaȱ
classȱcontainingȱMaoriȱandȱPakehaȱchildren.ȱMihiȱviewsȱthisȱinvitationȱnotȱonlyȱasȱaȱ
Ooi/A Righter Shade of Pale
29
positiveȱ stepȱ byȱ theȱ educationȱsystemȱ butȱ asȱ theȱ beginningsȱofȱ anȱ improvementȱinȱ
raceȱrelationsȱoverall.ȱ‘IȱwasȱgladȱtoȱseeȱPakehaȱchildrenȱlearningȱMaoriȱtoo…itȱisȱaȱ
wayȱ ofȱ lifeȱ nowȱ toȱ haveȱ widerȱ visionsȱ ofȱ bridgingȱ gapsȱ andȱ learningȱ eachȱ others’ȱ
language.ȱHowȱcanȱweȱknowȱthemȱifȱweȱdon’tȱtalkȱtoȱthem?’50ȱHowever,ȱtheȱsituationȱ
Mihiȱ describes,ȱ ofȱ theȱ Europeanȱ educationȱ systemȱ incorporatingȱ lessonsȱ aboutȱ theȱ
indigenousȱasȱpartȱofȱitsȱteaching,ȱisȱnotȱrepeatedȱinȱMyȱPlaceȱorȱTracks.ȱTheȱdegreeȱtoȱ
whichȱ theȱ Europeanȱ educationȱ systemȱ embracesȱ theȱ cultureȱ ofȱ theȱ indigenousȱ
evidentlyȱvariesȱbetweenȱNewȱZealand,ȱAustraliaȱandȱtheȱUnitedȱStates.ȱȱ
ȱ
Tracks,ȱ Myȱ Placeȱ andȱ theȱ Mihipekaȱ volumesȱ portrayȱ passingȱ asȱ aȱ processȱ thatȱ
colonizedȱ subjectsȱ mayȱ optȱ forȱ inȱ responseȱ toȱ aȱ discriminatoryȱ colonialȱ system.ȱ
Althoughȱpassingȱnecessitatesȱtheȱappearanceȱofȱblendingȱintoȱdominantȱsociety,ȱtheȱ
texts’ȱ representationȱ ofȱ theȱ processȱ alsoȱ suggestȱ thatȱ theȱ passerȱ doesȱ notȱ
automaticallyȱ embraceȱ thatȱ society.ȱ Myȱ Placeȱ andȱ theȱ Mihipekaȱ volumesȱ recordȱ
instancesȱ whereȱ Daisy,ȱ Gladysȱ andȱ Mihiȱ questionȱ orȱ rejectȱ theȱ valueȱ systemsȱ andȱ
practicesȱ ofȱ Europeans.ȱ Theseȱ textsȱ neverȱ suggestȱ thatȱ theȱ womenȱ feelȱ aȱ completeȱ
senseȱ ofȱ belongingȱ inȱ Europeanȱ society,ȱ evenȱ ifȱ theyȱ mayȱ seemȱ assimilated.ȱ
Comparatively,ȱ Tracksȱ offersȱ theȱ portraitȱ ofȱ aȱ womanȱ whoȱ desperatelyȱ wantsȱ toȱ
belongȱ inȱ dominantȱ societyȱ toȱ theȱ extentȱ thatȱ sheȱ believesȱ sheȱ isȱ oneȱ ofȱ them.ȱ
Nonetheless,ȱPauline’sȱembracementȱofȱEuropeanȱcultureȱfromȱherȱcolonizedȱcontextȱ
stillȱ involvesȱ aȱ hybridizationȱ andȱ appropriationȱ ofȱ itȱ ratherȱ thanȱ aȱ straightforwardȱ
processȱofȱ adoption.ȱ Overall,ȱ theȱ wayȱ eachȱpasserȱ isȱ shownȱ toȱselectivelyȱ embrace,ȱ
rejectȱandȱtransformȱfacetsȱofȱEuropeanȱcultureȱaccordingȱtoȱherȱindividualȱcontextȱ
canȱbeȱreadȱasȱexamplesȱofȱBhabha’sȱnotionȱofȱculturalȱhybridity.ȱThisȱindicatesȱthatȱ
theȱwritersȱofȱtheȱtextsȱdoȱnotȱunderstandȱpassingȱasȱanȱactȱofȱassimilationȱbutȱasȱaȱ
complexȱ processȱ ofȱ negotiatingȱ withȱ theȱ cultureȱ ofȱ theȱ dominantȱ society.ȱ Culture,ȱ
accordingȱtoȱtheseȱtexts,ȱisȱdynamicȱinȱnatureȱandȱalwaysȱevolvingȱintoȱnewȱforms.ȱ
Erdrich’s,ȱ Morgan’sȱ andȱ Edwards’ȱ portrayalsȱ ofȱ passingȱ challengeȱ theȱ widespreadȱ
beliefȱthatȱpassingȱentailsȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱaȱ‘false’ȱracialȱidentity.ȱTheȱidentitiesȱthatȱ
theȱ passersȱ assumeȱ areȱ representedȱ asȱ aȱ legitimateȱ blendȱ ofȱ theȱ differentȱ culturalȱ
forcesȱtheyȱhaveȱbeenȱexposedȱto.ȱConsequently,ȱtheseȱliteraryȱportrayalsȱofȱpassingȱ
exposeȱ theȱ shortcomingsȱ ofȱ theȱ beliefȱ thatȱ one’sȱ racialȱ identityȱ mustȱ fitȱ intoȱ anȱ
either/orȱconstructȱofȱmutuallyȱexclusiveȱracialȱlabels.ȱȱ
30
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NOTESȱ
ȱPatriciaȱGrace,ȱBabyȱNoȬEyes,ȱPenguinȱBooks,ȱAuckland,ȱ1998,ȱp.122.ȱ
ȱGunnarȱMyrdal,ȱcitedȱinȱElaineȱK.ȱGinsberg,ȱed.,ȱPassingȱandȱtheȱFictionsȱofȱIdentity,ȱDukeȱUniversityȱ
Press,ȱDurham,ȱ1996,ȱp.1.ȱ
3ȱSamiraȱKawash,ȱDislocatingȱtheȱColorȱLine:ȱIdentity,ȱHybridityȱandȱSingularityȱinȱAfricanȬAmericanȱ
Literature,ȱStanfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱCalifornia,ȱpp.1Ȭ6.ȱ
4ȱHomiȱK.ȱBhabha,ȱTheȱLocationȱofȱCulture,ȱRoutledge,ȱLondon,1994,ȱp.34ȱ
5ȱibid.,ȱpp.86Ȭ88.ȱ
6ȱLindaȱSchlossberg,ȱ‘Introduction:ȱRitesȱofȱPassing’,ȱinȱMariaȱCarlaȱSanchezȱandȱLindaȱSchlossberg,ȱ
eds.,ȱPassing:ȱIdentityȱandȱInterpretationȱinȱSexuality,ȱRaceȱandȱReligion,ȱNewȱYorkȱUniversityȱPress,ȱNewȱ
York,ȱ2001,ȱp.1ȱ
7ȱAdrianȱPiper,ȱ‘PassingȱforȱWhite,ȱPassingȱforȱBlack,White’ȱinȱGinsberg,ȱp.267.ȱ
8ȱSchlossberg,ȱp.3.ȱ
9ȱMihiȱEdwards,ȱMihipeka:ȱEarlyȱYears,ȱPenguinȱBooks,ȱAuckland,ȱ1990,ȱp.27.ȱ
10ȱSallyȱMorgan,ȱMyȱPlace,ȱFreemantleȱArtsȱCentreȱPress,ȱSouthȱFreemantle,ȱ1987,ȱp.262.ȱ
11ȱibid.,ȱp.270.ȱ
12ȱMihiȱEdwards,ȱMihipeka:ȱTimeȱofȱTurmoil,ȱNgaȱWaȱRaruraru,ȱPenguinȱBooks,ȱAuckland,ȱ1992,ȱp.64.ȱ
13ȱEdwards,ȱYears,ȱp.130.ȱ
14ȱMorgan,ȱp.ȱ342.ȱ
15ȱLouiseȱErdrich,ȱTracks,ȱFlamingo,ȱLondon,ȱ1994,ȱp.8.ȱ
16ȱEdwards,ȱYears,ȱp.14.ȱ
17ȱMihiȱEdwards,ȱMihipeka:ȱCallȱofȱanȱElder,ȱKarangaȱaȱteȱKuia,ȱSteeleȱRobertsȱLtd.,ȱAuckland,ȱn.d.,ȱ
p.103.ȱȱ
18ȱMorgan,ȱp.ȱ343.ȱ
19ȱErdrich,ȱp.139.ȱ
20ȱibid.,ȱp.158.ȱ
21ȱibid.,ȱp.195.ȱ
22ȱibid.,ȱp.138.ȱ
23ȱEdwards,ȱElder,ȱp.69.ȱ
24ȱMorgan,ȱp.244.ȱ
25ȱEdwards,ȱElder,ȱp.59.ȱ
26ȱibid.,ȱp.69.ȱ
27ȱibid.,ȱp.51.ȱ
28ȱibid.,ȱp.97.ȱ
29ȱMorgan,ȱp.337.ȱ
30ȱibid.,ȱp.332.ȱ
31ȱibid.,ȱp.349.ȱ
32ȱBhabha,p.38.ȱ
33ȱMorgan,ȱp.98.ȱ
34ȱibid.,ȱpp.96Ȭ97.ȱ
35ȱEdwards,ȱYears,ȱp.36.ȱ
36ȱEdwards,ȱYears,ȱp.36.ȱ
37ȱibid.,ȱp.78.ȱ
38ȱErdrich,ȱp.204.ȱ
39ȱibid.,ȱp.78.ȱ
40ȱibid.,ȱp.204.ȱ
41ȱibid.,ȱp.33.ȱ
42ȱEdwards,ȱYears,ȱp.26ȱ
43ȱibid.,ȱp.51.ȱ
44ȱMorgan,ȱp.270.ȱ
45ȱibid.,ȱp.333.ȱ
46ȱEdwards,ȱYears,ȱp.87.ȱ
47ȱibid.,ȱp.78.ȱ
48ȱMorgan,ȱp.320.ȱ
49ȱibid.,ȱp.140.ȱ
50
Edwards, Elder, p.110.
1
2
Ooi/A Righter Shade of Pale
31