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From the Secondary Section
Can English Language Learners Acquire
Academic English?
MaryCarmen Cruz
Cholla High Magnet School
Tucson, Arizona
[email protected]
“They’ve got to keep up. I can’t afford to slow down
my teaching; I average thirty-seven students in each
class. I’m willing to stay after school if they want
more help.”
“Poor kids. I don’t know how they do it. Taking six
academic classes all day long in a language that
they’re barely learning. I know I wouldn’t survive.”
These are typical comments from well-intentioned
colleagues sharing their experiences with English
language learners. Perhaps you have had these very
same thoughts. What are we to do, carrying daunting
workloads yet conscious of our responsibility and desire to help all learners in our classes to succeed? We
know we cannot ignore this population; it has grown
considerably over the past ten years and is expected to
continue growing. In fact, close to 7 percent of all secondary students are categorized as having limited English proficiency (Kindler). In many of our classrooms
the percentage is much higher.
What are we asking of the monolingual and
multilingual learners in our classrooms? We want
them to understand lectures and participate in academic conversations. We want them to comprehend
challenging texts, make informed decisions based on
information they have read, form rational opinions,
and offer focused interpretations. We expect them to
write with clarity, conviction, color, and sophisticated thought. In short, we want them to express
themselves intelligently, articulately, and thoughtfully. Sounds formidable. Our English language
learners can do this, but we must plan and teach
mindfully to help them accomplish each skill.
We could say that the same is true for all learners in our classrooms. Native speakers of English are
also honing their language skills as they progress aca-
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English Journal
Vol. 93, No. 4
demically. However, as Anstrom points out, they are
paying attention to the cognitive tasks required of
them, gathering and sorting new information, following procedures and processes. English language
learners must pay attention to these cognitive tasks
while also acquiring the vocabulary, sentence structure, and academic discourse patterns that correspond to each cognitive task (McKeon). Most
importantly, they must demonstrate competency in
all these areas within their brief time in high school.
Now, that is an impressive task.
So, what do we choose to do to assist the English language learners in our classes? How do we improve our instruction so that all students have equal
access to learning? Understanding language acquisition is a start. Vygotsky reminds us that learning is a
social process. Language learning, similarly, develops
through highly contextualized social interaction.
Through negotiating meaning with others we learn
to use language appropriately and successfully. We
know that when students work in their zone of proximal development, learners are challenged to make
connections just beyond their comfort level, connections that extend knowledge and create new learning.
As students interact to solve problems or learn by discovery in highly contextualized, collaborative settings,
they develop language, academic skills, and cognition
together (Thomas and Collier). Language learners
can also increase their proficiency as they understand
material at a level slightly beyond their current competence (Krashen). The material must, however, be
presented as meaningful, comprehensible input with
visual and extralinguistic clues to provide the necessary bridge or scaffolding between day-to-day language and more rigorous academic language.
March 2004
Copyright © 2004 by the National Council of Teachers of English. All rights reserved.
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Can English Language Learners Acquire Academic English?
Cummins identifies Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) as competence in the academic aspects of English, the formal language of
reports, essays, standardized tests, and other works
used to assess students’ knowledge (“The Role”).
Ironically, students may have the knowledge, but if
they do not possess the linguistic labels that correspond to that awareness, they do not achieve academic success. CALP is acquired by deciphering text
and discourse; it is not rich with visuals, gestures, intonation, or other graphic representation, as is everyday speech or Basic Interpersonal Communication
Skills (BICS). We usually do not encounter it in casual daily speech nor on television programs (with
the exception of something like the NewsHour with
Jim Lehrer). Abstract and complex, it develops slowly.
Whereas most language learners take up to two years
to acquire BICS, they require five to seven years to
attain academic language proficiency (Collier; Cummins, “The Role”). The link between cognition and
communication is critical. As learners progress
through their schooling, they face increasingly demanding cognitive tasks. With those tasks is the assumption that they possess the level of language
necessary for expressing that critical knowledge.
What are the implications of this research for us
in the English language arts classroom? First, we must
allow English language learners time to demonstrate
academic literacy. Some students will require time
to process what they are hearing—the lectures we
present, the dialogue among peers, the class discussions that unfold. They are making sense of English
discourse, following not merely the content but also
the presentation of ideas, the structure of sentences,
and the determination of what vocabulary is meaningful. Others will need extra time to negotiate the
tasks embedded in an assignment and their thinking
in English. Recognizing that the English language
learner may not demonstrate competency today but
is in the process of acquiring proficiency is key.
Second, we can use several strategies that will
assist English language learners to comprehend the
reading material and progress with academic language proficiency. Using visual clues such as gestures, facial expressions, and pictures as we speak
gives context to abstract concepts. If students can
match an image with a concept or word, they are
more likely to remember the concept. We need to
provide visual clarification in the form of graphic or-
ganizers: Venn diagrams, semantic webs, charts, and
so on. These help students to see connections between ideas and make an abstract concept concrete.
Once students comprehend a concept, they need the
appropriate form to express that understanding.
Therefore, patterns such as outlines, formulas, sentence beginners, skeleton sentences, and structures
for discourse are also necessary. Ideally, we will simplify our speech patterns. This does not mean speaking more loudly or slowly; it does mean paying
attention to the language we use. Are we using idiomatic expressions unfamiliar to someone from another culture? If so, do we rephrase the meaning?Are
we offering examples as a means of clarifying an idea?
Do we allow students time to finish an idea? These
techniques assist students’ comprehension.
Next, we can provide opportunities for students to practice academic language while expressing key content. We can ask students to use patterns,
especially in role-playing, partnered work, largegroup discussion, and oral presentations. This enables learners to interact not only with each other
but also with the concepts. Most important is to develop cognitive and linguistic skills. We want students to be able to ask for clarification and to clarify
ideas themselves. Paraphrasing, giving examples,
and encouraging guesses all prompt thinking and
help students develop oral language. During lectures, for example, we may frequently pause to check
for understanding. If we ask students to paraphrase
the main points, we are providing an opportunity to
use the language just heard to demonstrate comprehension. During class discussions, asking students
to paraphrase another student’s remark before offering a comment encourages listening and critical
thinking and offers more practice with academic language. We want critical thinkers. Scaffolding must
be thoughtful and constant. Our expectations must
be explicit and challenging but chunked appropriately to the linguistic abilities of the students.
One of my colleagues approached me excitedly
the other day. “Let me tell you what I’m doing with
persuasive writing,” she exclaimed, grinning. “I’ve
decided to have my students work on debates as an
introduction to writing. I figure they follow the same
basic patterns as persuasive writing. Besides, speaking one’s mind seems a lot less intimidating than
writing about what’s on one’s mind.” So true. What
I appreciate in addition to my colleague’s enthusiasm
English Journal
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From the Secondary Section
is how her modification will help English language
learners move deftly from basic interpersonal communication to the next arena of cognitive and academic challenge, academic literacy. As a former
speech teacher, my colleague knows that both writing and speaking follow certain patterns of organization and language use. Having students play with
formal spoken language as a cue to moving into formal written language is a potent strategy.
Like my colleague, when I work with secondor third-language students I seek the movement
from context-rich language to context-reduced and
more cognitively demanding language (Cummins,
Empowering). I introduce a controversial topic from
current events on the television, radio, or newspaper;
from the students’ lives; or from my life. Last year,
we heard a report about an expectant mother who
had been in an accident-induced coma for several
months. After the baby had come to full term and
had been surgically delivered, the doctors and family wrestled with whether or not to continue life support for the mother. “What would you do in this
situation?” was the question my students posed to
each other. After discussing the facts as we knew
them, we each wrote a response to the question.
Then, student pairs tried to resolve the dilemma.
Each pair presented their ideas to the entire class. To
raise the discussion to the next level, I asked the students to take the viewpoint of the doctors, the family, and the attorneys for both sides. I was asking the
students to consider different viewpoints, but many
students realized that they needed more information
to help them express their ideas clearly. We gathered
more information, read a few more articles, and discussed the situation. Students began forming clear
opinions about using life-support systems.
I asked the class to break into groups of pro
and con. Each group received a neutral article about
the topic in addition to one that supported their
group’s assigned views. Referring to the articles, students took notes together, clarified ideas, and discovered new arguments. However, they realized that
they needed the other side of the issue and sent one
scout to the other group to listen to the conversation. As the group summarized the main points, the
scout took notes, asked questions, and returned to
her home group to report the opposing group’s
thinking. She also took copies of their article to discuss with her group.
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March 2004
As the groups prepared their arguments, they
were ready for another interjection from me. In addition to reviewing rhetorical patterns—the main
(first, second, another) reason . . . and the opposing argument . . . —I also offered them sentence patterns to
use as they borrowed language from their readings.
Sentence beginnings like, “According to (source),
(state your argument . . . )”; “As noted, (state the occupation and name of source) says, . . .”; or “Opponents believe that . . . ; however, . . . .” Finally,
before students gave their debates, I modeled a preliminary and counter speech for them. Students evaluated each other during the debates, listening for
arguments, organization, language, and delivery. We
discussed their success with the debates, including
their ability to argue a topic formally. Students felt
comfortable with the process of defending their ideas
because they knew the format, they knew what to
expect, and they understood the language patterns
necessary to express their points. Later, they were
ready to try persuasive writing because they had already gone through a similar process orally.
I believe this process helped students develop
academic literacy for several reasons. First, the work
began with the prior knowledge of the students. They
recognized that, even if they were in the process of
acquiring academic language, they still had ideas to
share. Their point of view mattered. Next, they had
time to process information and to play with language. They had time to try out their ideas and their
language. They moved from basic interpersonal communication to more formal academic language. In addition, they worked on the process in meaningful
sections. Each part of the assignment was structured
so that students knew what was expected of them.
Each piece was at a level more challenging than the
previous one, yet all led to competency. They had several opportunities to role-play and to test ideas and
the corresponding language. Finally, they worked together to ask questions of each other, to clarify information, to elaborate their understanding and, finally,
to rehearse their part. We know from brain-based research that all of these activities help a learner to store
information in long-term memory. Moreover, for the
English language learner, these activities provide the
language practice necessary for patterns and vocabulary to become automatic. Their oral academic development will influence their written academic
language. Of course, their adeptness at reading aca-
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Can English Language Learners Acquire Academic English?
demic language will also influence their oral and
written production. These language development
strategies are effective with any topic.
It is a rather lofty goal to teach students the art
of communication in English—assisting them to read
with comprehension, use strategies skillfully, and express ideas and opinions effectively in oral and written
form. Wonderfully, these are goals for English as a Second Language students and native speakers of English.
What we can do is educate ourselves about the characteristics of second-language learners and follow best
practices that assist English language learners and native speakers. Seeing the connections between effective
instruction and successful learning of all the diverse
learners in our classrooms will help answer the question, Can English language learners acquire academic
English? If we recognize that best instructional practices for ESL students are best practices for all students,
we will know that the answer is yes.
Works Cited
Anstrom, Kris. Preparing Secondary Education Teachers to Work
with English Language Learners: English Language Arts.
National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education Resource Collection Series 10. Washington: George
Washington U, 1998. 27 Oct. 2003 <http://www.
ncela.gwu.edu/ncbepubs/resource/ells/language/pdf>.
>
EJ on the Web
Collier, Virginia P. “Acquiring a Second Language for
School.” Directions in Language and Education. National
Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education, Fall 1995.
27 Oct. 2003 <http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/ncbepubs/
directions/04.htm>.
Cummins, Jim. Empowering Minority Students. Sacramento:
California Assn. for Bilingual Education, 1989.
———. “The Role of Primary Language Development in
Promoting Educational Success for Language Minority Students.” Schooling and Language Minority Students:
A Theoretical Framework. Sacramento: California Dept.
of Education, 1981. 3–50.
Kindler, Anekka L. Survey of the States’ Limited English Proficient Students and Available Educational Programs and
Services: 2000–2001 Summary Report. Washington:
Natl. Clearinghouse for English Lang. Acquisition
and Lang. Instruction Education Programs, 2002. 27
Oct. 2003 <http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/states/
reports/seareports/0001/sea0001.pdf>.
Krashen, Stephen D. The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications. New York: Longman, 1985.
McKeon, Denise. “When Meeting ‘Common’ Standards Is
Uncommonly Difficult.” Educational Leadership 51.8
(1994): 45–49.
Thomas, Wayne P., and Virginia P. Collier. School Effectiveness for Language Minority Students. Washington: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education, 1997.
27 Oct. 2003 <http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/ncbepubs/
resource/effectiveness/thomas-collier97.pdf>.
Vygotsky, Lev. Thought and Language. Trans. Alex Kozulin.
Cambridge: MIT, 1986.
www.englishjournal.colostate.edu
The Web site provides information and material beyond that in the journal. Some content changes every two
months as new issues of English Journal are published. Featured items for March and April include:
> For Fun. Play “Absent Neighbors” and share this game with your students.
> Contests and Awards. You still have time for students to enter the 2004 Holocaust Remembrance Project
National Essay Contest. The details are all here.
> Personal Reading Forum. Discuss Gap Creek, the novel reviewed by Linda Null and Suellen Alfred in the
“Personal Reading” column in the journal, or recommend other good titles for teachers to read.
English Journal
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