Model Evaluation
Background information:
IN is a 10-year-old bilingual (English/Spanish) female who attends 5th grade in NJ. The
population of her school is 60% Hispanic and 20% African American. IN was born in Elizabeth
and currently lives in an apartment there with her parents. Both parents emigrated from Puebla,
Mexico and neither of them graduated high school. IN’s mother, age 26, is both a cook at a
restaurant and provides babysitting services to neighbors in the area. She does not speak English,
however she has fairly good comprehension of English. IN’s father, age 30, works in the deli
section of a supermarket. He does not speak or understand English and is illiterate in both Spanish
and English. No history of speech, language, or academic disabilities was reported. However,
formal evaluations of speech, language, or academic skills were never performed for IN’s parents
or older family members. Therefore, full developmental history for IN’s parents was unavailable.
IN plans to attend her current school until graduation after her 8th grade year. IN’s favorite subject
is math. She expressed a dislike for reading, however stated that she does have a favorite book,
Green Eggs and Ham. According to parent report, IN’s academic skills are commensurate with
those of her cousins of a similar age. Developmental milestones for speech and language were
reported to be within normal limits and similar to those of her cousins. According to her mother,
IN said her first word at 11 months and started putting two or more words together around 2 years.
IN is currently an only child. Her mother is pregnant with her second child, a girl, and IN
expressed excitement in anticipation of becoming an older sister. IN’s mother reported that she is
pleased with her daughter’s academic progress and has no concerns regarding her receptive or
expressive language skills. IN is in a regular education classroom setting and has not received
prior speech or language intervention.
Language Background and Use
IN is a sequential bilingual speaker of Spanish and English, as she received exposure to only
Spanish until the age of 4 years, when she began attending a monolingual English preschool.
Currently, IN is exposed to English in school. She receives exposure to Spanish in the home,
where her family members speak a Mexican dialect, and in her community. IN’s hometown of
Elizabeth, NJ, has a large Hispanic population of primarily Colombian descent. It is also 20%
African-American. IN has received exposure to both Mexican and Colombian dialects of Spanish.
She has also received significant exposure to African American Vernacular English.
IN speaks only Spanish in the home. She speaks mostly Spanish with her uncles and cousins who
live nearby and whom she sees often. She currently attends New Jersey Academy, a public school
in which the students need to be admitted via lottery. Most students in the school speak Spanish,
as do the teachers, however classes are taught in English. IN reported that of her close friends, one
speaks Spanish. However, they typically speak English when they are together at school.
Evaluation
Behavioral Observations
IN presented as a quiet but friendly child who transitioned well to the informal evaluation setting.
She appeared comfortable with all clinicians, as demonstrated by her initiating conversation with
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both familiar and unfamiliar partners. Turn-taking skills were judged to be good. IN established
and maintained good eye contact with all clinicians throughout the evaluation. Attention to task
and speaker were good throughout. IN was compliant with all instructions and did not require
redirection to task. She was motivated and enthusiastic throughout all evaluation procedures.
Articulation/Phonology
Articulation and phonology were assessed via clinical observation during conversation. IN
presented with intelligible speech and age-appropriate phonological skills. No phonological
processes or articulation errors were observed in either language.
Voice, Fluency, & Resonance
Vocal quality and pitch appeared to be within normal limits for a child IN’s age, gender, and
stature. No disfluencies were observed in IN’s speech. Resonance was observed to be within
normal limits
Hearing
Based upon a recent full audiological evaluation, IN has normal hearing bilaterally. Her mother
reported no history of middle ear infection.
Oral Peripheral Mechanism
Structure: Observation of the oral cavity revealed adequate structure of buccal, labial, mandibular,
lingual, and velar tissues for speech purposes. At rest, IN demonstrated a closed mouth position
and did not drool.
Function: Strength and range of motion of all articulators appeared within normal limits upon
gross observation.
Language
IN’s receptive and expressive language skills were assessed via clinical observation and during
conversation. Standardized tests were not used, as Pena & Quinn (1997), found that language
ability is best assessed in tasks that match the language use in the home. As IN is a bilingual and
bicultural child, standardized tests would not be a valid measurement due to cultural biases, as
they are not normed upon her speech community. For this reason, IN’s language was assessed
using language samples only.
Receptive Language
IN’s receptive language skills were assessed via clinical observation during conversation. IN
demonstrated age-appropriate receptive language skills in both English and Spanish. For example,
she was able to answer a variety of “wh-” questions (e.g. “So why were the people looking at it?”
“Qué te gusta hacer con tus amigas?” “Quién es tu mejor amiga?”). She also made inferences
based on visual information during the subway photo task and was able to connect the scenario
depicted in the photo to a personal experience of her own.
IN was able to carry out complex multi-step directions (e.g. “Choose an item to paint and don’t
pick anything over $30!” “After you put your backpack down, come sit at the table”) and
answered complex questions (“Did you go home before you came here?” “Tu amiga que habla
español juega contigo los fines de semana?”) in both English and Spanish. She identified story
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elements including characters, setting, and plot. IN was also able to adequately synthesize main
events of a story in her retell of the movie, The Lorax. She also demonstrated understanding of
academic language and concepts by describing a current science project and including academic
vocabulary (e.g. glaciers, ecosystems) in her description.
Expressive Language
IN’s expressive language skills were assessed through clinical observation during conversation
and story retell. IN presented with age-appropriate expressive language skills in both English and
Spanish. IN produced a story retell in English only, as she was reluctant to produce a narrative in
Spanish. When the clinician asked IN to tell her a story in Spanish, she replied, “Ummm, I don’t
really want to,” and appeared timid. According to Paradis, et al (2004), language use in bilingual
children is heavily influenced by context and audience. As IN and the clinician have always
spoken in English throughout their relationship, this could explain why IN was hesitant or
uncomfortable to speak in Spanish.
Analysis of IN’s story retell reveals age-appropriate narrative elements. IN described complex
episodes of a story. She produced a story retell that was over 8 minutes long. She demonstrated
adequate sequencing skills, as she frequently used transitional markers (first, then, at the end) to
connect episodes of the plot. The following is illustrative and indicates syntactic complexity, good
narrative structure, and metalinguistic awareness.
“So then at the end, actually the boy wanted to plant the seed but the man, the old man, actually
saw the Lorax came, come, when he had came out of the house.”
In this excerpt, the phrase “at the end” adds temporal sequencing to the overall structure of the
narrative. Additionally, the excerpt contains multiple clauses within a single utterance joined by
the conjunction “but.” IN also demonstrated metalinguistic awareness when she self-corrected the
verb “came” to the present tense “come.” These are indicative of age-appropriate narrative and
expressive language skills.
Analysis of Story Retell
Microanalysis of IN’s story retell revealed age-appropriate morpho-syntactic skills in oral
language. IN utilized complex and embedded sentences (“When I was coming down the stairs, it
was by the back”), clausal cohesion (see below), and few morpho-syntactic errors. Language
transfer from both Spanish and influence from AAVE was noted, as discussed below.
Clausal Cohesion (cohesive markers are underlined)
The following is a sample of IN’s use of clausal cohesion during the description of the subway
picture and her story retell.
Subway
picture
Temporal
Causal
Relational
The bus driver didn’t
see me when I was
small
It was cuz he was small
I think when a person, who was
trying to get out of the train
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Story
retell
(The
Lorax)
And then um, actually
everybody started
singing
I kinda got stuck cuz I
was little
there was one seed that was left
he gave it to the boy so he
could plant it
So there was only a seed left, so
um, so the everybody and the
animals, where the trees were,
had left, so even the Lorax left
come and see the, see the
only tree that had, the
only puffy tree, so
everybody came around it
and started looking at it
it was the only one that was
there
Cause that was the only
tree, only puffy tree, that
was left because it was
actually from um the old
man
that was the only tree, only
puffy tree, that was left
he gave it to the boy so
everybody could see that
he stayed where he was
IN frequently used complex and compound sentences with a variety of cohesive markers in order
to add syntactic complexity to her narrative.
Lexical Diversity:
The following low-frequency words were noted in IN’s narrative:
Squished
Scarves
Puffy
Poofy
Governor
Guards
Moustache
Protecting
Glowing/glows
IN’s word choice was influenced by the topic of the narrative. Her use of such descriptive words
as “moustache,” “glowing,” and “puffy” provided greater specificity and detail to enhance the
overall descriptiveness of her story retell.
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Evidence of Language Transfer
IN demonstrated transfer from Spanish as well as code switching into African American
Vernacular English. Spanish influence was noted in certain syntactic structures. According to
Wolfram (2004), the use of simple past had + verb is a common feature of AAVE utilized in the
narratives of preadolescents with exposure to this dialect. Please see below for examples of
language transfer.
Spanish-English transfer
Utterance
Notes
And they were, there was the other that came
was a man who had a moustache, and I think he
was selling water
Spanish - “el otro” used instead of
more specific term
I think there, the grandma of the boy came, the
mother came so umm, so I think that was it, and
the whole city that came
Spanish - possessive construction (la
abuela del niño)
AAVE-SAE Code Switching
So then at the end, actually the boy wanted to
plant the seed but the man, the old man,
actually saw the Lorax came, come, when he
had came out of the house
Simple past had + verb (Wolfram
2004); equivalent to use of simple past
Impressions
IN, a 10-year-old bilingual (Spanish/English) female, presented with age-appropriate expressive,
receptive, and narrative language skills. Strengths included high level of detail provided in
narrative, use of low frequency vocabulary, inference skills, use of cohesive markers and syntactic
complexity, and comprehension of oral language. IN’s skills in both English and Spanish appear
to be age appropriate based upon clinical observation.
Although IN is in a subtractive bilingual environment at school, as all instruction is in English
only, she maintains both exposure to and use of Spanish in the home and among her extended
family, as well as in her community. IN’s use of conversational Spanish was observed to be ageappropriate and functional as observed in this evaluation. While a narrative sample was not
obtained in Spanish, based on IN’s conversational skills during the evaluation, as well as parent
report of her use and comprehension of Spanish in the home, it was determined that IN’s general
language skills in Spanish are strong as well. Additionally, IN’s academic progress, as reported by
her parents, is indicative of strong academic language skills in English. Her performance during
this evaluation demonstrates that she is a true sequential bilingual learner.
Recommendations
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No speech or language intervention is indicated at this time.
References
Paradis, J., Genesee, F. &. Crago, M. (2010). Dual language development and disorders: A
handbook on bilingualism and second language learning (2nd Ed.) Baltimore, MD: Paul H.
Brookes.
Paul, R. (2007). Language Disorders From Infancy Through Adolescence: Assessment and
intervention (3rd Ed.) St. Louis, MO: Mosby Elsevier.
Peña, E. & Quinn, R. (1997). Task familiarity: Effects on the test performance of Puerto Rican and
African American children. Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch, 28, 323-332.
Westby, C. (1988). Development of narrative language abilities. In G. Wallach & K. Butler (Eds.),
Language learning disabilities in school-age children (pp. 103-127). San Diego, CA:
College Hill Press.
Wolfram, W. (1969). “The grammar of urban African American Vernacular English.” In
Handbook of Varieties of English, Vol. 2, Morphology and Syntax, ed. Bernd Kortman
and Edgar W. Schneider, 111-132. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
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Appendix
Subway picture analysis:
Analysis
IN
SLP
I’m going to show you a
picture, and I want you to
look at the picture and tell me
what you think happened
That thing right there is a
shoe. What do you think
happened?
Who: relational cohesive
marker
I think when a person, who
was trying to get out of the
train
But: conjunction
The train, the train door
actually closed quickly, but
the man’s foot got stuck
That’s what it looks like to
me. Has that ever happened to
you before?
No
What would you do if it did?
Ummm
What if it got stuck on the
bus?
I actually got stuck on the bus
before
You did? What happened?
because - causal cohesive
marker
It was, cuz, cuz, when I was
small,
when - temporal cohesive
marker
Actually the bus driver didn’t
see me when I was small
when - temporal cohesive
When I was coming down the
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marker
stairs, it was by the back,
yeah
because - causal cohesive
marker
I kinda got stuck cuz I was
little and he couldn’t see
So what happened?
My mom helped
It didn’t really hurt, I just got
squished
What do you think this guy
should do?
Hmm, ask for help
Story Retell- The Lorax
Analysis
IN
SLP
I’ve never seen The Lorax
and I need to know what
happened
Ok so what happened first
was um, there’s this old man
when he was remembering
about, um, um, when he was
young
um he was actually, um,
cutting up trees, the poofy
trees
and he actually was um,
cutting it out to make like
clothes, um scarves, I think
shoes, and that’s it
that - relational cohesive
marker
and um, actually there was
one seed that was left
so - causal cohesive marker
so, he uh, he gave it to the
boy so he could plant it in
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front of the city
Who did this?
but - conjunction
The old man, but I don’t
remem- I think it was, umm it
started with a O, but I don’t
remember
That’s ok. So it was the old
man and he had been cutting
down the trees?
so - causal cohesive marker
where - relational cohesive
marker
So then there was only a seed
left, so um, so the everybody
and the animals, where the
trees were, had left, so even
the Lorax left
Umm so at the end the old
man gave the seed to the boy
And the boy, um, had to plant
it in front of the, in the middle
of the whole city
so - causal cohesive marker
and - conjunction
So everybody hadda come
and see the, see the only tree
that had, the only puffy tree,
so everybody came around it
and started looking at it
that - relational cohesive
marker
And it was the only one that
was there
So why were the people
looking at it?
that - relational cohesive
marker
because - causal cohesive
marker
Cause that was the only tree,
only puffy tree, that was left
because it was actually from
um the old man , the seed that
there was that he found
so - causal cohesive marker
So he gave it to the boy so
everybody could see that uh ,
to see that it’s the only poofy
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tree
But there was um actually the
regular trees there were
But it was the only poofy tree
there was
And so everybody wanted to
come see the tree? Because it
was the only tree?
Yeah the only poofy tree
So who were the characters?
Who were some of the people
that came to see the tree?
There was the old man who
had the seed
so - causal cohesive marker
where - relational cohesive
marker
Yeah but he didn’t actually
come so, he stayed where he
was
It was the boy, a girl, I think
almost everybody in the city,
I think there was the governor
I think it was, he was the
small one.
Oh is he small and furry?
but - conjunction
No. That’s the Lorax, but
actually I think he died
But he’s small, he had short
hair, mean
who - relational cohesive
marker
and - conjunction
He had two guards who were
fat, and I think that’s it
who - relational cohesive
marker
and - conjunction
And they were, there was the
other that came was a man
who had a moustache, and I
think he was selling water
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so - causal cohesive marker
I think there, the grandma of
the boy came, the mother
came so umm, so I think that
was it, and the whole city that
came
So what is a Lorax?
but - conjunction
Like, poofy, little guy that
had, he’s orange, had a
moustache but it was yellow
And I think that’s it
So he wasn’t a person, he was
like a little creature?
Yeah. With little feet.
Did he help protect the trees?
Yeah
How did they meet him?
Incomplete tie- them
He was actually inside a tree,
talking to them
Talking to the trees?
and - conjunction
that - relational cohesive
marker
Yeah. And the other animals
were just, um, like, protecting
it by not eating the trees,
cutting up the trees, and um
try to look for, um, see if
there’s anybody that’s cutting
down the trees to stop them.
So the Lorax and all his
friends were trying to keep all
the trees alive? So did he talk
to the boy and tell the boy to
keep all the trees alive?
No it was um, the old man
was actually telling the boy
what was happening
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but - conjunction
came → come: corrected
tense; metalinguistic
awareness
So then at the end, actually
the boy wanted to plant the
seed but the man, the old
man, actually saw the Lorax
came, come, when he came
out the house
And umm, the Lorax actually,
I think he had a little tail
but - conjunction
He was holding it, but he
actually could fly
So in the end, everyone saw
the tree and that was the end?
Yeah
then - temporal cohesive
marker
And then um, actually
everybody started singing
Why did they sing?
Umm, I think it was for the
ending
Very good job! You told that
story so well!
And also there was a glowing
boy, I think it glows in the
water too.
Cool. Does it do anything
else?
Nothing, it just glows.
Very cool. Would you like to
glow all the time?
My clothes
That would be so cool!
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