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4HE LITERATURE OF MODERNITY FOCUSES ON THE IDEA OF CHANGE AND DISCONTINU
ITY STATING THAT IN A MODERN CONDITION CHANGE IS PARAMOUNT AND NOTHING CAN
REMAIN lXED OR STABLE 4HE BASIC MOTIVATION FOR THIS STRUGGLE FOR CHANGE IS LO
CATED IN A DESIRE FOR PROGRESS AND EMANCIPATION WHICH CAN ONLY BE FULlLLED
IF CONTAINMENT WITHIN THE STImING CONVENTIONS OF THE PAST CAN BE OVERCOME
4HUS THE USUAL DEPICTIONS OF MODERNITY PRESENT IT AS A HEROIC PURSUIT OF A BET
TER LIFE AND A BETTER SOCIETY WHICH IS BASICALLY AT ODDS WITH STABILITY TRADITION
AND CONTINUITY -ARSHALL "ERMAN FOR INSTANCE STATES THAT
h4O BE MODERN IS TO lND OURSELVES IN AN ENVIRONMENT THAT PROMISES US ADVENTURE POWER JOY
GROWTH TRANSFORMATION OF OURSELVES AND THE WORLD AND AT THE SAME TIME THAT THREATENS TO DESTROY
EVERYTHING WE HAVE EVERYTHING WE KNOW EVERYTHING WE AREv
4O BE MODERN THUS MEANS FOR HIM TO PARTICIPATE IN A QUEST FOR BETTERMENT
OF ONESELF AND ONES ENVIRONMENT LEAVING BEHIND THE CERTAINTIES OF THE PAST
)NEVITABLY THIS JOURNEY RESULTS IN THE AMBIVALENT EXPERIENCE OF GRATIlCATIONS
OF PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT ON THE ONE HAND AND NOSTALGIA FOR WHAT IS IRRETRIEV
ABLE LOST ON THE OTHER
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3EVERAL FEMINIST AUTHORS HAVE POINTED OUT THAT SUCH BY NOW WELLDIF
FUSED THEORETICAL APPROACHES TEND TO GENDER MODERNITY AS MALE 4HIS IS NOT
ONLY DUE TO THE INTIMATE CONNECTION BETWEEN MODERNITY AND CRITICAL REASON
n REASON BEING A CAPACITY THAT 7ESTERN PHILOSOPHY HAS INVARIABLY ATTRIBUTED
TO MALES MORE THAN TO FEMALES AS FOR EXAMPLE 'ENEVIEVE ,LOYD HAS
SHOWN 4HE GENDERING OF MODERNITY AS MALE ALSO RESIDES IN THE HEROES THAT
lGURE IN ITS NARRATIVES AND IN THE SPECIlC SITES THAT THEY OCCUPY !S 2ITA &EL
SKI ARGUES THE EXEMPLARY HEROES OF "ERMANS TEXT n &AUST -ARX
"AUDELAIRE n ARE NOT ONLY SYMBOLS OF MODERNITY PURSUING IDEALS OF PROGRESS
RATIONALITY OR AUTHENTICITY IN A CONSTANT BATTLE WITH A WORLD TIED DOWN BY IR
RATIONAL BELIEFS AND CORRUPT MECHANISMS OF POWER 4HEY ALSO EMBODY NEW
FORMS OF MALE SUBJECTIVITY WHICH MANIFEST THEMSELVES IN THE PUBLIC ARENA
OF CITY STREETS AND POLITICAL DISCOURSES SEEMINGLY FREE FROM ANY FAMILIAL AND
COMMUNAL TIES 4HEY THUS FUNCTION AS MARKERS OF BOTH MODERNITY AND MAS
CULINITY AND THIS RESULTS IN A CLEARLY GENDERED AND HENCE BIASED ACCOUNT OF
THE NATURE OF MODERNITY
4HE CONCEPTUALIZATION ITSELF OF MODERNITY AS THE EMBODIMENT OF THE STRUG
GLE FOR PROGRESS RATIONALITY AND AUTHENTICITY ALSO BEARS GENDERED OVERTONES
)N AS FAR AS MODERNITY MEANS CHANGE AND RUPTURE IT SEEMS TO IMPLY NECES
SARILY THE LEAVING OF HOME ! METAPHORICAL @HOMELESSNESS INDEED IS OFTEN
CONSIDERED THE HALLMARK OF MODERNITY &OR A PHILOSOPHER SUCH AS (EIDEGGER
IT IS CLEAR THAT MODERN MAN HAS LOST THE KNOWLEDGE OF @HOW TO DWELL (EI
DEGGER 4HEODOR !DORNO IS OF THE SAME OPINION h$WELLING
IN THE PROPER SENSE IS NOW IMPOSSIBLE ;= 4HE HOUSE IS PASTv !DORNO !LTHOUGH !DORNOS PERSPECTIVE IS VERY DIFFERENT FROM (EIDEGGERS
BOTH PHILOSOPHERS SHARE THE FUNDAMENTAL ASSUMPTION THAT MODERNITY AND
DWELLING ARE AT ODDS AND CANNOT BE RECONCILED 4HE METAPHOR IS ALSO RE
CURRENT IN SOCIOLOGICAL STUDIES AS CAN BE INFERRED FROM THE BOOK BY 0ETER
"ERGER "RIGITTE "ERGER AND (ANSFRIED +ELLNER 4HE HOMELESS MIND -ODERNIZATION AND
CONSCIOUSNESS !S THE HOME IS ASSOCIATED WITH WOMEN AND FEMININITY THE METAPHOR OF
HOMELESSNESS REINFORCES THE IDENTIlCATION OF MODERNITY WITH MASCULINITY
)T SEEMS AS IF THE VICISSITUDES OF MODERNITY ARE CAST INTO A SCENARIO WHICH
ASCRIBES THE ACTIVE AND GENERATIVE ROLES TO THE MASCULINE QUALITIES OF REASON
DOMINANCE AND COURAGE WHILE LEAVING THE MORE PASSIVE AND RESISTANT ROLES
TO THE FEMININE CAPACITIES OF NURTURING AND CARING !GENCY CONSEQUENTLY IS
MOST OF ALL LOCATED WITH PREDOMINANTLY MALE HEROES VENTURING OUT TO CON
QUER THE UNKNOWN WHEREAS IT IS GENERALLY THE ROLE OF WOMEN TO EMBODY
MODERNITYS @OTHER n TRADITION CONTINUITY HOME 4HIS SCENARIO IS TO A LARGE
EXTENT ALSO THE SCRIPT FOR MODERNISM
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@-ODERNISM IN ITS BROADEST SENSE CAN BE UNDERSTOOD AS THE GENERIC TERM
FOR THOSE THEORETICAL AND ARTISTIC IDEAS ABOUT MODERNITY THAT EMBRACE THE
EXPERIENCE OF THE NEW AND THAT AIM TO FOSTER THE EVOLUTION TOWARDS A BRIGHT
ER FUTURE 4YPICALLY HOWEVER THESE MOVEMENTS WERE PART OF HIGH CULTURE
AND TENDED TO BE CRITICAL OF MASS CULTURE AND THE HOMOGENIZING EFFECTS OF
MODERNIZATION -ODERNIST DISCOURSES HAVE THUS OFTEN HAILED THE STRUGGLE FOR
AUTHENTICITY AND INTEGRITY AND HAVE DENIGRATED THE NEEDS FOR COMFORT AND
CONSOLATION THAT WERE SEEN AS CHARACTERISTIC FOR A PETITBOURGEOIS MENTAL
ITY 4HIS POLARIZATION OF VALUES THAT UNDERSCORED THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN ART
AND KITSCH BEARS GENDERED OVERTONES AS IS POINTED OUT BY !NDREAS (UYSSEN
h)T IS INDEED STRIKING TO OBSERVE HOW THE POLITICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND AESTHETIC DISCOURSE AROUND
THE TURN OF THE CENTURY CONSISTENTLY AND OBSESSIVELY GENDERS MASS CULTURE AND THE MASSES AS FEMININE
WHILE HIGH CULTURE WHETHER TRADITIONAL OR MODERN CLEARLY REMAINS THE PRIVILEGED REALM OF MALE
ACTIVITIESv
)N MANY WAYS THE DISCOURSES AND PRACTICES OF MODERNISM FAVORED MASCU
LINE QUALITIES AND WERE EMBODIED BY MALE REPRESENTATIVES 4HIS IS CONlRMED
BY 2ICHARD -C#ORMICKS COMMENT THAT IN THE .EW /BJECTIVITY hTHE GENDER
OF THE SUBJECT WHO SEEMINGLY PRODUCED IT THE SUBJECT IT GLORIlED AND TO
WHOM IT WAS ADDRESSED WAS OBVIOUSLY EXPLICITLY INDEED DEFENSIVELY MASCU
LINEv -C#ORMICK .OT SURPRISINGLY THEN THE GREAT MODERNIST ARTISTS AUTHORS AND ARCHITECTS
ARE PREDOMINANTLY MALE AND THE CANONS IN THE DIFFERENT lELDS COMPRISE ONLY
A LIMITED AMOUNT OF WOMEN n EVEN IF THE LAST DECADES SAW IMPORTANT CON
TRIBUTIONS BY FEMINIST SCHOLARS WHO ATTEMPTED TO REINSCRIBE WOMEN ARTISTS
AUTHORS AND ARCHITECTS INTO THE HISTORIES OF THE VISUAL ARTS LITERATURE AND AR
CHITECTURE /F COURSE THE DOMINATING ROLE OF MEN IN THESE lELDS WAS PRECIPI
TATED BY THE SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONDITIONS OF THE TIMES WHICH ENCOURAGED
MEN TO FOLLOW THEIR DREAMS AND WARNED WOMEN NOT TO STRAY TOO FAR FROM
ACCEPTED PATTERNS OF LIFE 7E SHOULD NOT UNDERESTIMATE HOWEVER TO WHICH
EXTENT THE LEGITIMATING DISCOURSES OF MODERNISM REINFORCED THE ASSUMED SU
PERIORITY OF MASCULINE QUALITIES OVER FEMININE FEATURES AND CONSEQUENTLY
FACILITATED THE ACCESS OF MEN INTO THE ROLES OF HEROES AND LEADERS TO THE DETRI
MENT OF THEIR FEMALE COUNTERPARTS
)N THE ARCHITECTURAL DISCOURSE FOR EXAMPLE IT WAS QUITE COMMON AROUND
THE TURN OF THE CENTURY TO SEE TH CENTURY ECLECTICISM BEING CONDEMNED
FOR ITS @EFFEMINATE TRAITS !RCHITECTS SUCH AS (ERMANN -UTHESIUS !DOLF ,OOS
OR (ENRY VAN DE 6ELDE ADVOCATED THE VIRTUES OF SIMPLICITY AUTHENTICITY AND
INTEGRITY CONTRASTING THESE SOBER AND @VIRILE QUALITIES WITH THE SENTIMENTAL
ITY ORNAMENTATION AND OSTENTATIOUS PRETENSIONS ASSOCIATED WITH ECLECTICISM
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(ENDRIK 0ETRUS "ERLAGE CALLED FOR A MODERN ARCHITECTURE WHICH WOULD EM
BODY THE SUBLIME n A FORM OF BEAUTY HE EXPLAINS WHICH DIFFERS FROM THE
MORE COMMON QUALITY OF PLEASING THE EYE JUST LIKE MALE BEAUTY DIFFERS FROM
FEMALE BEAUTY 4HE SUBLIME IS BASED UPON SPIRITUAL STRIVINGS ASCETICISM AND
A TOTALLY FREE CONSCIOUSNESS 4HESE HIGHER IDEALS HE STATES SHOULD LEAD AR
CHITECTURE TO A NEW STYLE BASED UPON CONSTRUCTIVE PRINCIPLES NECESSITY AND
SOBRIETY "ERLAGE ! RATHER LATE VARIATION OF THIS GENDERED OUT
LOOK ON MODERN ARCHITECTURE CAN BE FOUND IN !YN 2ANDS &OUNTAINHEAD WHICH DEPICTS THE MALE ARCHITECTHERO AS SOLELY POSSESSING THE QUALITIES OF
INTEGRITY VIRILITY AND AUTHENTICITY WHICH MODERN ARCHITECTURE REQUIRES
)N A MOVE CONSISTENT WITH THIS ANALYTICAL SCHEME #HRISTOPHER 2EED STATES
IN THE INTRODUCTION TO HIS EDITED VOLUME .OT AT (OME 4HE 3UPPRESSION OF $OMESTICITY
IN -ODERN !RT AND !RCHITECTURE THAT THERE IS A GROWING DIVERGENCE OF DOMESTIC
ITY AND MODERNISM (E SEES MODERNISMS ASSOCIATION WITH THE IDEA OF THE
AVANTGARDE AS THE MAIN REASON FOR THIS DIVERGENCE (E ARGUES THAT IN AS FAR
AS MODERNISTS CONCEIVED OF THEMSELVES AS @AVANTGARDE THEY HAD A BUILTIN
TENDENCY TO BE UNDOMESTIC
h!S ITS MILITARYDERIVED NAME SUGGESTS THE AVANTGARDE LITERALLY @ADVANCE GUARD IMAGINED IT
SELF AWAY FROM HOME MARCHING TOWARD GLORY ON THE BATTLElELDS OF CULTURE x &ROM THE 6ICTORIAN
DRAWINGROOM WITH ITS ETAGERES FULL OF TRINKETS TO THE TWENTIETHCENTURY TRACT HOUSE WITH ITS MASS
PRODUCED PAINTINGS THE HOME HAS BEEN POSITIONED AS THE ANTIPODE TO HIGH ART 5LTIMATELY IN THE EYES
OF THE AVANTGARDE BEING UNDOMESTIC CAME TO SERVE AS A GUARANTEE OF BEING ARTv2EED &OR 2EED IT IS CLEAR THAT ARCHITECTS SUCH AS ,OOS OR ,E #ORBUSIER WERE DEEPLY
HOSTILE TO THE CONVENTIONAL UNDERSTANDING OF HOME WHICH THEY ASSOCIATED
WITH SENTIMENTAL HYSTERIA AND DUSTY CONSERVATISM 4HEY ADVOCATED A NEW
WAY OF LIVING IN WHICH RESIDENCES WOULD BE REDUCED TO MACHINES FOR LIVING
THAT WOULD OFFER THEIR INHABITANTS ONLY THE BAREST MINIMUM OF DECORATION
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)F ONE OF THE PERSPECTIVES DISCUSSED ABOVE TENDS TO ESTABLISH THE GENDERING
OF MODERNITY AS MASCULINE THROUGH ITS OPPOSITION WITH FEMININE DOMESTIC
ITY A FOCUS ON DOMESTICITY ITSELF ON THE OTHER HAND REVEALS A RATHER DIFFERENT
MODE OF INTERCONNECTION )N TRACING THE HISTORY AND MEANINGS OF DOMESTIC
ITY ONE SEES THAT THERE WAS A DIRECT CONNECTION BETWEEN THE EMERGENCE OF
THE DOMESTIC IDEAL ON THE ONE HAND AND THE RISE OF INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM AND
IMPERIALISM ON THE OTHER
7ALTER "ENJAMIN OBSERVES THAT THE PRIVATE INDIVIDUAL MAKES HIS
ENTRY ON THE SCENE OF HISTORY IN THE EARLY TH CENTURY IN A MOMENT THAT FOR
THE lRST TIME HIS HOME BECOMES OPPOSED TO HIS PLACE OF WORK )NDEED UNTIL
THEN THE HOUSE WAS NOT A PRIVATE SHELTER FOR THE MEMBERS OF A SMALL FAMILY
BUT RATHER A LARGE STRUCTURE THAT COMPRISED WORKSHOPS AS WELL AS RESIDENTIAL
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ACCOMMODATION )T DID NOT ONLY HOUSE HUSBAND WIFE AND CHILDREN BUT ALSO
MEMBERS OF THE EXTENDED FAMILY PROTÏGÏS AND SERVANTS "EFORE THE TH CEN
TURY THE HOUSE WAS FAR LESS PART OF THE PRIVATEPUBLIC DICHOTOMY THAT WE HAVE
COME TO ASSOCIATE WITH IT NOR DID IT BEAR THE CLEARLY GENDERED OVERTONES THAT
SUGGEST THAT THE HOUSE lRST OF ALL BELONGS TO THE MOTHER "IRDWELL0HEASANT ,AWRENCE :àNIGA $OMESTICITY THEREFORE IS A CONSTRUCTION OF THE TH CENTURY 4HE TERM RE
FERS TO A WHOLE SET OF IDEAS THAT DEVELOPED IN REACTION TO THE DIVISION BETWEEN
WORK AND HOME 4HESE IDEAS STRESSED THE GROWING SEPARATION BETWEEN MALE
AND FEMALE SPHERES WHICH WAS JUSTIlED BY ASSUMPTIONS REGARDING THE DIFFER
ENCES IN @NATURE BETWEEN THE GENDERS AS FOR INSTANCE IN THIS FAMOUS QUOTE
BY *OHN 2USKIN hTHE WOMANS POWER IS FOR RULE NOT FOR BATTLE AND HER INTELLECT IS NOT FOR INVENTION OR CREATION
BUT FOR SWEET ORDERING ARRANGEMENT AND DECISION x 4HE MAN IN HIS ROUGH WORK IN OPEN WORLD
MUST ENCOUNTER ALL PERIL AND TRIAL x "UT HE GUARDS THE WOMAN FROM ALL THIS WITHIN HIS HOUSE
AS RULED BY HER x NEED ENTER NO DANGER NO TEMPTATION NO CAUSE OF ERROR OR OFFENSE 4HIS IS THE
TRUE NATURE OF HOME n IT IS THE PLACE OF 0EACEv
!S A CONSEQUENCE OF THEIR DIFFERENT NATURES MEN WERE CONSIDERED lT TO TAKE
THEIR PLACE IN THE PUBLIC SPHERE OF WORK AND POWER WHEREAS WOMEN WERE
RELEGATED TO THE PRIVATE REALM OF THE HOME WHICH THEY WERE ASSUMED TO TURN
INTO A PLACE OF REST AND RELAXATION FOR THEIR HUSBANDS FATHERS OR BROTHERS
7HEN MEN LEFT THEIR PLACES OF WORK WITHIN THE HOUSE IN ORDER TO ESTABLISH
WORKSHOPS FACTORIES AND OFlCES AS THE MAIN SITES OF ECONOMIC PRODUCTION A
WHOLE IDEOLOGY THUS CAME INTO BEING WHICH JUSTIlED THE GENDER DIVISION BE
TWEEN BREADWINNERS ON THE ONE HAND AND CARETAKERS ON THE OTHER 4HIS IDE
OLOGY IS ARTICULATED IN TERMS OF GENDER SPACE WORK AND POWER )T PRESCRIBES
RATHER PRECISE ALBEIT CHANGING NORMS REGARDING THE ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS
OF FAMILY LIFE THE NEEDS OF CHILDREN THE PROPER WAYS OF ARRANGING FOOD
CLOTHS AND FURNITURE THE CARE OF BODY AND HEALTH THE BEST WAYS TO BALANCE
WORK LEISURE AND FAMILY ACTIVITIES THE NEED FOR CLEANLINESS AND HYGIENE $O
MESTICITY CAN THEREFORE BE DISCUSSED IN TERMS OF LEGAL ARRANGEMENTS SPATIAL
SETTINGS BEHAVIOURAL PATTERNS SOCIAL EFFECTS AND POWER CONSTELLATIONS n GIV
ING RISE TO A VARIETY OF DISCOURSES THAT COMMENT UPON IT OR CRITICIZE IT
)N .ORTH!MERICA THE CULT OF DOMESTICITY GAVE RISE TO WHAT !NNE $OUGLAS
HAS CALLED A @FEMINIZATION OF CULTURE !ROUND THE SECOND HALF OF THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY THE GROWING AMOUNT OF EDUCATED MIDDLECLASS WOMEN
BECAME THE MAIN CONSUMERS OF CULTURAL PRODUCTS SUCH AS BOOKS AND DECO
RATIVE OBJECTS FOR THEY WERE THE ONES WHO HAD TIME AND OPPORTUNITY FOR
CULTIVATING A CULTURE OF READING AND SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 4HEY CHAMPIONED A LIT
ERATURE THAT WAS CONSTRUCTED AROUND THE FEMININE VIRTUES OF PIETY SENSIBILITY
AND NURTURING AND THAT PROPAGATED A CULTURE OF SENTIMENTALISM !S $OUGLAS
RECOGNIZES HOWEVER THIS FEMINIZATION OF CULTURE NEVERTHELESS DID NOT IMPLY
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A SERIOUS THREAT TO THE HEGEMONY OF THE ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL GOALS WHICH
WERE DRIVEN BY A VERY DIFFERENT SET OF VALUES
h3ENTIMENTALISM IS A COMPLEX PHENOMENON )T ASSERTS THAT THE VALUES A SOCIETYS ACTIVITY DENIES
ARE PRECISELY THE ONES IT CHERISHES IT ATTEMPTS TO DEAL WITH THE PHENOMENON OF CULTURAL BIFURCATION
BY THE MANIPULATION OF NOSTALGIA x -ANY NINETEENTHCENTURY !MERICANS IN THE .ORTHEAST ACTED
EVERY DAY AS IF THEY BELIEVED THAT ECONOMIC EXPANSION URBANIZATION AND INDUSTRIALIZATION REPRESENTED
THE GREATEST GOOD )T IS TO THEIR CREDIT THAT THEY INDIRECTLY ACKNOWLEDGED THAT THE PURSUIT OF THESE
@MASCULINE GOALS MEANT DAMAGING PERHAPS LOOSING ANOTHER GOOD ONE THEY INCREASINGLY INCLUDED
UNDER THE @FEMININE IDEAL 9ET THE FACT REMAINS THAT THEIR REGRET WAS CALCULATED NOT TO INTERFERE WITH
THEIR ACTIONSv$OUGLAS $OUGLAS OBSERVES AN OPPOSITION BETWEEN THE SENTIMENTAL VALUES OF A FEMI
NIZED CULTURE ON THE ONE HAND AND THE TOUGHER GOALS THAT PREOCCUPY THE
DOMINANT SOCIAL ACTORS ON THE OTHER 3HE RECOGNIZES THAT IT IS PERFECTLY POS
SIBLE FOR A SOCIETY TO BE DRIVEN BY SEEMINGLY INCOMPATIBLE DESIRES AND VALUES
WHICH ARE DESIGNATED TO THEIR OWN REALMS 4HUS TH CENTURY !MERICA COULD
HARBOUR SENTIMENTALISM AS WELL AS THE RUTHLESS PURSUIT OF CAPITALIST ACCUMU
LATION
4HE GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CULT OF DOMESTICITY PASSED THROUGH SEV
ERAL STAGES !CCORDING TO *OHN 4OSH IN EARLY 6ICTORIAN %NGLAND THE
SEPARATION BETWEEN WORK AND HOME lRST BECAME A REALITY FOR MEMBERS OF
THE MIDDLE CLASS AND PROFESSIONAL MEN 4HEY VERY MUCH APPRECIATED HOME
lRST OF ALL AS A WELL DESERVED REFUGE FOR THE BREADWINNER 'RADUALLY THE HOME
BECAME THE HALLOWED SPHERE OF WIFE AND CHILDREN WHICH COINCIDED WITH A
GROWING CULT OF MOTHERHOOD AND AN INCREASING FOCUS ON THE CHILD AS THE CEN
TRE OF FAMILY LIFE )N THE lRST HALF OF THE TH CENTURY HOWEVER IT CONTINUED
TO PERMEATE THE LIVES OF MEN TOO n AS HUSBANDS AS FATHER AND AS UPHOLDERS
OF lRESIDE VIRTUES
)T IS ONLY TOWARDS THE END OF THE TH CENTURY 4OSH STATES THAT DOMESTIC
ITY AND MASCULINITY WERE CONSIDERED AS OPPOSITIONAL 4HE VALUES OF INTIMACY
NURTURING AND COMFORT WERE INCREASINGLY PERCEIVED AS THREATENING THE REPRO
DUCTION OF MASCULINITY &OR IT IS IN THIS MOMENT THAT FATHERS BEGAN TO DOUBT
WHETHER THEIR SONS WHO WERE RAISED IN THESE HOMES UNDER THE OVERPOWER
ING INmUENCE OF WOMEN WOULD BE CAPABLE OF DISPLAYING THE MANLY FEATURES
REQUIRED FOR SUCCESS IN THE PUBLIC REALM /NE SEES THEREFORE A DOUBLE EVOLU
TION TOWARDS THE END OF THE CENTURY IN "RITAIN ON THE ONE HAND A CONTINU
ING GROWTH OF MASCULINE DOMESTICITY AMONG THE LOWER MIDDLECLASS ON THE
OTHER HAND A REAL CRISIS OF DOMESTICITY AMONG THE PROFESSIONAL AND COMMER
CIAL CLASSES WHO BEGAN TO BECOME VERY ANXIOUS ABOUT THE DIMINISHED PA
TRIARCHAL AUTHORITY AND THE DOMINANCE OF A FEMININE AMBIENCE IN THE HOME
4HE RESULT WAS IN THESE CIRCLES A DISCERNABLE MALE REVOLT AGAINST DOMESTICITY
4OSH CONCLUDES n A REVOLT ) WOULD ADD THAT HAD A LOT IN COMMON WITH THE
ANTIDOMESTICITY THAT PERVADED HEROIC MODERNIST DISCOURSES
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)T IS ALSO IMPORTANT TO REALIZE THAT THE IDEALS INCORPORATED IN THE CULT OF
DOMESTICITY HAD IMPLICATIONS THAT WENT BEYOND THE THRESHOLD OF THE HOME
!S +AREN (ANSEN POINTS OUT THE ETYMOLOGICAL NEARNESS OF @DOMESTIC
ITY AND @TO DOMESTICATE IS NO COINCIDENCE DOMESTICITY IS OFTEN CONSIDERED
AS BEING PART OF A CIVILIZING MISSION AND AS SUCH THE IMPORT OF DOMESTICITY
WAS A CRUCIAL FACTOR IN THE COLONIAL ENCOUNTER !NNE -C#LINTOCK BUILDS UPON
THIS INSIGHT AND UNRAVELS THE CONNECTION BETWEEN DOMESTICITY AND IMPERIAL
ISM WHICH OFTEN REMAINS HIDDEN FROM MORE CONVENTIONAL INTERPRETATIONS OF
DOMESTICITY
hIMPERIALISM AND THE INVENTION OF RACE WERE FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF 7ESTERN INDUSTRIAL MO
DERNITY x !T THE SAME TIME THE CULT OF DOMESTICITY WAS NOT SIMPLY A TRIVIAL AND mEETING IRREL
EVANCE BELONGING PROPERLY IN THE PRIVATE @NATURAL REALM OF THE FAMILY 2ATHER ) ARGUE THAT THE CULT
OF DOMESTICITY WAS A CRUCIAL IF CONCEALED DIMENSION OF MALE AS WELL AS FEMALE IDENTITIES n SHIFTING
AND UNSTABLE AS THEY WERE n AND ARE INDISPENSABLE ELEMENTS BOTH OF THE INDUSTRIAL MARKET AND THE
IMPERIAL ENTERPRISEv -C#LINTOCK )N ANALYSING 6ICTORIAN IMAGES COMMODITY ADVERTISEMENTS AND DISCOURSES
-C#LINTOCK SHOWS HOW THE NOTION OF DOMESTICITY AS A PROPERLY ORGANIZED
@DOMESTICATED AND CLEAN PRIVATE SPACE WAS PUT FORWARD AS THE HALLMARK OF
CIVILIZATION )T WAS THUS USED TO JUSTIFY THE COLONIAL ENTERPRISE IN UNDERLINING
THE MORAL RIGHTNESS OF hTHE WHITE MANS BURDENv THAT CONSISTED IN BRINGING
THIS CIVILIZATION TO OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD
3EEN FROM THIS PERSPECTIVE IT IS CLEAR THAT MODERNITY AND DOMESTICITY CAN
NOT JUST BE SEEN AS OPPOSITIONAL IF ONE OPENS UP THE SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION
MORE WIDELY AND INCLUDES AS WELL THE MORE HIDDEN LAYERS OF SOCIAL AND ECO
NOMIC DETERMINANTS THAT OFTEN REMAIN CONCEALED ON THE LEVEL OF MODERNIST
DISCOURSES AND PRACTICES IT BECOMES CLEAR THAT THERE IS ALSO A CERTAIN COM
PLICITY BETWEEN MODERNITY AND DOMESTICITY .OTWITHSTANDING THE DOMINANT
ACCOUNTS THAT ASSOCIATE MODERNITY WITH THE PUBLIC AND DOMESTICITY WITH THE
PRIVATE A MORE THOROUGH ANALYSIS ALLOWS ONE TO SEE THAT THIS DISTINCTION ITSELF
IS PART OF A SETUP THAT IS ENTIRELY INTRINSIC TO MODERNITY 4HIS INSIGHT DESTABI
LIZES THE NEAT OPPOSITION BETWEEN BOTH TERMS
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)F ONE TRIES TO lGURE OUT HOW WOMEN RELATED TO THE EXPERIENCE OF MO
DERNITY IN THE TH AND EARLY TH CENTURY THE PICTURE BECOMES STILL MORE
COMPLICATED )N AN OFTEN QUOTED ESSAY ON @4HE )NVISIBLE &LÊNEUSE *ANET 7OLFF
ARGUES THAT WOMEN REMAIN LARGELY INVISIBLE IN THE CANONICAL LITERATURE
ON MODERNITY BY 3IMMEL "ENJAMIN OR 3ENNETT WHICH REPEATEDLY INVOKES
"AUDELAIRES mANEUR n THE STROLLER THE MAN IN THE CROWD n AS THE MOST PARADIG
MATIC lGURE OF MODERNITY )N THE TH CENTURY SHE STATES WOMEN COULD NOT
POSSIBLY PARTICIPATE IN THE ACT OF INCONSPICUOUSLY STROLLING AROUND IN THE CITY
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OBSERVING THE HUSTLE AND BUSTLE AND ENJOYING CHANCE ENCOUNTERS !CCORDING
TO THE MORES OF THE TIME VIRTUOUS WOMEN n THAT IS MIDDLECLASS BOURGEOIS
WOMEN n WERE NOT ALLOWED TO VENTURE INTO THE STREETS WITHOUT A PROPER COM
PANION !NY WOMAN WHO WAS SEEN ON HER OWN IN THE PUBLIC SPACES OF THE
CITY RAN THE RISK OF BEING LABELLED A @PUBLIC WOMAN A PROSTITUTE
4HIS ESSAY BY 7OLFF HAS PROVOKED A LIVELY DEBATE ABOUT WOMENS INVOLVE
MENT WITH MODERNITY %LISABETH 7ILSON HAS OBJECTED TO 7OLFFS AC
COUNT OF THE @SEPARATE SPHERES WHICH ASSIGN WOMEN TO THE PRIVATE SPACE
OF THE HOME AND MEN TO THE PUBLIC REALM OF THE ECONOMIC POLITICAL AND
CULTURAL WORLD !CCORDING TO 7ILSON WOMEN WERE FAR FROM CONlNED TO THE
HOME IN TH CENTURY METROPOLISES #ERTAINLY TOWARDS THE CLOSING YEARS OF
THE CENTURY THERE WAS A GROWING AMOUNT OF EATING ESTABLISHMENTS AND DE
PARTMENT STORES WHICH OFFERED NEW SPACES FOR WOMEN AND THUS JUSTIlED THEIR
PRESENCE IN THE STREETS 4HE BOUNDARIES BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT SPHERES AND
CLASSES WERE ALSO FAR FROM RIGID SINCE THERE EXISTED INTERMEDIATE SOCIAL ZONES
THAT ALLOWED FOR NEGOTIATIONS AND CROSSOVERS IT WAS FOR INSTANCE NOT UNUSUAL
THAT A PROSTITUTE WOULD EVENTUALLY END UP AS A RESPECTABLE MARRIED WOMAN
4HERE WERE MOREOVER A GROWING NUMBER OF WORKINGCLASS WOMEN AND FE
MALE WHITECOLLAR WORKERS WHO WERE CLEARLY AT EASE MOVING THROUGH THE CITY
WITHOUT THE CHAPERON REQUIRED FOR MIDDLECLASS WOMEN 4HE SOCIAL REALITY OF
TH CENTURY ,ONDON OR 0ARIS 7ILSON ARGUES WAS THUS FAR MORE TURBULENT
AND TRANSGRESSIVE THAN 7OLFF DEPICTS IT AND CITIES OFFERED WOMEN OPPORTUNI
TIES OF FREEDOM AND SELFDElNITION THAT WERE PREVIOUSLY UNHEARD OF
4HE LATE TH AND THE EARLY TH CENTURY ALSO SAW THE RISE OF A FEMINIST
MOVEMENT WITH THE SUFFRAGETTES CAMPAIGNING FOR THE VOTE AND SOCIAL RE
FORMERS QUESTIONING THE ROLE OF DOMESTICITY IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN #HARLOTTE
0ERKINS 'ILMAN IS PROBABLY THE BEST KNOWN EXAMPLE OF THOSE WOMEN
WHO ADVOCATED A DOMESTIC REVOLUTION AND WHO IMAGINED NEW ARRANGEMENTS
OF EVERYDAY LIFE THAT WOULD ALLOW WOMEN TO FULLY PARTICIPATE IN PUBLIC LIFE
AND IN CULTURAL ACTIVITIES FOR AN OVERVIEW OF THESE TENDENCIES SEE (AYDEN
AND 5HLIG 4HEIR PROPOSALS CONCERNED THE PROVISION OF COLLECTIVE
DOMESTIC SERVICES n COMMUNAL KITCHENS LAUNDRY FACILITIES AND CHILD CARE n
WHICH WOULD RATIONALIZE THE EXTENT TO WHICH EACH INDIVIDUAL WOMAN HAD TO
CATER FOR HER FAMILY THUS FREEING THEM FROM THE NARROW BONDS OF ONEFAMILY
DOMESTICITY )T IS DIFlCULT TO UNDERSTAND HOW SUCH RADICAL PROPOSALS FOR THE
TRANSFORMATION OF EVERYDAY LIFE COULD NOT BE CONSIDERED @MODERN AND EVEN
@MODERNIST .EVERTHELESS THE HISTORY OF THESE CAMPAIGNERS IS USUALLY NOT TOLD
AS PART OF THE GREAT NARRATIVE OF MODERNISM NOR IS THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO DIS
COURSES ON SOCIAL REFORM AND EMANCIPATION FULLY RECOGNIZED
4HE DIFlCULT POSITION OF WOMEN AS BOTH SUBJECTS OF MODERNITY AND CARE
TAKERS OF DOMESTICITY COMES TO THE FORE ONCE MORE IN THE IMAGE OF THE .EW
7OMAN 4HIS lGURE APPEARS IN THE LATE TH CENTURY IN !MERICA AS A RESULT
OF THE NEW OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN IN HIGHER EDUCATION AND THE PROFESSIONS
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AND OF THE INCREASING NUMBERS OF WOMEN ENTERING THE WORKFORCE AND THE
PUBLIC ARENA &ROM !MERICA SHE MIGRATES TO %UROPE WHERE SHE MAKES AN
ESPECIALLY FORCEFUL APPEARANCE IN 7EIMAR 'ERMANY SEE VON !NKUM 4HE .EW 7OMAN IS NOT CONlNED TO THE HOME BUT ENJOYS A FREEDOM THAT
BRINGS HER TO THE SPORT lELDS TO THE SOCIAL ARENA AND TO THE LABOR FORCE 3HE
LIVES ON HER OWN GOES OUT WITH HER FRIENDS AND IS SEXUALLY LIBERATED 3HE
IS COMPETENT AND CONlDENT KNOWLEDGEABLE ABOUT FASHION AND INTERESTED IN
ART AND CULTURE !LTHOUGH AFTER MARRIAGE SHE WILL STILL THE ONE CONSIDERED
RESPONSIBLE FOR HOME AND CHILDREN SHE IS ABLE TO MOVE IN PUBLIC LIFE ON HER
OWN IN A MUCH MORE SELFEVIDENT WAY THAN HER SISTERS A FEW DECADES EARLIER
)N ORDER TO MANAGE HER HOME SHE HAS MOREOVER ACQUIRED 4AYLORIST SKILLS
WHICH SHE APPLIES IN A PERFECT EXECUTION OF ALL THE PRESCRIPTIONS OF HOME
ECONOMICS 4HE .EW 7OMAN THUS STANDS IN FOR THE NEW SPIRIT OF THE AGE AND
OFTEN ACTS AS AN ICON OF MODERNITY
*ANET 7ARD OBSERVES HOW IN THIS IMAGE OF THE .EW 7OMAN A WHOLE SERIES
OF AMBIVALENCES WERE ACTED OUT THAT REVEAL THE ANXIETIES ACCOMPANYING THE
lGURE OF THE LIBERATED AND SELFRELIANT FEMALE 4HE .EW 7OMANS BODY WAS
ARCHITECTURALIZED IT WAS FORMED ACCORDING TO THE NEW IDEALS OF SPORTS AND
FASHION WHICH RESULTED IN A LEAN AND ATHLETIC BODY THAT RESEMBLED MORE THAT
OF A PREPUBESCENT GIRL THAN THAT OF A MATURE WOMAN 4HIS 'IRLS MOST OBVI
OUS CHARACTERISTIC WAS PARADOXICALLY HER MASCULINITY UNDERSCORED ALSO BY A
FASHION THAT NEGATED THE RIPE LINES OF A FEMININE BODY AND TENDED TOWARDS A
mUID LINEAR SILHOUETTE WITHOUT BREASTS AND HIPS 7ARD STATES THEREFORE THAT
hIT IS ON THE BODY OF THE .EW 7OMAN THAT 7EIMAR SURFACE CULTURE WAS MOST VIVIDLY INSCRIBED
IN ALL ITS FORCE n DESPITE THE FACT THAT THE lGURE OF MODERNITY WAS PREDOMINANTLY MALE AND DESPITE
THE TRADITIONAL VIEW OF WOMAN AS A lGURE OF 5NSACHLICHKEITv 7ARD 4HE .EW 7OMAN HOWEVER WAS NOT GRANTED A VERY LONG LIFE )N 'ERMANY
THE BACKLASH AGAINST HER WAS MOST FORCEFUL COINCIDING WITH THE RISE OF .A
ZISM IN THE EARLY THIRTIES !FTER THE ECONOMIC CRASH THE IDEAL WOMAN
WAS MODELED AGAIN ON THE NURTURING MOTHERLY lGURE WHO FAVORED THE QUI
ETNESS OF THE PROVINCES INSTEAD OF THE HECTIC PACE OF THE -ETROPOLIS 4HIS
MOTHERLY lGURE CLEARLY TURNED HER BACK ON THE CALLS FOR EQUALITY AND INDE
PENDENCE VON !NKUM 7HETHER NEW WOMEN OR OLD ONES HOWEVER MOST WOMEN IN THE lRST HALF
OF THE TH CENTURY DID NEGOTIATE THEIR LIVES AROUND ISSUES RELATED TO DOMES
TICITY *UDY 'ILES LISTS FOUR AREAS WHERE THE IMPACT OF MODERNIZATION
UPON WOMENS LIVES WAS MOST PROLIlC &IRSTLY INCREASING URBANIZATION AND
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION LED TO THE PHENOMENON OF THE SUB
URB WIDELY SEEN AS THE IDEAL ENVIRONMENT TO RAISE A FAMILY 3ECONDLY THE
ADVANCEMENT OF MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE AND TECHNOLOGY RESULTED IN A REMARKABLE
IMPROVEMENT OF BASIC LIVING CONDITIONS "ETTER MEDICAL CARE MORE HYGIENIC
ENVIRONMENTS BIRTH CONTROL AND IMPROVED NUTRITION BROUGHT ABOUT A SITU
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ATION IN WHICH LIFE IS FAR LESS BRUTISH SHORT AND VIOLENT THAN IT WAS IN THE
TH CENTURY n CERTAINLY FOR THE WORKING CLASS 4HIRDLY THE SHIFT TOWARDS A
CONSUMERIST ECONOMY MEANT A RISE OF OPPORTUNITIES FOR COMFORT ENJOYMENT
AND SELFEXPRESSION &OURTHLY THE SUCCESS OF SCIENTIlC RATIONALISM CHARGED THE
HOME WITH CONTRADICTORY EXPECTATIONS )T PERMEATED THE CULT OF DOMESTICITY
THAT CENTERED UPON LOVE FAMILY AND PRIVACY WITH REQUIREMENTS REGARDING
EFlCIENCY AND CONTROL BRINGING ABOUT THE EXPOSURE OF THE INTERIOR TO THE
GAZE OF ADMINISTRATORS HEALTH WORKERS AND DOMESTIC EXPERTS !LL IN ALL THIS
RESULTED IN AN AMBIGUOUS POSITIONING OF WOMEN VISÌVIS MODERNITY
h!S A RESULT WOMEN NEGOTIATED AMBIGUOUS AND AMBIVALENT WAYS OF SEEING THEMSELVES SOMETIMES
PULLED FORWARD AS AGENTS OF CHANGE BUT AT OTHERS PUSHED BACK AS SYMBOLIZATIONS OF CONTINUITY AND
TRADITIONv 'ILES 5LTIMATELY A PICTURE IS DRAWN IN WHICH FOR A MAJORITY OF WOMEN IN THE
7EST THE HOME WAS CLEARLY THE PLACE WHERE MODERNITY WAS EFFECTUATED
hx IN THE lRST HALF OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY MODERNITY FOR MILLIONS OF WOMEN WAS ABOUT
WORKING TO CREATE A SPACE CALLED @HOME IN WHICH VIOLENCE INSECURITY DISEASE DISCOMFORT AND PAIN
WERE THINGS OF THE PAST 4HIS COULD PROVIDE WOMEN WITH A SENSE OF CITIZENSHIP AND A STAKE IN THE
FUTURE -OST IMPORTANTLY WORKING TO CREATE @BETTER HOMES OFFERED MANY WOMEN THE OPPORTUNITY
TO SEE THEMSELVES AS HAVING A CENTRAL ROLE IN ACHIEVING WHAT IS BELIEVED TO BE THE PROJECT OF MODERN
SOCIAL EXISTENCE THE RIGHT TO DElNE THEIR OWN FUTURES AND THE CAPACITY TO BE IN CONTROL OF THEIR OWN
LIVESv 'ILES &AR FROM BEING AN ANTIDOTE TO MODERNITY FOR MOST OF THESE WOMEN THE
HOME WAS INDEED THE PLACE WHERE MODERNITY WAS ENACTED 4HIS HOME WAS
NOT NECESSARILY SEEN AS CONSTRICTING AND NARROW /FTEN IT WAS CONCEIVED OF
AS PART OF A WIDER ENDEAVOR THAT AIMED AT A CIVILIZING MISSION 4HE DOMESTIC
VIRTUES OF LOVING CARE AND SUBTLE GUIDANCE WERE MEANT TO BE TRANSPOSED ONTO
THE LEVEL OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS WELFARE INSTITUTIONS AND THE GENERAL SETUP
OF THE STATE )N THAT SENSE MANY WOMEN AND THEIR ORGANIZATIONS BENT THE
IDEOLOGY OF DOMESTICITY IN SUCH A WAY THAT IT GAVE THEM ACCESS TO PUBLIC LIFE
AND POSITIONS OF SUBSTANTIAL INmUENCE RATHER THAN LIMITING THEM TO THE STRICT
CONlNES OF THEIR OWN HOUSEHOLD
4HE RADICAL OPPOSITION TO DOMESTIC IDEALS ADOPTED BY SECOND WAVE FEMI
NISM IN THE WAKE OF "ETTY &RIEDANS ! &EMININE -YSTIQUE WAS THUS TYPI
CALLY A PHENOMENON OF THE SIXTIES AND SEVENTIES 4HIS FEMINISM CLAIMED THAT
FUNDAMENTAL EQUALITY BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN INVALIDATED THE IDEA THAT
THEY SHOULD OCCUPY DIFFERENT ROLES IN LIFE 4HE BURDENS AND ENJOYMENTS OF
THE HOME THEY ARGUED SHOULD BE SHARED BY BOTH MEN AND WOMEN AND THE
SAME SHOULD APPLY TO THE CHALLENGES AND REWARDS OF WORK AND SOCIAL ACTIVI
TIES 4HIS FEMINIST LINE OF THOUGHT HAS GIVEN RISE TO THE POLICY OF EQUAL OPPOR
TUNITIES THAT IS BY NOW OFlCIALLY ADOPTED IN MOST 7ESTERN COUNTRIES )T MEANS
THAT THE LEGAL SYSTEM NOW TREATS MEN AND WOMEN AS TOTALLY EQUAL SUBJECTS
THEY ARE SUBJECT TO THE SAME RULES AND BEAR THE SAME RESPONSIBILITIES
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.EVERTHELESS REALITY LAGS FAR BEHIND POLICY AND SHOWS THE CONTINUING
STRENGTH AND INmUENCE OF THE IDEOLOGY OF DOMESTICITY !LTHOUGH THIS IDEOL
OGY IS NOWADAYS TACIT RATHER THAN EXPLICIT STATISTICS CLEARLY SHOW THAT IN
GENERAL MEN ARE DEVOTING MANY MORE HOURS TO THEIR JOBS THAN WOMEN AND
THAT WOMEN SPEND ON AVERAGE MANY MORE HOURS THAN THEIR MALE PARTNERS IN
CHILD CARING AND OTHER DOMESTIC ACTIVITIES )N &LANDERS IN FOR EXAMPLE
MEN SPEND AN AVERAGE OF HOURS AND MINUTES ON THEIR JOB WOMEN ONLY
HOURS AND MINUTES ON THE OTHER HAND WOMEN DEVOTE AN AVERAGE OF
HOURS AND MINUTES A WEEK TO HOUSEHOLD CHORES AND CHILD CARE AND
MEN ONLY HOURS MINUTES )GNACE 'LORIEUX *OERI -INNEN ,EEN 6AN
4IELEN SEE ALSO 4ONY #HAPMAN 3UCH DATA CLEARLY INDICATES THAT
TRADITIONAL ROLE PATTERNS ALIGNED WITH THE IDEOLOGY OF DOMESTICITY STILL HAVE A
MAJOR INmUENCE IN THE DAILY LIFE OF THE GREAT MAJORITY OF PEOPLE
4HIS TEXT IS AN ABBREVIATED VERSION OF A PREVIOUSLY PUBLISHED TEXT (ILDE
(EYNEN @-ODERNITY AND DOMESTICITY 4ENSIONS AND #ONTRADICTIONS
)N (ILDE (EYNEN 'àLSàM "AYDAR EDS .EGOTIATING $OMESTICITY 3PATIAL 0RODUCTIONS
OF 'ENDER IN -ODERN !RCHITECTURE ,ONDON 2OUTLEDGE
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