The National Survey of
CEOs on Business Ethics
Robert J. Rutland
Institute for Ethics
The Center for Ethics
And Corporate Responsibility
Department of Sociology
and Anthropology
Results from the National Survey of CEOs on Business Ethics are based on 302 completed
surveys returned by a sample of CEOs in firms with annual revenues of $10 million or
more.
Surveys were mailed to a sample of 2,494 CEOs randomly selected by Dun & Bradstreet
from a listing of all such firms. For statistical purposes a sample of this size yields a
margin of error of approximately + 6%. The estimated response rate for the survey is 15%.
Questions are welcome and may be directed to the researchers listed here.
CLEMSON UNIVERSITY
GEORGIA STATE UNIVERSITY
Daniel E. Wueste, Ph.D.
Director
Robert J. Rutland Institute for Ethics
[email protected]
864-656-6147
John C. Knapp, Ph.D.
Director
Center for Ethics and Corporate
Responsibility
[email protected]
404-413-74204
James Witte, Ph.D.
Department of Sociology
and Anthropology
[email protected]
864-656-3816
2
ETHICS MANAGEMENT
Policies, Practices, Procedures, etc.
...introduced as a result of new regulations
Have the recent changes in regulations regarding ethics and governance (i.e., the SarbanesOxley Act, the updated Federal Sentencing Guidelines, revised listing requirements of
stock exchanges, etc.) affected how your organization manages ethics and compliance?
35.1%
64.9%
Yes
No
Of those who said yes, what did they do?
Pe Have done (or are in the
process of doing) the following
H Hired new staff or restructured organization responsible for
47.9%
ethics and compliance
Updated ethics or compliance policies
87.1%
Revised mission, vision or values statements
46.4%
Created new ethics/compliance committees
38.1%
A Developed new communication strategies for managing
conduct
Created or strengthened ethics and compliance training
66.0%
In Increased budget for ethics and compliance management
50.5%
68.0%
3
Hired new staff or restructured organization responsible for ethics and compliance
Yes
No
Updated ethics or compliance policies
Yes
No
Revised mission, vision or values statements
Yes
No
4
Created new ethics/compliance committees
Yes
No
Developed new communication strategies for managing conduct
Yes
No
Created or strengthened ethics and compliance training
Yes
No
5
Increased budget for ethics and compliance management
Yes
No
6
ETHICS MANAGEMENT:
Policies, Practices, Procedures, etc.
Do you have or plan to implement in the next 12 months…
Pe
A stated ethics policy (e.g., Code of Ethical
Conduct)?
A board-level committee responsible for
ethics and compliance?
A ethics and compliance training program?
Percent that have or plan to implement
82.0%
36.6%
52.6%
A company ethics 'help line' (e.g., where
employees may report ethical concerns or
seek guidance on ethical questions)?
A statement of values to guide corporate
conduct?
n assigned ethics and/or compliance officer?
52.6%
83.3%
48.1%
A department that is primarily responsible
for ethics and compliance (i.e., education,
investigations and monitoring)?
43.2%
A stated ethics policy (e.g., Code of Ethical Conduct)?
Yes
No
A board level committee responsible for ethics and compliance?
Yes
No
7
An ethics and compliance training program?
Yes
No
A company ethics helpline (e.g., to report concerns)?
Yes
No
A statement of values to guide corporate conduct?
Yes
No
8
An assigned ethics and/or compliance officer?
Yes
No
A department that is primarily responsible for ethics and compliance?
Yes
No
If you answered yes to any item above. . . What is the single most important
motivation for implementing an ethics initiative within your firm?
Provide positive guidance for employee conduct
Ensure legal compliance
Be socially responsible
Improve/protect public reputation
Improve profits/shareholder value
Motivate employees
Retain employees
Total
Percent
50.8%
21.2%
16.2%
5.8%
4.6%
1.2%
0.4%
100.0%
9
THE STATE OF ETHICS IN BUSINESS
How important are these factors for explaining unethical conduct in most organizations?
Personal greed
Failure of organizational leadership to
establish ethical standards and culture
Weakness of personal character
Desire to advance career
Pressure to meet unrealistic
performance or financial goals
Indifference or low morale
Inadequate training and
communication
Pressure to meet deadlines and
schedules.
Failure of the organization to establish
an effective compliance program
Desire to harm the employer
Not understanding the company's
ethics policies
Not agreeing with the company's
ethics policies
1
1.5
2
Ranked high to low
Personal greed
Failure of the organization's leadership in
establishing ethical standards and culture
Weakness of personal character
Desire to advance career
Pressure to meet unrealistic performance or
financial goals
Indifference or low morale
Inadequate training and communication
Pressure to meet deadlines and schedules.
Failure of the organization to establish an
effective compliance
Desire to harm the employer
Not understanding the company's ethics
policies
Not agreeing with the company's ethics
policies
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Average (on a scale of 1 – 5)
3.66
3.61
3.58
3.39
3.29
3.26
3.08
3.01
2.92
2.85
2.80
2.73
10
5
THE STATE OF ETHICS IN BUSINESS
In your judgment, how do high ethical standards affect a company’s competitive
position?
… in the short term
23%
Strengthen
Weaken
7%
No effect
70%
… in the long term
1%
5%
Strengthen
Weaken
No effect
94%
11
CEOs who think high ethical standards strengthen a company’s competitive position
were not significantly more positive about regulation, than those who think high standards
weaken or have no effect on a company’s competitive position.
“The Sarbanes-Oxley Act and related regulatory measures have improved the standard of
ethical performance of corporate America”
Agree
Disagree
Strengthen Weakened or had no effect
51.8%
53.6%
48.2%
46.4%
“The Sarbanes-Oxley Act and related regulatory measures have improved the standard of
ethical performance of my business”
Strengthen Weakened or had no effect
Agree 21.1%
17.6%
Disagree 78.9%
82.4%
“The Sarbanes-Oxley Act and related regulatory measures have strengthened public and
investor trust in corporate America”
Agree
Disagree
Strengthen
47.4%
52.6%
Weakened or had no effect
44.6%
55.4%
“The Sarbanes-Oxley Act and related regulatory measures were an overreaction to the
ethical failures of a handful of companies and have proven to be burdensome and
unnecessary for most good companies”
Agree
Disagree
Strengthen
51.8%
48.2%
Weakened or had no effect
53.6%
46.4%
12
CEOs who agree that the ethical performance of corporate America has improved over
the last 4 years were significantly* more positive about regulation, than those who felt it
had not improved.
“The Sarbanes-Oxley Act and related regulatory measures have improved the standard of
ethical performance of corporate America”
*
Significant
p<.01
Agree
Disagree
Agreed
improved
Disagreed
not improved
63.8%
36.2%
32.5%
67.5%
“The Sarbanes-Oxley Act and related regulatory measures have improved the standard of
ethical performance of my business”
* Significant Agreed
p<.01
improved
Agree
26.3%
Disagree
73.7%
Disagreed
not improved
11.1%
88.9%
“The Sarbanes-Oxley Act and related regulatory measures have strengthened public and
investor trust in corporate America”
* Significant
p<.01
Agree
Disagree
Agreed
improved
61.9%
38.1%
Disagreed
not improved
24.1%
75.9%
“The Sarbanes-Oxley Act and related regulatory measures were an overreaction to the
ethical failures of a handful of companies and have proven to be burdensome and
unnecessary for most good companies”
* Not
statistically
significant
Agree
Disagree
Agreed
improved
Disagreed
not improved
67.7%
32.3%
75.6%
24.4%
13
CEOs who think high ethical standards strengthen a company’s competitive position
were not significantly less likely to think that internal corporate pressures lead to unethical
conduct, than those who think high standards weaken or have no effect on a company’s
competitive position.
“How important is pressure to meet deadlines and schedule for explaining unethical
conduct among employees at most organizations?”
* Not
Strengthen
statistically
Significant
Not important 35.1%
Neutral
31.9%
Very important 33.0%
Weakened or had no effect
39.2%
31.6%
29.1%
“How important is pressure to meet unrealistic performance or financial goals for
explaining unethical conduct among employees at most organizations?”
* Not
Strengthen Weakened or had no effect
statistically
Significant
Not
49.2%
50.6%
important
Neutral
23.8%
18.5%
Very
26.9%
30.9%
important
CEOs who think high ethical standards strengthen a company’s competitive position
were significantly less likely to think that broad economic pressures lead to unethical
conduct, than those who think high standards weaken or have no effect on a company’s
competitive position.
“Business executives are more likely to make ethical compromises during economic
downturns”
*
Strengthen Weakened or had no effect
Significant
p<.05
Agree
52.8%
65.8%
Disagree 47.2%
34.2%
14
CEOS’ ROLES AND COMPENSATION:
Do you agree or disagree with the
following statements?
The CEO should be the moral leader of
the organization
Public companies' responsibilities to
employees frequently conflict with their
need to maximize shareholder returns.
My standard of business ethics has
improved over the course of my career.
It can be appropriate for CEOs' religious
beliefs to influence their business
decisions.
There is a generally accepted ethical
standard that most businesspeople agree
and act upon.
CEO compensation in most large public
companies is excessive.
CEO compensation in most large public
companies is properly aligned with
corporate performance.
Strongly
agree
88.4%
Agree
Disagree Strongly
disagree
11.3% 0.3%
0.0%
5.3%
37.0%
37.4%
20.4%
26.5%
38.1%
24.4%
11.0%
20.6%
37.5%
19.5%
22.4%
8.5%
61.3%
25.0%
5.3%
23.8%
39.1%
30.1%
7.0%
1.2%
28.3%
48.2%
22.3%
Differences* between CEOs in publicly held and private firms
• CEOs in privately held organizations more likely to agree: Public companies'
responsibilities to employees frequently conflict with their need to maximize
shareholder returns.
• CEOs in privately held organizations more likely to agree: My standard of business
ethics has improved over the course of my career.
• CEOs in privately held organizations more likely to agree: CEO compensation in
most large public companies is excessive.
• CEOs in privately held organizations more likely to disagree: CEO compensation
in most large public companies is properly aligned with corporate performance.
Differences* by number of employees (small under 100, medium 101 to 1000, large
1001 or more)
• CEOs in mall and medium sized (under 1000 employees) more likely to agree:
Public companies' responsibilities to employees frequently conflict with their need
to maximize shareholder returns.
• CEOs in small and medium sized (under 1000 employees) more likely to agree: My
standard of business ethics has improved over the course of my career.
15
Difference* by annual sales (small under $50 million, medium $50 million to $250
million, large over $250 million)
• Difference between small, medium and large—smaller more like to agree: Public
companies' responsibilities to employees frequently conflict with their need to
maximize shareholder returns.
• Difference between small, medium and large—smaller more like to agree: My
standard of business ethics has improved over the course of my career.
• Difference between small, medium and large—smaller more like to agree: CEO
compensation in most large public companies is excessive.
* Statistically significant with p < .05
Please note: Here, indeed at any point in this summary of survey findings, specific
numbers are available upon request. Researcher contact information can be found
on page 2 of this document.
16
What are the top 5 ethical issues facing the general business community? 2) What are
the top 5 ethical issues facing your industry?
Top ethical issues facing the general business community
One of 5 top concerns for…
General
Your Industry
Business
Community
Improper accounting practices
44.0%
24.5%
Lying on reports/falsifying records
35.4% tie 2
31.8%
Conflicts of interest
35.4% tie 2
45.0%
Exorbitant executive compensation
33.8%
2.6%
Dishonesty with customers
30.5%
31.1%
Misleading the public or the media
29.8%
18.9%
Deceptive sales practices
28.8%
33.4%
Violating environmental regulations
27.8%
19.5%
Stealing/theft
24.2%
31.1%
Producing low quality or unsafe products
22.2%
19.5%
Bribes and kickbacks
21.2%
15.2%
Drug/alcohol abuse
20.2%
24.5%
Discrimination
19.5%
15.2%
Unfair treatment of employees
18.9%
18.2%
Sex harassment
12.6%
15.9%
Violations of privacy
11.9%
24.5%
Unfair treatment of suppliers
10.9%
13.6%
Lying/exaggerating on resumes or job
10.6%
16.6%
applications
Economic espionage/divulging trade secrets
7.6%
9.9%
Predatory employment practices
2.6%
9.9%
Workplace violence
1.7%
3.3%
Other
1.7%
3.3%
17
Top ethical issues facing your industry
Conflicts of interest
Deceptive sales practices
Lying on reports/falsifying records
Dishonesty with customers
Stealing/theft
Improper accounting practices
Drug/alcohol abuse
Violations of privacy
Violating environmental regulations
Producing low quality or unsafe products
Misleading the public or the media
Unfair treatment of employees
Lying/exaggerating on resumes or job
applications
Sex harassment
Bribes and kickbacks
Discrimination
Unfair treatment of suppliers
Economic espionage/divulging trade secrets
Predatory employment practices
Workplace violence
Other
Exorbitant executive compensation
One of 5 top concerns for…
Your
General Business
industry
Community
45.0%
35.4%
33.4%
28.8%
31.8%
35.4%
31.1% tie 4
30.5%
31.1% tie 4
24.2%
24.5% tie 5
44.0%
24.5% tie 5
20.2%
24.5% tie 5
11.9%
19.5%
27.8%
19.5%
22.2%
18.9%
29.8%
18.2%
18.9%
16.6%
10.6%
15.9%
15.2%
15.2%
13.6%
9.9%
9.9%
3.3%
3.3%
2.6%
12.6%
21.2%
19.5%
10.9%
7.6%
2.6%
1.7%
1.7%
33.8%
18
Top ethical issues facing your industry: Manufacturing
One of 5 top concerns for…
Your industry--manufacturing
Violating environmental regulations
41.4%
Deceptive sales practices
36.2%
Producing low quality or unsafe products
32.8%
Conflicts of interest
31.0%
Stealing/theft
29.3%
Lying on reports/falsifying records
25.9%
Unfair treatment of suppliers
24.1%
Drug/alcohol abuse
22.4%
Dishonesty with customers
20.7%
Improper accounting practices
19.0%
Misleading the public or the media
19.0%
Economic espionage/divulging trade secrets
19.0%
Lying/exaggerating on resumes or job
15.5%
applications
Discrimination
13.8%
Unfair treatment of employees
12.1%
Sex harassment
12.1%
Bribes and kickbacks
10.3%
Predatory employment practices
8.6%
Violations of privacy
6.9%
Workplace violence
0.0%
Other
0.0%
Exorbitant executive compensation
0.0%
N=50
19
Top ethical issues facing your industry: Health Care and Social Assistance
One of 5 top concerns for…
Conflicts of interest
Violations of privacy
Lying on reports/falsifying records
Improper accounting practices
Producing low quality or unsafe products
Misleading the public or the media
Sex harassment
Drug/alcohol abuse
Unfair treatment of employees
Discrimination
Stealing/theft
Dishonesty with customers
Bribes and kickbacks
Lying/exaggerating on resumes or job applications
Predatory employment practices
Workplace violence
Deceptive sales practices
Exorbitant executive compensation
Other
Violating environmental regulations
Economic espionage/divulging trade secrets
Unfair treatment of suppliers
N=58
Your industry—Health Care
And Social Assistance
58.6%
51.7%
39.7%
32.8%
31.0%
31.0%
25.9%
25.9%
22.4%
17.2%
17.2%
17.2%
13.8%
13.8%
12.1%
12.1%
10.3%
5.2%
5.2%
3.4%
1.7%
1.7%
20
Top ethical issues facing your industry: Banking, Finance and Insurance
One of 5 top concerns for…
Conflicts of interest
Violations of privacy
Lying on reports/falsifying records
Deceptive sales practices
Dishonesty with customers
Improper accounting practices
Misleading the public or the media
Stealing/theft
Discrimination
Economic espionage/divulging trade secrets
Unfair treatment of employees
Lying/exaggerating on resumes or job applications
Predatory employment practices
Drug/alcohol abuse
Unfair treatment of suppliers
Sex harassment
Bribes and kickbacks
Producing low quality or unsafe products
Other
Violating environmental regulations
Exorbitant executive compensation
Workplace violence
N=40
Your industry—Banking,
Finance and Insurance
67.5%
55.0%
42.5%
42.5%
40.0%
35.0%
32.5%
30.0%
17.5%
12.5%
10.0%
10.0%
7.5%
7.5%
7.5%
5.0%
2.5%
2.5%
2.5%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
21
Top ethical issues facing your industry: Professional and Technical Services
One of 5 top concerns for…
Conflicts of interest
Lying/exaggerating on resumes or job applications
Dishonesty with customers
Deceptive sales practices
Lying on reports/falsifying records
Violations of privacy
Drug/alcohol abuse
Improper accounting practices
Sex harassment
Unfair treatment of suppliers
Predatory employment practices
Bribes and kickbacks
Misleading the public or the media
Unfair treatment of employees
Stealing/theft
Economic espionage/divulging trade secrets
Producing low quality or unsafe products
Violating environmental regulations
Discrimination
Exorbitant executive compensation
Workplace violence
Other
N=22
Your industry—Professional
and Technical Services
54.5%
50.0%
45.5%
45.5%
31.8%
27.3%
22.7%
22.7%
18.2%
18.2%
13.6%
13.6%
13.6%
9.1%
9.1%
9.1%
9.1%
4.5%
4.5%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
22
Top ethical issues facing your industry: Information Services and Technology
One of 5 top concerns for…
Deceptive sales practices
Dishonesty with customers
Conflicts of interest
Lying on reports/falsifying records
Improper accounting practices
Violations of privacy
Stealing/theft
Misleading the public or the media
Unfair treatment of employees
Sex harassment
Economic espionage/divulging trade secrets
Discrimination
Exorbitant executive compensation
Bribes and kickbacks
Producing low quality or unsafe products
Unfair treatment of suppliers
Lying/exaggerating on resumes or job applications
Predatory employment practices
Drug/alcohol abuse
Violating environmental regulations
Workplace violence
Other
N=18
Your industry—
Information Services and
Technology
50.0%
44.4%
38.9%
27.8%
27.8%
27.8%
22.2%
22.2%
16.7%
16.7%
16.7%
11.1%
11.1%
11.1%
11.1%
11.1%
11.1%
5.6%
5.6%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
23
Top ethical issues facing your industry: Construction
One of 5 top concerns for…
Dishonesty with customers
Stealing/theft
Deceptive sales practices
Violating environmental regulations
Conflicts of interest
Drug/alcohol abuse
Bribes and kickbacks
Producing low quality or unsafe products
Lying on reports/falsifying records
Predatory employment practices
Unfair treatment of suppliers
Discrimination
Unfair treatment of employees
Improper accounting practices
Lying/exaggerating on resumes or job applications
Sex harassment
Violations of privacy
Other
Economic espionage/divulging trade secrets
Exorbitant executive compensation
Misleading the public or the media
Workplace violence
N=27
Your industry-Construction
51.9%
44.4%
40.7%
37.0%
37.0%
33.3%
33.3%
25.9%
22.2%
22.2%
22.2%
18.5%
14.8%
14.8%
14.8%
11.1%
7.4%
7.4%
3.7%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
24
ISSUES INVOLVING LEADERS AND INSTITUTIONS
Do you agree or disagree? The criminal convictions of Kenneth Lay, Jeffrey Skilling,
Bernard Ebbers and other corporate leaders…..
...show that the system works.
...make corporate leaders more attentive to ethics.
...further erode public trust and confidence in business leaders.
...help restore public trust and confidence in the financial markets.
...reinforce a negative and unfair stereotype of CEOs.
...encourage even more legal scrutiny and regulation of business.
Percent
agree
65.6%
88.0%
66.0%
44.5%
65.1%
88.6%
No statistically significant differences by number of employees, annual sales or
whether organization is publicly or privately held. Some differences, however, by
industry:
•
•
•
•
•
•
76.8% of manufacturing CEOs agreed “it showed the system works.”
82.1% of healthcare and non-profit CEOs agreed “further erodes public trust and
confidence in business leaders”
only 76.9% of banking, finance and insurance CEOs agreed “makes corporate
leaders more attentive to ethics”
only 34.5% of healthcare and non-profit CEOs agreed “helps restore public trust
and confidence in the financial markets.”
76.5% of information technology CEOs agreed “reinforces a negative and unfair
stereotype of CEOs.”
only 72.7% of professional and technical service CEOs agreed “encourages even
more legal scrutiny and regulation of business.”
25
BUSINESS SCHOOLS AND ETHICS INSTRUCTION
To what extent do you agree or disagree?
“University business schools should require courses in business ethics and/or ethics
components in other business courses.”
4%
0%
43%
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
53%
26
However, CEOs who believe that business schools have a greater role to play are not
doing all that much more in their own organizations in terms of ethics management.
Comparing CEOs who “strongly agreed” that university business schools should
require ethics courses and components to all other CEOs the differences in the ethics
policies, practices and procedures are slight.
“University business schools
should require courses in
business ethics and/or ethics
components in other business
courses.”
All other
Strongly agree responses
A board-level committee responsible for ethics and
compliance?
Yes
No
An ethics and compliance training program?
Yes
No
A company ethics "help line" (e.g., where
employees may report ethical concerns or seek
guidance on ethical questions)?
Yes
No
A stated ethics policy (e.g., Code of Ethical
Conduct)?*
Yes
No
A statement of values to guide corporate conduct?
Yes
No
An assigned ethics and/or compliance officer?
Yes
No
A department that is primarily responsible for ethics
and compliance (i.e., education, investigations and
monitoring)?
Yes
No
41.3%
58.7%
33.5%
66.5%
55.7%
44.3%
51.6%
48.4%
59.2%
40.8%
48.8%
51.3%
88.6%
11.4%
79.4%
20.6%
86.2%
13.8%
82.4%
17.6%
55.4%
44.6%
43.5%
56.5%
48.8%
51.2%
39.4%
60.6%
* p < .05
27
RESPONDENT DEMOGRAPHICS
Industry
Manufacturing
Healthcare and social assistance
Banking, finance and insurance
Construction
Professional and technical services
Information services and technology
Utilities
Wholesale trade
Retail trade
Transportation and arehousing
Hotel, entertainment and food services
Real estate, rental and leasing
Other, non services
Agriculture, forestry and fishing
Other services
Manufacturing
Healthcare and social assistance
Banking, finance and insurance
Construction
Professional and technical services
Information services and technology
Utilities
Wholesale trade
Retail trade
Transportation and arehousing
Hotel, entertainment and food services
Real estate, rental and leasing
Other, non services
Agriculture, forestry and fishing
Other services
Total
Frequency
58
58
40
27
22
18
17
13
12
7
6
5
5
3
3
302
Percent
19.7
19.7
13.6
9.2
7.5
6.1
5.8
4.4
4.1
2.4
2.0
1.7
1.7
1.0
1.0
100.0%
28
NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES
100 or fewer employees
101- 1,000 employees
More than 1,000
16.7%
59.4%
23.9%
100 or fewer employees
101 to 1000 employees
more than 1000
29
ANNUAL SALES
Under 50 million
50 – 250 million
More than 250 million
34.23 %
28.52%
37.25%
Under $50 million
$50 million to $250 million
$250 million or more
30
WHAT PERCENTAGE OF FIRM’S STOCK IS PUBLICLY HELD?
none
1 - 25%
26-50%
51-75%
76-99%
all 100%
31
PUBLICLY OWNED OR PRIVATELY OWNED?
Public companies
Private Companies
22.5%
77.5%
32
ETHICS MANAGEMENT:
Policies, Practices, Procedures, etc.
CEOs of Public Companies and CEOs of Private Companies
Do you have or plan to implement in the next 12 months…
A stated ethics policy (e.g., Code of Ethical Conduct)
...a statement of values to guide corporate conduct?
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...an ethics and compliance training program?
...a board-level committee responsible for ethics and compliance?
34
...an ethics and compliance “help line” (e.g., where employees may report
ethical concerns or seek guidance on ethical questions)?
...an assigned ethics and/or compliance officer?
35
How do high ethical standards affect a company’s competitive position?*
* 1% of respondents said that high ethical standards have no effect in the long term.
7% of respondents said that they have no effect in the short term.
Do you agree that operating by high ethical standards is often easier for a
private company than for a public company which must meet stockholders’
short-term expectations?
36
Do you agree that public companies’ responsibilities to society frequently
conflict with their need to maximize shareholder returns?
Do you agree that public companies’ responsibilities to employees
frequently conflict with their need to maximize shareholder returns?
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CLEMSON UNIVERSITY
GEORGIA STATE UNIVERSITY
Daniel E. Wueste, Ph.D.
Director
Robert J. Rutland Institute for Ethics
[email protected]
864-656-6147
John C. Knapp, Ph.D.
Director
Center for Ethics and Corporate
Responsibility
[email protected]
404-413-74204
James Witte, Ph.D.
Department of Sociology
and Anthropology
[email protected]
864-656-3816
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