Developing Fit Futures
Exercise for Children and Adolescents
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
1
Introduction
Evolutionary history shows us that early humans could not have
1. Fourteen million Australians are overweight.
survived without the ability to perform demanding physical tasks.
2. More than five million Australians are obese.
Anthropologists have estimated that they would have been active
3. If weight gain continues at current levels, by 2025, close to 80% of all
each and every day primarily because of their hunter-gatherer life
Australian adults and a third of all children will be overweight or
styles, travelling between 16 and 19km per day in their constant
obese.
search for food and resources. Individuals who could out-run and out-
4. Obesity has overtaken smoking as the leading cause of premature
plan their peers would ultimately survive. If you could move and think
death and illness in Australia. Obesity has become the single biggest
quickly, you could stay safe and out of the mouths of predators.
threat to public health in Australia.
Unfortunately today this active lifestyle has shifted in modern times,
5. On the basis of present trends we can predict that by the time they
we no longer have a need to hunt and gather because modern
reach the age of 20 our kids will have a shorter life expectancy than
technology has automated so many of our daily physical tasks; which
earlier generations simply because of obesity (2).
has now developed into a major societal problem (1).
As a result of lack of moving and increased obesity, there has been a
Research from Monash University, MODI Breakthrough treatments for
corresponding increase in mental health disorders especially in our
Obesity and Diabetes (2) shows an alarming trend that the fitness
young people. Beyond Blue report some alarming statistics (3) as the
industry have a pivotol role in reversing. The current state of play is
following highlights.
reflected in these stark statistics:
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2
1. Around 160,000 young people (aged 16 to 24 years) live with
depression.
issue is costing our country much misery and malaise and is causing
major financial burdens for the Government with unprecedented
2. Depression and anxiety can be as serious, debilitating and lifethreatening as a physical illness.
health costs. The Australian Diabetes, Obesity and Lifestyle study was
conducted in 2000 with a follow up in 2005. In 2000 it was estimated
3. Adolescence is a critical time for mental health and it is estimated
that obesity and the resultant diabetes was costing 5 billion dollars. In
that 75 per cent of adult mental health disorders begin in
2005 this had jumped to 10 billion dollars. In 2010 it is estimated that
adolescence.
this was costing Australian’s 21 billion dollars per year. (5). Professors
4. The 2007 National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing found
Colagiuri and Caterson, obesity researchers from Sydney University,
that about one in four Australians aged 16 to 24 years had a mental
stated that, “investing in measurers to combat obesity would deliver
health disorder in the preceding 12 months.
cost savings to the nation. What we need is to fast-track a range of
5. Some of the reasons young people don’t seek help are a desire to fix
initiatives outlined in the report of the National Preventative Health
things on their own, feeling ashamed or embarrassed, a fear of not
Taskforce to help increase levels of physical activity and decrease
being understood by health professionals and worry about financial
unhealthy eating" (5).
costs or time constraints.
6. Among the main issues of concern for young people are body image,
There have been a variety of initiatives and clinical trials that are
family conflict, bullying and emotional abuse, coping with stress and
presently being researched with regards to their efficacy on our
depression (3).
unhealthy population. One such innovative program is called Fit-4Fun. The Fit-4-Fun program is “an innovative school-based
Exercise is the biggest safeguard against both of these growing health
intervention targeting fitness improvements in primary school
issues of obesity and depression (4). The result of this lifestyle health
children. The program will involve a range of evidence-based
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3
behaviour change strategies to promote and support physical activity
Despite these health benefits and academic gains, many Australian
of adequate intensity, duration and type, needed to improve health-
children and their parents are just not receiving the message; that
related fitness”(6).
exercise can change so many aspects of their lives!.
Take
5
Read the article, “Improving health-related fitness in children: the
fit-4-Fun randomized controlled trial” which gives a great
overview of the status of fitness in our primary schools, but also
provides an evidence based protocol for conducting fitness testing
and programs for primary students.
The World Health Organisation (7) in a response to these declining
levels of fitness have recommended that children between the ages of
6-17 years old should participate in at least 60 minutes of moderate to
vigorous physical activity every day. This should have also included
physical activity that is high in intensity, and is complemented with
From the statistics reviewed earlier it was clear that the fitness level of
muscle and bone strengthening sessions on at least three-days per
children and adolescents are in decline. This is a real reason for
week.
concern as we have identified that a higher level of fitness in younger
people is associated with improved physical and mental health. Recent
research has shown that children who have a higher level of fitness
Recent
research
has
suggested
potential
for
school-based
interventions to improve the physical activity and fitness levels of
young people [8]. The school environment is an ideal avenue for
have:
accessing and educating young people about the importance of
 a decreased risk of cardiovascular disease.
physical fitness. There are numerous opportunities in school settings
 less likelihood of developing diabetes and other lifestyle diseases.
for the promotion of physical activity, personal development, health
 are less likely to suffer depression or anxiety.
and physical education (PDHPE), active transportation, active breaks,
 and are more likely to perform better academically. (6)
sport etc. While PDHPE is widely acknowledged as the cornerstone of
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
4
a schools’ physical activity program, studies have questioned the
quality and quantity of HPE lessons delivered in schools (9).
Preparation and Planning
Independent fitness professionals and commercial fitness providers
Innovative interventions like Fit-4-Fun are attempting to utilise
are well placed to offer children and young adolescents safe and
multiple components that influence behavior in the school setting.
enjoyable physical activity opportunities. However, because of the
Many struggle to get time allocations in schools, especially with a
vulnerability of young people, specific guidelines are required to
timetable which is already full, with teachers who are time poor, and
maximise their safety and wellbeing whilst they are attending physical
governments who are not funding the employment of specialist
activity programs. Prior to actually beginning an exercise program
Physical Education teachers to implement these imperative and
with any client there are industry guidelines and professional
necessary programs (10).
standards that must be adhered to.
This apparent void in quality physical fitness in schools has led to
An essential guide for all practitioners working with children in a
boundless opportunities for private fitness professionals and
fitness training capacity is the publication “Kids in Gyms” (11).
organisations to tap into this critical niche market. In preparation for
this looming demand, this unit aims at developing knowledge and
skills to provide fitness-training opportunities with this younger
clientele.
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5
Take
5
Read the booklet, “Kid in Gyms” which outlines essential
information that will ensure you are meeting industry guidelines
and professional standards when working with children in your
fitness programs.
See http://www.dsr.nsw.gov.au/publicat/detail.asp?pub=65
The following highlights the key components of the guidelines that are
the 2011 Filex Fitness Conference (12). Through his research he
concluded that:

Many organisations were screening clients, however, this was done
more for legal reasons rather than a diagnostic tool.

Current forms at the time, were complex and sometimes
relevant for planning and delivery of exercise programs to healthy
cumbersome for clients and fitness professionals to complete and
children and adolescents. One of the first tasks when engaging new
understand.
clients, is to have them complete a pre-exercise screening check and

The ability to identify which clients might be at risk, was difficult
evaluate their suitability to begin an exercise program. More
to identify or often ignored with completed forms just being filed
importantly though, is to evaluate each client for any risk factors that
away in an office filing cabinet, never to be looked at again.
may need further evaluation or referral onto a medical practitioner for
medical advice or clarification.
As a result of this review, a new Adult Pre-exercise Screening System
was developed by a technical committee with membership from
Exercise Sport Science Australia (ESSA) (13), Fitness Australia (14)
Pre-Exercise Screening
Pre-exercise screening has been part of the fitness industry for
sometime, however there has been contention as to how effectively it
was being utilised, and what was happening to the information once it
and Sports Medicine Australia (SMA) (15). Professor Kevin Norton
(16) chaired the committee and the APSS was launched in March 2012
with a series of forums organised by Fitness Australia.
was collected by the fitness leader or fitness centre. Max Martin
presented an overview of the state of play of pre-exercise screening at
Take
5
Take time to view the Filex presentation (12)
http://www.slideshare.net/informmax/pre-exercise-cv-screeningtool-launch which was utilised to give an overview of the current
play of pre-exercise screening and outlined a new industry
standard which has been presently adopted by the industry.
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To raise the professional standard of the usage of this latest pre-
A guide to the Australian adult pre-exercise screening system has been
screening tool, much work has gone into training resources and
authored by Professor Kevin Norton and Dr. Lynda Norton (16). This
workshops so that fitness professionals are conscious of this new
gives a comprehensive overview and rationale for it’s implementation,
standard and how to administer it.
but more importantly it seeks to simplify the screening process and
standardise how it is administered and followed up if concerns are
identified.
Take
5
Take time to review “Pre-Exercise Screening” Guide to the
Australian adult pre-exercise screening system. It can be
downloaded at http://www.essa.org.au/for-gps/adult-pre-exercisescreening-system/
While this resource has “Adult” in its title, the comprehensive nature
of the content makes it essential information for any fitness
professional who is required to screen new clients, whether they are
adults or children. As of March 2013, no specific detailed user guide
had been written for children in this new format, however the “Kids in
Gyms” resource, (highlighted above) discusses special considerations
which need to be adhered to when working with children and also
contains a children’s screening example in attachment 2 on page 21;
these special considerations include the following:
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7

Parents or guardians of children or adolescents under the age of 16
adolescents must be assessed by a qualified fitness professional
years must complete a pre-exercise questionnaire if their children
before any type of physical activity program begins at the centre.
participate in a centre’s physical activity program. (Clause 24 of the
The screening procedure requires a thorough and diligent process
NSW Fitness Industry Code of Practice indicates that it is
as injuries or aliments missed in this evaluation could lead to
compulsory for all consumers who participate in any physical
serious injury or at worst, even death.
activity program within a centre to complete a pre-exercise
screening questionnaire.) This questionnaire must include:
Given these important factors “Kids in the Gym” (11) recommends that
o emergency contact details
Fitness Professionals who are responsible for conducting physical
o medical/health history — if any serious risk factors are
activity programs for children and young adolescents must:
identified there must be provision for a medical practitioner

to authorise further participation in the relevant activity
approved course or Unit of Competence at Certificate IV level, and
o physical activity history — listing type of activity, frequency
specialising in the area of exercise prescription for special
and intensity
populations — children and young adolescents.
o a disclaimer
o a parent or guardian signature giving authorisation and
consent
o a countersignature by the fitness professional or centre
official indicating approval.

have successful completion of a relevant Fitness Australia-

have a current Fitness Australia registration.

hold cardiopulmonary resuscitation and first aid qualifications.

have had a working with children check.

have appropriate insurance (11).
Special Importance: it should be noted that questionnaires
completed by parents or guardians on behalf of children and young
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Figure 1: Overview of Pre-exercise screening system. (16)
As stated earlier, one of the problems with older screening systems
was the subjective nature of interpreting the results of a completed
screening. In figure 1 above, stage 1 of the screening process is a filter
for any individual answering yes to any question. If they answer “YES”
they must see their General Practitioner (GP) or allied health
professional to seek clearance prior to undertaking any exercise
program. In stage 2 and 3 detailed information is sought which will
help indicate whether an individual is at moderate or low risk to
exercise induced health concerns. Anyone who displays two or more
risk factors during this stage should consider further advice from their
Figure 2: Stage 1 Questions from the Pre-Exercise Screening Tool.
GP. For detailed guidance on how to conduct this screening see (17).
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Take 5
Use the form below to guide your evaluation of three industry pre-exercise screening tools. This activity is designed to give
you a feel for recent changes in the screening process and the improvements in following up identified risk factors.
Open the following three Pre-Exercise screening tools. (You can also find these by clicking on this “Learnist” link)
Review each tool and compare and contrast the new pre-exercise screening tool 1 with number 2 & 3 below.
1. New Industry Standard Pre-Exercise Screen Tool
2. Exercise and Physical Activity Readiness Assessment of Children and Young Adolescents (ExPARA)
3. Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PARQ)
List three differences in the forms design and briefly outline whether these are a pro or a con.
1. .
2. .
3. .
Do you think the new features of the industry standard form in bullet point 1 above, will streamline the screening process and allow
for better analysis of conditions that may require further medical referral? Yes or No. Explain your answer.
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place to ensure everyone working with children are functioning in
Child Protection
Fitness professionals may be engaged to work with children in a
variety of different ways. You might be employed by a fitness centre to
conduct exercise sessions or training or you could be self-employed
conducting your own personal training business. Whatever your mode
of employment, if you are working with children you must undergo a
working with children check.
ways that protect children and in turn, also protecting themselves and
the organisation with which they work for from allegations of
inappropriate behaviour.
The NSW Commission for Children and
Young People have a resource website where organisations needing
help with their policies, checklists and practices can download forms
to aid in the preparation of child safe practices in their workplace.
Working with Children Checks and Police Checks are different types of
pre-employment screening programs which ensure child-safe working
environments in Australia. Pre-employment screening of adults and
volunteers who are in contact with children is mandatory and
legislated across most states and territories in Australia. However,
there is no national framework which sets out the requirements for
obtaining a Working With Children Check (or Police Checks) - and each
state and territory has their own procedures and requirements. For an
overview of requirements in your state visit National Crime Check
Australia (18) or visit the federal government Pre-employment
screening: Working With Children Checks and Police Checks website.
Organisations and individuals working with children need to spend
time ensuring that they have policies, procedures and practices in
Fig 3: Self-employed fitness trainers need a Certificate if working with kids
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Protecting Yourself And Your Organisation
To help protect yourself and your organisation and ensure
you are operating at an industry standard practice download
Take this checklist and assess how you are doing with your child
5
safe practices.
http://www.kids.nsw.gov.au/Working-with-children/Become-a-ChildSafe-Organisation/Codes-of-conduct/Capability
Fig 4: Resources to help ensure your organisation is protecting your
employers and child clients are available at:
http://www.kids.nsw.gov.au/Working-with-children/Become-a-ChildSafe-Organisation/Become-a-Childsafe-Organisation
Fig 5: Example of Child Safe Checklist: How do you compare?
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Risk Management
In addition to the above, a risk management plan for children and
Any organisation which is involved with the delivery of fitness and
young adolescents should also include additional sections related to:
training of children or adolescents should have a risk management
o duty of care
plan in place to ensure the safe programming of classes. The following
o the Working with Children check
lists some of the key elements of a traditional risk management plan.
o the centre’s facility environment
1. Appoint a risk manager - responsible for the risk management
process
2. Identify ‘key’ people who will be involved in managing risk
3. Determine the organisations risk management context
4. Identify risks – what can happen, why?
5. Analyse risks – How could this occur?
6. Evaluate risks – What is the likelihood of this risk occurring and
what is the consequence if something goes wrong?
o fitness equipment and children.
The risk register in figure 6 below is a template that can be completed
by the risk manager to ensure the chance of an accident or incident
occurring is greatly reduced. All staff must sign off on the risk register
as an acknowledgment that they are aware of the hazard and they
know how to reduce the chance of that risk causing harm.
7. Design a risk elimination and reduction plan
8. Implement the plan
9. Develop and implement a clear communication strategy on risk
management to all involved in your program
10. Communicate the strategies to all appropriate levels of the
organisation
11. Ensure the risk management is discussed regularly as a meeting
agenda item. Any near misses or areas that need follow up
12. Monitor and review strategies at least annually.
Fig 6: Risk Management Register: This form is utilised to identify
risks and design mitigating strategies to reduce the likelihood of
occurrence. (A printable version is available in the appendix
which can be found on the course page.)
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Working Outside
Many fitness sessions with children and adolescents may take place in
.
the outdoors away from a fitness centre in surrounding bush,
parklands, climbing gym, or at the beach. Working in this environment
brings into play a unique set of risks which are harder to control and
which require careful planning and managing.
For example how would you manage the following?
o Impacts of weather: heat, cold, wind, rain, storms and associated
lightning.
o Boundaries: Where can kids go and not go? What if they need a
toilet break? Can they go on their own?
o Natural Occurring Hazards: Cliffs, rocks, surface, swimming in the
ocean.
o Safe belaying at the climbing gym.
Many organisations develop a checklist of areas which require
evaluation in order to identify unsafe conditions, this is used to guide
maintenance or interventions to reduce risk. Figure 7 is an example of
a Facility and Equipment Related Risk checklist.
Fig 7: Risk Management Register: This form is utilised to identify
risks and design mitigating strategies to reduce the likelihood of
them occurring. (A printable version is available in the appendix)
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
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Duty Of Care: Considerations When Working With
Children
Fitness centres and independent fitness professionals have a duty of
training apparatus to ensure it can be used safely. Because of the
shorter levers of younger participant’s limbs, equipment will often fit
incorrectly which could lead to injury.
care to any child or adolescent who participates in any of their
Likewise, machines that have adjustment often
programs. It is essential that they provide:
do not adapt to smaller individuals and should
not be used.

safe and well-maintained facilities and equipment

qualified fitness professionals to conduct physical activity classes

supervision in all areas of the centre
children and adolescents build up a range of

protection against physical, sexual and emotional abuse and
neglect from other centre members, participants and staff
equipment and apparatus that are specifically

Many fitness trainers who work specifically with
designed for the younger population
a policy of safe supervision for change rooms for children and
adolescents under the age of 18 years (11).
Any centre that conducts programs for children must have a written
policy outlining its duty of care responsibilities. It must be read and
signed off on by all staff indicating that they know the procedures they
Age Based Equipment Usage Guidelines
Kids in gyms recommends the following age usage guidelines (11).
Type of Equipment or Class
should be working by. This signed statement must be filed and kept
Age
Requirement
securely.
Non-Weights based group: Cardio equip, aqua
classes, fitness classes.
14 years old
Fitness Equipment and Children
Weights based fitness classes or circuits
16 years old
Unsupervised resistance training
16 years old
Organisations and individuals intending to offer fitness classes to
children or adolescents need to carefully audit their equipment and
Table 1: Recommended ages of participation in fitness classes (11)
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Staff Supervision Ratios
Fitness centres or personal trainers who conduct classes for large
Working With Children and Adolescents: Stages of
Growth and Development
groups. The question of how big a class is acceptable is often asked.
Children and adolescents mature and develop at different rates. If we
The
visited the local oval and watched a game of soccer, we would observe
following
table
summarises
ratio
guidelines
based
on
that some children are taller than others, some can sprint faster, while
recommendations from Kids in Gym (11).
Type of Class
Ratio
Non-weights based group: Cardio equipment,
aqua classes, fitness classes or weights based
fitness classes or circuits
1:25
Supervised or structured resistance training
1:8
others are more agile and skillful. Emotionally we could see a player
have a crying fit when they let a goal in, while others take it on the chin
and continue to have fun whether they are winning or losing. One child
may have intense focus and concentrate diligently, while others will be
Note: For activities which involve the supervision of school age
children, a schoolteacher must also be present at all times.
To ensure clarity with responsibility of tasks, the role of the fitness
having a chat about what they are doing on the weekend, oblivious
that an opponent is dribbling the ball down the field towards them.
Psychological and physical differences vary immensely with the clients
you will be working with, and this next section is designed to increase
understanding of these growth and development differences.
professional is to deliver a safe exercise program which has its main
Let us have a look at the terms - growth and development. Growth
focus on fun and to instill “perfect practice” technique (19). The role
refers to observable step-by step changes in quantity and measurable
of the teacher is to maintain general class discipline if individuals
changes in body size, such as height, weight, and fat percentage.
misbehave (11).
Development refers to “the interrelationship between growth and
maturation in relation to the passage of time. The concept of
development also includes the social, emotional, intellectual, and
motor realms of the child” (20).
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16
Chronological age refers to the number of years and days elapsed since
PVH is directly linked to the Development Age of athletes. PVH is a
birth. Children of the same chronological age can differ by several
measure of the maximum rate of growth in stature during the
years in their level of biological maturation and this can have an
adolescent growth spurt (20). Note that this is the average
impact on training groups of the same age with the individuals
chronological age of when individual growth spurts begin to happen,
differing greatly in size, skill, and ability. Developmental age refers to
but it can occur several years either side of these average ages.
the degree of physical, mental, cognitive, and emotional maturity. The
relative developmental age can be determined by skeletal maturity or
bone age after which mental, cognitive, and emotional maturity is
incorporated (20).
The relevance of this to a coach or fitness professional is that in a class
of 12 year olds (chronological age) you may have within your group
individuals ranging in PVH from 10 to 15 years old. This will require
you to consider the kind of class to plan; will you cater for different
Before children undergo their hormone led growth spurt, they grow an
PVH age differences within your session? Or alternatively, as occurs in
average of about 6cm per year and put on around two kilograms of
the coaching of elite junior individual sports, will you group your
weight.
session based on the PVH age of participants?
Peak
velocity
height,
which
occurs
on
average
at
approximately 12 years for females and 14 years for males, is where
major changes in height and weight begin to occur. Figure 8 below
displays Peak Velocity Height (PVH).
As a mentor to young clients it is
worth
noting
that
those
late
developers (smaller body sizes) often
get frustrated at their level of
strength and performance
when
compared to their taller, stronger
earlier developing classmates. Unless
they are nurtured and reassured, and
the physiology of growth explained ,
Figure 8: PVH Growth Source: Brianmac Coaching: www.brianmac.co.uk/ltad.htm
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
17
there is a risk that they may drop out of class or sport altogether
years). The teenager will go through some important biological
because of feelings of inadequacy. Reporting research studies like one
changes (such as the menstrual cycle and breast development for
from Canadian swimming can help motivate these individuals; a study
girls, and voice deepening and increased body hair for males).
of primary school “Outstanding” elite swimmers found that only 25%
Hormones are crucial at this stage, and the increased presence of
of them were still “Outstanding” when they were in their late teens,
estrogen and testosterone can result in behavioral changes. It is
which indicates that the later developers eventually caught up and are
important for a fitness professional to be aware that these body
as good or if not better (20).
changes can impact greatly on adolescents’ motivation for exercise.
Human growth and development can be looked at from a variety of
perspectives. Psychologist Erik Erikson (21) outlined eight stages of
human development. For the purpose of this unit we will only take a
look at the characteristics of those dealing with children and
adolescence.
Young girls are especially at risk of becoming depressed and feel
self-conscious about their newly developing body and may need
support and guidance through these sometime turbulent years
(22).
Tudor Bompa, one of the worlds leading sports conditioning experts
Human growth stages generally follow a pattern which corresponds
with the subject's age, however, as we examined above, this can be
variable.
utilises a system of categorising junior athletes in a way which
matches their stage of development with a recommendation for the
kind of fitness activities which suits their stage of growth. These
phases are:
1. The school age child (six to twelve years) continues to rapidly
increase in height and weight, and at this age the strongest
influences on the child change from involving the parents and
immediate family to also include outside peer groups.
2. Puberty and adolescence usually last from ages (twelve to eighteen
1. Initiation Stage: 6-10 years old
2. Athletic Formation: 11-14 years old
3. Specialisations: 15-18 years old (23)
We will look at each one of these in more detail to develop an
understanding of the needs and capabilities of this younger clientele.
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18
Initiation Stage
Fundamental Movement Skills can be categorised into three areas:
Children are not mini adults; they are still developing basic
1. Body Management Skills: involves controlling body balance
fundamental motor skills and the neural pathways to perform in a
whether on the move, (dynamic balance) this includes activities
variety of exercise and sporting contexts and are not able to handle the
that require rolling, stopping, landing, turning, twisting, bending,
stress of the high physical and psychological demands of a typical
swinging, stretching and dodging or when stationary,
adult exercise regime. Bompa believes that training and exercise
balance) such as balancing on one foot.
programs for young athletes, “must focus on overall athletic
development and not sport-specific performance” (23).
and
fitness
professionals
2. Locomotion Skills: are movements that take the body from one
location to another in any direction. They need to be learnt and
reinforced from a young age, these include, walking, running,
There are a growing number of coaches, PE
teachers,
(static
dodging, jumping, landing, hopping, leaping, skipping and sliding.
who
3. Object Control Skills: involve hand-eye and foot-eye coordination
believe that fundamental movement skills are
in the manipulation of objects such as balls, bats, hoops, jump
being neglected in this initiation stage (25),
ropes, racquets, and hockey sticks. Then there is the ability to be
and that there should be an effort to refocus
able to integrate, bouncing, dribbling, rolling, striking (hitting),
on these important developmental milestones.
throwing, catching, kicking and trapping skills. (24)
There are many great resources to support
the inclusion of FUNdamental motor and
movement skill development. Landy and
Fig 9. Textbook on
Fundamental Skills
Burridge’s book in figure 9 being a valuable asset to anyone working
with clients in this initiation or primary school age.
Take 5 to check out this youtube video which gives a snapshot
of integrating FUNdamental Movement skills into any fitness or
Take sport training session with young children.
5
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded
&v=bzlML1Cyv9c#!
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19
Current research suggests that if children DO NOT reach a degree of
confidence and competence by the time they reach grade 6 at school
they will not engage in regular physical activity or sport for the rest of
their lives (24) (see figure 10). This can have some profound
consequences as highlighted in a very effective and amusing way in the
“Take 5” box below.
FUNdamental Movement Skills: So as was just alluded to, if
children do not pick up fundamental skills by the end of primary
school they not only are less likely to play sport through their
adolescence, their motor skills never develop and this can
impact on their lives socially and functionally. Take a look at
Take these two clever youtube videos from Sport Canada that have
5
been used to promote Fundamental Movement Skills.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bARkhWUF8MI
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MFN9uZReNZ0
Figure 10: Consequences of not learning fundamental
movements skills at a younger age.
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
20
While the videos in the previous “Take 5” box take a light hearted look
at the consequences of not learning fundamental movement skills, the
real result can impact on one’s ability to socialise and develop through
sporting participation. These individuals end up becoming a statistic to
the national obesity epidemic that is presently sweeping our country,
and even worse, they miss out on a lifetime of fun through exercise.
The NSW Department of Education and Training (25), recognising the
importance of Fundamental Movement Skills has invested a multitude
of resources into supporting their Physical Education Teachers with a
raft of resources on the website
http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/primary/pdhp
Figure 11: NSW Department of Education and Training Website.
e/gamessport/fmsindex.htm see figure 11 below.
Our job as fitness professionals is to not only to improve the fitness of
our young clients but to critically analyse their developing motor skills
and provide effective and constructive feedback about their technique
(an issue that will be discussed in more detail in an upcoming section).
One of the signs of a fitness professional who has delivered a quality
session to younger clients is that each individual has walked away not
only with a sound workout, but they have had rich feedback about how
to improve their Fundamental Movement Skills.
For those of you who are new to teaching fitness with this age group, it
Figure 12: Movement skill videos which break down Fundamental
Movement Skills into teaching points.
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
21
is worth viewing some of the teaching videos from the Department of
It is worth noting how this teacher structures their class in a clear and
Education and Training. Figure 12 above shows links to videos of each
effective fashion, utilising a variety of teaching styles to engage
of the Fundamental Movement Skills and breaks this down into
students and the interesting way he uses hula hoops to manage and
teaching points.
control where the children move to.
(http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/primary/pdhp
e/gamessport/fms002a.htm) Knowing these key-teaching points can
Characteristics Of Children In The Initiation Stage
Within each stage of development there are three sub-areas of an
be utilised when you are analysing children’s movement and can be
individual’s development that we need to consider (26), these are:
the basis for constructive feedback. In addition, at
http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/primary/pdhp

The Physical Domain: which incorporates two-elements; Growth
e/gamessport/orgmanvid.htm you will find an instructional video
and change that occurs in a person’s body, and motor skill
which is highlighted in figure 13. This is an excellent example of how
development. Understanding how these elements interact gives
to teach a class with children in the initiation stage of development.
one an appreciation of the capabilities of physical performance.

The Psychosocial Domain: is the area of emotional, personality, and
social development and gives us insight into the psychological
readiness for sport and how children relate at a given age.

The Cognitive Domain: is concerned with a child’s ability to process
information and learn new skills as well as interpreting their
environment, decision making around game sense, strategy and
tactics (27)
Table 1, 2, and 3 below looks at these domains for different stages of
child and adolescent development and can be utilised to structure
lesson delivery and student interactions.
Figure 13:
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
22
Domains Of Development For The Initiation Stage (5-8 years old)
Physical Domain
Psychosocial Domain
Cognitive Domain
Tires easily, recovers quickly.
Moving from working as an individual to
working with others.
Increasingly able to use mental representation and
symbols, but ideas about the world are sometimes
illogical.
Learns best by being physically active but
emphasise good technique in any activity.
Easily motivated, enjoys initiating activities,
especially when praised for their endeavours.
Able to take into account ideas and emotions of
others.
Needs to repeat activities until they are well
known and mastered.
Becoming more independent and attempting to
exercise more control over own environment
May have trouble understanding the rules of
some games, so simplify or modify them to
enhance understanding.
Mainly uses large muscle movement – fine
motor skills developing, but more difficult to
master.
Limited attention span (15-20 minutes). So
your lesson plan needs to constantly change
stimulus to keep their attention. Plan activities
for lots of movement which allows for
maximum participation.
Inconsistent attention span but including activities
that develop attention control will help prepare
them for the demands of training and competition
in sport that occur in later stages.
Basic motor skills developing, needs to combine
Fundamental Movement skills in simple games
and activities.
Sensitive to criticism, does not enjoy failure.
Frustration can come quickly so frame feedback
in a positive way.
Moving from being adventurous to being cautious.
Equipment may need modification for this age
ie) smaller basketball, lower hoops to shoot at
Has a strong desire for affection and attention
from adults and see you as a real role model.
Interests can be short and quick changing.
Boys and girls have equal ability.
Experimental, exploratory behaviour is part of
development so give time for play for trialing
new skills.
Imaginative, spontaneous and creative.
Table 1: Displays the Physical, Psychosocial and Cognitive Domains of Children in the Initiation Stage of Development – 5-8 years old. (Adapted from (23) & (26))
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
23
Domains Of Development For The Initiation Stage (8-11 years old)
Physical Domain
Psychosocial Domain
Cognitive Domain
Coordination and body control improving rapidly,
due to slower growth.
Enjoys group activities.
Able to stay on task longer due to increasing
attention span.
Boys and girls have equal ability.
Interests often change rapidly.
Likes to test themselves but often dislikes public
failure.
Reaction time slow, but improves rapidly as child
grows.
Peer group becomes increasingly important,
therefore peer acceptance or rejection can be a
major stress factor. Facilitate inclusion of all!
Changing interests with some long-term interests
beginning to appear, but still likes to try new
activities.
Lots of energy as endurance levels increase, but
may have fluctuations in energy.
Beginning to accept responsibility for self and
others.
Developing ability to understand logical
principles.
High need for skill development and increasing
ability to apply known skills to complex situations.
Easily motivated, eager to try something new.
Willingness to seek risk and adventure.
Better able to understand and learn because of
growing memory capacity.
Fine motor skills developing rapidly.
Needs guidance and praise from adults to stay on
task and to achieve their best performance.
Large individual differences in physical growth
need to cater for these differences in your classes.
Idolisation of significant others – hero worship of
adults. Be a role model to these young individuals.
As early maturers enter puberty, rapid growth may
lead to awkwardness and uncoordinated movement.
Reassurance from fitness professionals can be
valuable during this time.
Accepts and handles leadership roles. (Give
opportunities to display this).
Visual & hand-eye coordination
improving.
Table 2: Displays the Physical, Psychosocial and Cognitive Domains of Children in the Initiation Stage of Development – 8-11 years old. (Adapted from (23) & (26))
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
24
Domains Of Development For The Athletic Formation Stage (12-14 years old)
Physical Domain
Psychosocial Domain
Concern about physical development.
Increasingly concerned about acceptance by
friends, social graces and good grooming.
Early or late puberty can be very stressful.
Displays rapid but uneven physical growth, leading
at times to awkwardness, uncoordinated movement,
tiredness, lack of confidence and poor posture.
Increase in female and male hormone levels.
Continued development of independence, yet
wants and needs adult help.
Increase in height, weight and musculature.
Ready for in-depth, longer learning experiences.
Males develop deeper voices, characteristic
patterns of facial/body hair become stronger.
Has a continuing need for reinforcement and
development of self-esteem, especially in relation
to body perception and exercise.
Shows tolerance of needs and abilities of others.
Females become wider at hips; breast development
continues for several years.
Cognitive Domain
Can concentrate and participate in activities for
longer periods of time.
Egocentrism, along with feelings of uniqueness
and invincibility often cloud judgment.
Capable of formal operational thought, enabling
them to understand and articulate general
principles.
Needs to continue fitness activities, especially those Needs opportunities to develop confidence based
that develop flexibility, circulorespiratory
on previously learned skills, to explore
efficiency, strength, core control and endurance.
challenging new experiences, and to be creative.
Has capabilities to learn new motor skills, refine
those previously learned, and apply them with more
efficiency.
Capable of combining new and more
complex skills into movement
patterns and sequences.
Continues to need repetitive practices
and revision in refining skills.
Incorporate a variety of sport training
modes to develop multilateral base.
Table 3: Displays the Physical, Psychosocial and Cognitive Domains of Children in the Athletic Formation Stage – 12-14 years old. (Adapted from (23) & (26))
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
25
coaches may lead to some kind of physical breakdown that will lead to
Beginning To Work With Your Client or Client Group
training down time (27).
The previous section gives a general overview of the growth and
The design of your training program must address these causes of
development
and
overuse injuries by balancing out flexibility, strength and endurance
understanding is now incorporated into an individual assessment of
training across all the different areas of activity a child or adolescent is
your clients in the following two areas:
participating in. Parents and coaches involved in school and out-of-
of
children
and
teens.
This
knowledge
1. Are there any issues related to muscle imbalance, skeletal
school sports must share the coordination of ensuring properly
growth issues or previous injury history that might need to be
periodised training that “prevents the child from doing too much too
considered when formulating a training program?
soon or combining too many activities” (28). All too often young
2. What are your client’s current fitness levels? This can be
assessed through a variety of validated testing protocols.
athletes are set up for injury by the accumulation of inappropriate
stresses and strains on their bodies. Care should be taken to monitor
over zealous parents who might be pushing their child too hard by
Major Types Of Injuries That Are Commonly Associated With
Different Stages Of Development
In the preparation and design of a fitness program one should
consider the goals of the client, the type of sport and associated
injuries that are common to their sport, as well as any pre-existing
injuries that may need to be addressed through further development
of strength or flexibility. Overuse injuries can be of particular concern
with young athletes. Too much activity without adequate recovery
periods, improperly sized equipment, or inefficient biomechanics and
a lack of communication and coordination between parents and
overscheduling activities. Having athletes monitor their fatigue levels,
muscle and psychological energy levels, resting heart rate and sleep
patterns through a training diary can be very beneficial in capturing
early warning signs that may lead to injury or overtraining. What is
clear however, is that all activities should fit into a total program with
the total duration of activity being documented and monitored for
signs that the training is only having a positive effect.
Due to their immature skeletal and muscular development children
are more susceptible to certain types of injury. During your regular
evaluation of children in your care be vigilant for signs of overuse or
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
26
growth-related issues. The following highlights some of the most
disease (at the lower pole of the Patella) and Sever’s Disease (at the
common growth and developmental issues or common injuries that
insertion of the Achilles Tendon) and Patellofemoral pain syndrome
present in young individuals:
are all injuries which young people may present with due to stress at
Weight Training Can Stunt Children’s Growth Or Cause Injury
the locationplace where the bone and ligament join.
At sometime in your role as a fitness trainer working with children
you will hear the comment ….. I have heard that children should not lift
weights as it is dangerous and it will stunt their growth or cause issues
as their skeletal muscle growth plates develop. You should be able to
categorically look at them in the eye and say, “No, that is not correct
and research has clearly demonstrated that strength exercise is a safe,
effective, and efficient means for conditioning young muscles, as long
as certain safety precautions are in place” (29). Faigenbaum and
Figure 14: Epiphyseal Plates: From BBC GCSE Bitesize Physical Education Site
Westcott in their book Youth Strength Training state that “all the boys
Similar injuries of the upper torso (elbows and shoulders) have been
and girls in our programs have increased their muscular strength and
observed in adolescents usually due to overuse in sports which involve
not one has had an exercise-related injury” (29). Your clients however,
repetitve throwing like cricket or baseball which can cause micro-
are going to come to you after being involved in other sports and
trauma to the epiphysis area of either the elbow or upper humorous,
physical activities so monitor their progress for any of the following.
these often are a sign of an imbalance in the rotator cuff muscle group.
Osteochondroses
Osteochondroses are conditions that affect the growing epiphysis or
growth plates of our long bones (see figure 14). Conditions such as
Osgood-Schlatters (area at the Tibial Tuberosity), Larsen-Johansson
There have been documented cases of injury to the epiphysis (growth
plate) in adolescents and these have included fractures caused during
UNSUPERVISED resistance training sessions where overhead press or
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
27
push press was performed with near-maximal resistances. Analysis of
develop lumbar lordosis (a forward bending of the spine, often
these accidents identified two-precautions which warrant attention
accompanied by an anterior rotation of the pelvis (see figure 15).
from any fitness professionals working with adolescents or children.
1. They should not lift near-maximal weights overhead, in fact they
should lift lighter loads than normal.
2. They must use proper form in all lifts but especially overhead lifts.
It is very rare that young children or adolescents can identify good
form or be disciplined enough to resist the temptation to complete
a maximal lift to impress their peers (28). This is why Gym for Kids
(11) recommends that supervision is a compulsory form of risk
management when working in a gym setting. Active correction of
technique should make up an important component of regular
Figure 15: Common Back Issues To Be Aware Of
feedback during an exercise session (more on this later).
Growth and Development Issues Of The Spine
Factors that may contribute to Lordosis include tight hamstrings and
growth of the front portion of the vertebrae to a greater extent than
There are several growth and development disorders of the spine that
that of the back area. If posture is threatening functional movement
fitness professional should be on the lookout for when taking on new
the client should be seen by a medical professional for a thorough
clients. The lower-back muscles and vertebral column are still
evaluation.
developing in the pre-pubescent child and as a result maybe at greater
risk of lower back pain or injury. With growth spurts children may
Lower back issues in children can cause acute injury and in resistance
training they may be triggered by improper technique by lifting
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
28
maximal or near-maximal efforts with exercises like the squat or dead
endurance for both boys and girls was significantly weak (30). Lack of
lift. Before allowing young athletes to complete these lifts your
upper body strength can inhibit many sport specific tasks even at the
periodised training program should have an “adaption” training phase
recreation level; so resistant training for children and adolescents
where technique is refined with very light weights or a broom stick
should include exercises for the upper body.
with regular feedback and a formal evaluation of lifting technique
occurring prior to weights being allowed. In conjunction with this
technique
training,
lower
back
and
abdominal
musculature
Joint Hypermobility
conditioning, along with flexibility of the hamstring work, should be
It is estimated that 10-25% of children have hypermobile joints, or
conducted over several months before any significant bar work is
joints that can move beyond their normal range of motion. You might
carried out (28).
see this in a child who can lock out their legs and then bend forward
and put their hands flat on the ground or bend their thumb to touch
Abdominal and Upper Body Strength and Endurance
their forearm. Children with this syndrome often have symptoms that
include: pain in the knees, fingers, hips and elbows. These kids are
Fitness testing norms tells us that children in both Australia and other
much more susceptible to a higher instance of dislocation and sprains
western countries on average achieve low scores when tested for
in these joints. A management plan and special program might be
abdominal muscle strength and endurance measured by the number of
required for these individuals (31).
sit ups one can do in a minute. These children show little improvement
between the ages of 10-16, and then decline (28). In a similar manner,
the upper body strength of children and adolescents were described as
weak, this was tested by the number of pull-ups boys can do, while
females attempted to hold a bent arm hang for as long as possible (30).
Results concluded that upper-arm and shoulder-girdle strength and
Figure 16: Sign of hypermobile Joints.
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
29

Female Athlete Triad
Female athletes who compete in events which require a focus on
figure and weight control may be vulnerable to “Female Athlete Triad”.
This is a combination of no menstrual cycle, disordered eating and
osteoporosis; it may occur in one or more of these combinations. If you
become aware of a client with these issues, parents need to be
informed and a medical practitioner needs to manage their welfare
(32).
General Practitioner, Sport Medicine Specialists, Pediatrician,
Physiotherapist, Chiropractor, Osteopath, Masseuse, Exercise
Physiologists, Dietician, Child/Sport Psychologist, and Counselor.
Establishing and fostering this network can also lead to the possibility
of marketing opportunities where new clients could be referred to you
for exercise programming as part of ongoing treatment.
Provide Advice on Alternative Options for Participants who are
Unsuitable for the Planned Exercise
Developing A Network Of Supportive Allied Health and Fitness
Colleagues
You may find that after initial screening of a new client, and then
The above list of possible injuries and conditions which young clients
client is informed that they cannot partake in an exercise program
might present with are just a few of many that could be encountered in
with you at this time. Helping your client find alternative treatment or
your role as a fitness professional. While the training we have received
therapy for their condition can help ensure a positive outcome for all
helps us to recognise many of these conditions we are not qualified to
involved; they are receiving the treatment to help them with their
suggest treatments or interventions for many of these ailments. As
health issue, and you have left the door open for their return once they
part of demonstrating a professional image to clients and in the best
are well enough to exercise again.
interests of the child in your care, it is highly recommended that you
With some of the conditions described earlier, having connections
develop a network of other allied professionals that you can refer your
with services like: hydro-therapists for those with joint problems,
clients to should the need arise. This network might include the
Yoga for flexibility, Meditation for relaxation, Pilates instructors for
following:
low impact classes, are others you can add to your network list.
referral onto a supportive network of health professionals that your
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
30
Ready To Roll! Time To Get Active: Assessing Client Fitness Levels
Recreation (ACHPER) developed The Australian Fitness Education Kit
With much of the pre-exercise administration and health checks taken
(AFEA) which is “a program of easy to use tests, a motivational system
care of, it is time to get active! Conducting a fitness assessment of your
of awards and supporting curriculum ideas. It reflects a health-related
client/s is the next step. When properly administered, fitness
philosophy and encourages students to set personal goals by aspiring
assessments can be utilised to establish a benchmark of current
to criterion-based standards of achievement” (see figure 17)(33).
strengths and weaknesses, with this data being used as a starting point
for writing a personalised program for each of your clients. Tracking
In the United States of America the “Fitnessgram” is an instrument
their progress and sharing this with your clients can be a motivational
widely utilised for assessing the fitness of children and youth.
tool when improvements can be seen over time (29).
“Fitnessgram is a fitness assessment and reporting program, first
developed in 1982 by The Cooper Institute. The assessment includes a
While there is no international standard fitness-testing instrument for
variety of health-related physical fitness tests that are used to
children and adolescents, there are several valid and reliable testing
determine students' overall physical fitness and suggest areas for
protocols available depending on what continent you are from. All
improvement when appropriate” (see figure 18) (34).
attempt to assess similar fitness measures but vary in how this is
tested. The Australian Council For Health, Physical Education and
Figure 17: The AFEA Fitness Testing Kit Website (see 33)
Figure 18: The Fitnessgram Website (see 34)
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
31
Development of the ALPHA Fitness Testing Protocol. Take some
time to investigate the following links to find out more.
Go behind the scenes of how a fitness test is developed;
Take
5
Figure 20 below, gives a graphical summary of the different baseline
protocols involved with the ALPHA testing model.
Click this link to view the Testers Manual
http://www.ukkinstituutti.fi/filebank/500-ALPHA_FIT_Testers_Manual.pdf
See videos of the testing being performed correctly:
http://www.ukkinstituutti.fi/en/alpha/video_tests_1-3
Finally, most recently a group of European Physical Education
researchers developed the ALPHA fitness-testing regime. Their
objective was “to develop and test a comprehensive set of assessment
methodologies for physical activity levels at the population level.
Moreover, the project focused on a number of key factors that relate to
the achievement and enablement of physical activity levels, such as the
urban environment, transport related physical activity, work related
physical activity and health related fitness” (see figure 19) (35).
Figure 20: Basic ALPHA fitness testing regime overview
Each of these testing protocols has a set of normative data that
accompanies the procedural documentation. Once the test has been
administered one can compare their scores with the generalised
population and see where their fitness level is positioned on a National
continuum. This however, while being motivating for some
individuals, may actually discourage unfit or overweight individuals
Figure 19: The ALPHA Fitness Testing Website (see 35)
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
32
from participating in your program because of a fear of being tested.
Like any fitness session, safety consideration and risk management
With this in mind Faigenbaum and Westcott in their book Youth
should be at the forefront of your thinking. The following checklist can
Strength Training (29) recommend that it is important to avoid a pass-
be used to guide your preparations (32).
fail mentality when evaluating fitness, and in fact they advise taking
 Ensure your screening procedures and consent forms have been
completed.
the words “evaluation” and “testing” out of your programs vocabulary
and replacing it with “Fitness Challenge”. This promotes a tone of
 Conduct a thorough warm up and stretching preparation.
personal best effort where children will enjoy the fitness assessment
 Conduct an orientation of all the testing equipment and allow the
children to become familiar with it. Give them some practice
attempts. Allow for any questions to be asked if clarification is
required.
and feel good about participating, and are just happy challenging
themselves to get in and be active! In the same vein Attridge and Felice
in their work titled Fitness Training Essentials For The Personal Trainer
(32) remind us that “the aim of testing is to provide data to allow for
exercise prescription, and the benefit of comparing normative data
maybe superfluous. The initial and subsequent test results can be used
 Encourage appropriate nutrition and hydration and ensure a day of
rest prior to the evaluation so participants are not fatigued.
 Make clear guidelines and safety rules, which will then form the
basis of participant safety.
to examine the child’s improvements over time. These comparisons
serve as a greater benefit to improving a child’s and parent’s
motivation than normative data comparisons”.
 Monitor each child and if there are any signs of dizziness, excess
fatigue or any signs that the testing is too taxing bring the
evaluation to an immediate halt.
When administering the fitness assessment be sure to follow the
administration documentation so that forthcoming testing follows the
same protocols and thus future results have a greater chance of being
valid and replicable.
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
33
The results obtained from testing need to be reported to the
Reporting of Results
The ACHPER and Fitnessgram testing kits provide software to
generate reports in a graphical and text format (see figure 21).
parents/guardians and the child being tested. This can be in a more
comprehensive format for parents with a simplified version given to
children. Young people will often appreciate a discussion of results by
viewing a visual representation of their data rather than descriptive
text. Figure 21 offers a template for reporting the data in both a
graphical and text format. This kind of report could also be developed
using standard word processing and spreadsheet software packages if
one did not want to invest in a commercial fitness software package.
Whatever mode is chosen, this information forms the baseline data
from which to develop a personalised fitness program and any future
testing to monitor improvements.
Fundamental Fitness Programming
After an analysis of your fitness testing data you will be able to begin
writing a fitness program to guide your client’s fitness development
before instructional sessions begin. If, however, you are working with
larger groups you may have test results from two broad categories of
clients which impacts on the kind of program you will design.
1. Overweight underactive Individuals.
The larger category is often one which consists of members who
engage in little physical activity on a regular basis. As we discussed
Figure 21: Fitness result report from Fitnessgram.
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
34
earlier in this unit, unlike previous generations, many kids today don’t
because a fundamental level of musculoskeletal fitness is essential for
do chores around the house or farm. They don’t play outside, are not
the enjoyment of a physical lifestyle. Strength training provides these
involved in backyard sports, and to add to this decline, there is now a
individuals
reduced number of PE classes at school. Instead of being active these
positive
children end up spending the majority of their free time connected to
enables them to enjoy
some electronic device. This group may have members who are
purposeful
exercise,
overweight, lack motor skills and confidence to participate in any kind
experience
personal
of physical activity or sport, and perceive any involvement as
improvement, and train
awkward and embarrassing. One will need to consider the kind of
cooperatively with friends
program that is designed for this group based on the following
in a supportive setting
considerations.
and exciting atmosphere” (27,
p.7).
with
activity
“a
which
This kind of activity is not aerobically taxing and provides
Excess weight hinders movement performance in activities which
opportunities for all body shapes and sizes to experience success.
involve jogging, but it also increases the risk of musculoskeletal
Larger kids can often lift heavier weights than their peers and this
overuse injuries, so careful consideration needs to be given to activity
gives them a sense of achievement and might be the first step in
selection with this client group. Aerobic programming utilising
believing that they have a future in exploring lifelong fitness goals.
activities involving water, like aqua aerobics, water games or ergo
What is clear is that the research tells us that participation in a
machines built for kids or youth would be more suitable.
supervised program of strength exercise can make a world of
difference to a child’s life when they are overweight (27).
Faigenbaum and Westcott (29) from observations in their “youth
strength-training centres” noted that overweight kids need strength
2. The other category of participants consists of physically active
training to condition their muscles, tendons, ligaments, and bones
young people or sports participants.
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
35
These are the children who are regularly active in sport training, or
thinking that study is the only thing that matters. They often lack the
are self-motivated to get out and explore their world in fun play or in
motor skills of their more active peers, and find aerobic activity taxing
other organised activities. These individuals can benefit from a general
like the overweight group above.
program of strength training to ensure balanced muscle development
New research however is telling a different story. John Medina in his
and a lowering of their risk of overuse injuries. This client group can
book Brain Rules highlights the latest studies from the field of
often present to you after being involved in sport-specific training
Neuroscience and the findings are clear; aerobic exercise enhances
which has had an overemphasis on sport-specific skills which can
brain function across many different cognitive domains (see figure
typically provide too little stimulus for some major muscles, and too
21). Kids who exercise are smarter than those who do not exercise;
much stress on other major muscles, thus, injury, failure and
with exercise, memory and learning functions being enhanced. This
frustration are a possible result (29).
new research provides an avenue to an untapped market for a specific
fitness class to enhance academic performance and brain function!
If you are intending to run a group-based fitness class for children or
youth it would be worth considering the above groups and designing
separate classes or sessions so that these specific needs are catered
for. Mixing these groups together in one session may leave the
overweight individual feeling less adequate about themselves, and
could lead to the fitter individual not being extended enough and
becoming bored.
A New Approach To Attracting Youth Clients To Your Fitness Business
One other group that you may consider programming fitness sessions
for is the studious adolescent who spends much of their time in the
library or at their desk studying. They have had ingrained into their
Figure 21: Visit http://www.brainrules.net/exercise to learn
more about how exercise enhance brain function!
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
36
Figure 22 below is an excerpt from John Medina’s Brain rules website.
Exercise Prescription For Children And Adolescents
It is a great marketing tool which should be tapped into; exercise is
not only good for the body, it is also good for the brain!
As part of your training as a fitness professional you will develop a
comprehensive knowledge and
understanding
of
general
exercise prescription and how
to teach exercise technique.
This next section will not repeat
these foundational basics, but
instead focus on applying new
knowledge
Adolescent
to
Child
exercise
and
training
principles.
Figure 23: Youth Strength Training: A
recommended resource for your programming.
There are many good sources of literature to support child and
adolescent training, the book titled Youth Strength Training by Avery
Faigenbaum and Wayne Westcott (29), stands out because it is
supported by a comprehensive research base (see figure 23). This
Figure 22: A brief overview of Brain Rule #1: Exercise increases
brain function.
Take
5
Brain Rules #1: Exercise increases brain power. Take 5 to
watch this great overview of John Medina talking about
how exercise increases brain function.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ck-tQt0S0Os
would be a natural choice if you require more detailed information on
working with younger populations in the fitness industry. The
following section highlights the key recommendations from their
“Program Prescriptions” section.
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
37
The main goal of your exercise prescription is to ensure that children
in your charge have fun while exercising and that they develop a
positive psychology about strength training. The following principles
can guide your exercise programing.

There MUST be a major emphasis on proper form and technique.
Simply going through the motion is not good enough, this puts your
client at risk of injury, as well as minimising their development
opportunities. Placing exercise information cards at exercise stations
or machines places an emphasis on education and motivation and is
helpful for technique development. Working one on one and modeling
technique is something which a young individual values and ultimately
turns the learning into a visual experience. A tool which is invaluable
for giving technical feedback to clients is an APP for smart phones
Figure 24: Coaches Eye APP for your smart phone. A must have tool for
anyone involved in the teaching of sport technique
called “Coaches Eye”. You can video your client’s technique and then
replay it with Coaches Eye slow motion playback options so they get
immediate feedback on their performance (see figure 24).
Take
5
Coaches Eye Smart Phone App: Visit Coaches eye
website and download this APP to your smart phone.
Your clients will be impressed by your professional
approach to technique development in your exercise
sessions. http://www.coachseye.com/
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
38
Generic Training Guidelines For Children & Adolescents
The combination and sequencing of exercise prescription to develop
strength is infinite, however Faigenbaum and Westcott (29)
The variance in size, maturity, motivation and stress tolerance can be
recommend starting with basic exercises for the major muscle groups
evident with young people in our charge. Kids of the same age can
such as (see figure 25):
show marked differences in their development. Training programs
Lower Body
Upper Body
Trunk
have to be prescribed to meet individual needs and progressed with
Leg Press
Chest Press
Curls
specific differences in mind.
Leg Curl
Seat Row
Sit ups
consider in your exercise prescription include; choice and order of
Body Weight Squat
Shoulder Press
Static Back Extension
exercise, training intensity, training sets, rest interval between sets
Body Weight Lunge
Bicep Curl
Back Raise
Triceps Press Down
Stability Ball Work
The variables that you will need to
and exercises, repetition velocity and training frequency (29). Let us
take a look at these in more detail.
Figure 25: Exercises that activate major muscle groups
In addition, your selection should promote muscle balance across
Choice and Order of Exercise
joints, agonist and antagonist muscle groups (eg. quadriceps and
There are a variety of exercise modalities available to the exercise
practitioner working with young people, all of which have shown a
benefit to overall fitness of the clients. Free weights, medicine balls,
weight-machines, body-weight and elastic bands have all shown
positive gains when kids are taught how to perform each exercise with
a focus on correct technique. The type of equipment that you
hamstrings). Begin with simple exercises and once these are mastered,
progress to ones requiring more coordination and skill to perform eg.
for an older teen, begin with a bench press on a stable bench, progress
this to a bench press on a stability ball, moving to a single arm
dumbbell press with rotation on a stability ball, to push ups on the
stability ball.
ultimately choose comes down to the overall goals, abilities and needs
of the clients you will be working with.
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
39
Having a balance in one’s life is critical for teens who are often juggling
Figure 26 highlights an example program for an experienced teen
sporting commitments, school work, and many other after school
which took an hour to complete.
activities. For young athletes, ideally a gym session should be kept to
around one-hour, with more seasoned and experienced adolescents
Training Intensity
being able to tolerate a 90-minute gym session. In general, young
Intensity of the exercise is the most important variable in your
clients should perform about 8 – 12 strength exercises per session,
athlete’s training program. One of the most common mistakes made by
firstly focusing on multi-joint larger muscle groups, and secondly,
inexperienced strength and conditioning leaders is that too much
followed by single-joint and smaller muscle groups. If athletes are
weight is introduced before correct biomechanical technique has been
learning to lift more explosively during a power phase of training, this
mastered. If strength gains are to be optimised one must be guided
should be performed early on in the session when one is still fresh.
toward good technique. Spending time on key lifts and learning correct
technique is worth the investment. Having kids begin with a wooden
dowel as a bar with no weight is a great starting point for those who
have never lifted weights before.
Faigenbaum and Westcott (29) recommend that youth should perform
6 to 15 repetitions of each exercise with the final few reps eliciting
temporary muscle fatigue. Recent research by this team however, have
made refinements to this recommendation which will enhance the
efficacy of adolescent training. They compared strength gains achieved
from one group lifting with fewer repetitions (6-8) using heavier
Figure 26: Anatomical Phase for an Experienced Teen. This routine
weight loadings, with gains made from more repetitions (13-15) using
would take 60 minutes to complete.
moderate weight loadings. It was clear that young male and female
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
40
lifters achieved great strength gains with higher repetitions and
moderate loadings during the first few-months of training. With this
method in mind they assert that the best way forward for novice lifters
is to establish a weight that can be lifted 10-15 times with proper
technique. The weight can then be adjusted to ensure form is
maintained.
Developing an awareness of strength-training intensity can take some
weeks to develop. To aid this process Faigenbaum and Westcott (29,
p.21) developed the “perceived exertion for children scale” which
contains a verbal and numerical reporting scale of intensity during
their lift. Figure 27 highlights the scale. At the conclusion of the final
rep children are asked to rate their level of exertion. Reports show that
an effort rating of 6-7 is consistent with a training intensity of
approximately 75% of maximum. This objective interpretation of
intensity, along with an assessment of technique form (see figure 28),
aids in the prescription of the training intensity for each individual.
The purpose of an objective measure of form is that participants must
show technical competence prior to weights being increased.
Figure 27: Perceived Exertion for Children Scale
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
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Training Sets
During an introduction to strength training for a junior client it would
be reasonable to begin with one set of a variety of exercises while they
learn and adapt to new movement patterns; they then gradually move
to multiple sets once they become more competent. Research has
shown that after time, two to three sets will produce even greater
gains if done with progressive overload (36). The DeLorme-Watkins
training protocol requires a low-moderate-high combination of sets,
and has been shown to produce the greatest gains. With this, the first
set has a light resistance of 10 repetitions, the second a moderate
resistance of 10 repetitions, with the third requiring a heavier
resistance for 10-15 reps. When they can complete 15 reps during this
final set, the weight can be increased in all three-sets. While this
combination has proved most effective in youth training, to save time
this protocol might only be used with exercises utilising larger muscle
groups and multiple joints, while others could simply use a two-set
protocol.
All images, charts and diagrams are (c) Australian Fitness Network unless otherwise indicated.
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