Acknowledgements
This paper was prepared by Justin Ellis, Manager and Consultant at Turning
Points Consultancy CC, Namibia, for the Ministry of Education.
UNICEF Namibia provided financial support for the preparation and printing
of this paper.
Ministry of Education
Government Office Park, Luther Street, Windhoek
Private Bag 13186, Windhoek, Namibia
Telephone: 061-2706309
Fax: 061-253671
Email: [email protected]
Website: http://www.moe.gov.na
A digital version (PDF) of this document is available on the Ministry’s website.
Printed by John Meinert Printing (Pty) Ltd in Windhoek.
Contents
Summary................................................................................................... 2
Introduction .............................................................................................. 3
Components of the Private Costs of Primary Education .......... 4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
School Development Fund
Stationery
School uniform
Sports and extramural activities
Transport costs
Hostel fees
Temporary shelters and classrooms
Opportunity costs
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Private Costs of
Primary Education ................................................................................. 7
Exemption from the School Development Fund......................... 12
Compliance with the Constitution, Domestic Law and
International Agreements .................................................................. 14
Findings on the Current Situation and a Way Forward ............ 17
Notes ........................................................................................................ 21
1
Summary
The Namibian Constitution states that primary education shall be compulsory and
provided free of charge at government schools (Article 20). However, under the
Education Act 2001, parents are expected to contribute to the School Development
Fund (SDF) in addition to paying the other private costs of education. This paper
reviews the different components of the private costs of primary education met by
parents, including the SDF, and the impacts of these costs on access to education,
learner retention and learning outcomes. The paper also suggests courses of action
that the Ministry of Education could take to redress some of the challenges
encountered in implementing the SDF.
The main private costs of education are those of stationery, school uniforms,
transport, hostel fees, sports and extramural fees, and opportunity costs. In 2010,
parents contributed an average of N$208 per child to the SDF, with considerable
variation between rural and urban schools. In 2002, the average contribution for
lower primary education in rural schools was N$27.90 compared to N$257.80
in urban schools. This variation means that rural schools are under-resourced
compared to urban schools, and thus are likely to offer a lower quality of education
than urban schools. In other words, the SDF is contributing to inequitable access to
education and learning outcomes, with rural schools disproportionately affected.
The legality of the SDF is also being questioned by parents/guardians and other
stakeholders with reference to the Namibian Constitution which obliges the State
to provide primary education free of charge. It is therefore critically important
that the Government reviews its rationale for the SDF and takes appropriate
measures to ensure that the costs of education expected to be borne by parents/
guardians do not undermine fulfillment of national commitments and obligations.
2
Free Primary Education in Namibia: Current Context (October 2011)
Introduction
On 13 January 2011, some 50 women from Okahandja gathered to voice their
protest to the Minister of Education, according to a national daily newspaper. The
spokesperson of the group, Dorka Shilongo, is quoted as saying, “The constitution
says that every Namibian is entitled to free education. We therefore refuse to pay
school fees for 2011 or to buy books.” Their purpose was to force the Ministry
of Education to make more money available to schools so that the parents could
be relieved of the responsibility of buying cleaning materials, photocopy paper
and books. How, they asked, could a person earning N$500 a month afford to
pay (annual) school fees of N$200? They further asked that school uniforms be
standardised nationally, and complained that their children were summarily
sent home if there was a problem with their clothes. Repeated attempts to make
their case with the Ministry had fallen on deaf ears, they alleged. An unnamed
spokesperson for the Ministry responded that the decision about charging school
fees was the prerogative of the school board. Education was indeed free, but
schools had to be maintained. Parents who could not afford the fees could apply
for full or partial exemption.1
This incident clearly illustrates the growing controversy in the country around
the obligation of the state to provide free and compulsory primary education in
accordance with Article 20 of the Namibian Constitution. Government, of course,
pays teachers’ salaries and schools’ utility bills (water and electricity), purchases
goods and services, including some textbooks and stationery, and makes provision
for the building and maintenance of school infrastructure. The national budget
for Education is usually 22% of the total national budget. However, Government’s
expectation of parents, caregivers and guardians to meet certain costs is giving
rise to increasing tensions.
3
Components of
the Private Costs of
Primary Education
1. School Development Fund
In terms of section 5 of the Education Act 2001, and its Regulations, a school board
may levy annual fees on learners, or rather their parents or guardians or caregivers,
as a contribution to the School Development Fund (SDF). The maximum annual
fee is set at N$250, unless the Minister approves a higher amount. In practice
the amount charged covers a wide range. For instance, the lowest annual charge
in 2010 for all schools (primary, combined and secondary) was N$2 per learner,
and the highest N$3 600.2 For rural schools in 2002, the average annual charge at
lower primary level was N$27.90 and at upper primary level N$34.89. In urban
schools , however, the average annual charge was N$257.84 at lower primary and
N$269.61 at upper primary level – between seven and ten times higher than in
rural areas. 3 By 2010, the average annual charge for the SDF (including both
primary and secondary schools in the public sector) was N$208 – about double
what it had been in 2007 when the Ministry began to collect information on school
fees. In 2010, only some 8% of public schools did not have an SDF at all.4 Although
data on this has not yet been collected by the Education Management Information
System (EMIS), in practice schools may only collect about half of the amount that
they should in terms of the fees set.
The Public Expenditure Review of the Education Sector in 2010/11 found that
SDFs made up 2% of all funds available for education, and had grown in recent
years, from N$67 million in 2007 to N$80 million in 2008 and N$115 million
in 2009. Eighty-four percent of rural schools had an SDF compared to 90% of
urban schools.5
4
Free Primary Education in Namibia: Current Context (October 2011)
2. Stationery
A recent practice, to obtain contributions in kind from parents and caregivers,
is for schools to provide learners with a list of stationery – exercise books, note
books, pens and pencils, calculators and the like, and sometimes study guides,
photocopy paper and even cleaning materials and toilet paper – which they are
required to purchase either from the school or from a stationer. This is in addition
to the cash contribution to the SDF. The legal authority for schools to demand
these contributions is not at all clear, unless it is authorised by the school board
as part of the SDF. Lists and costs, of course, vary widely, but one may assume
a cost in the region of N$300 per annum at primary level and double that at
secondary level.6
SMS to The Namibian newspaper, 25 March 2011
I am a parent with kids at Erundu Secondary School. I want to ask the Minister of Education
if it is a rule that a child cannot sit for an examination if he/she doesn’t contribute a ream of
photocopy paper?
3. School uniform
All schools require the wearing of a school uniform, which will cost about N$450
per year. This figure would cover the cost of shoes but not a blazer.
4. Sports and extramural activities
Understandably, schools may make appeals for sports and extramural activities,
including trips, which are not compulsory, but such requests do put pressure on
parents and caregivers as the learners do not wish to be excluded from the exciting
activities of their class or school. One might allow N$100 to N$200 annually for
such activities. The law does provide that if an extramural activity is funded by
the SDF, a learner who has not contributed to the Fund can be excluded from such
activity. Participation in sports activities, which is desirable for the development
of a child and the school, may attract further clothing costs of about N$500,
including trainers, and a further N$200 for a track suit.
Components of the Private Costs of Primary Education
5
5. Transport costs
It is generally assumed that children walk to school, sometimes long distances, but
cash transport costs are sometimes incurred in urban areas, depending on where
children have found place in a school. Daily fares may be in the region of N$12-20.
For boarders, there are transport costs for getting to the hostel and back home. (The
2003/04 Namibia Household Income and Expenditure Survey found that 83.5% of
urban households are within 5km of a primary school, and 72.8% of rural households.
It is doubtful that transport would be available for daily hire in rural areas.)7
6. Hostel fees
Hostel fees vary according to the classification of the hostel. The highest charge
for boarding is N$825 per year (or N$279 per trimester or N$69 monthly), and the
lowest charge is N$198 per year (or N$65 per trimester or N$16 per month). There
is a sliding 10% discount for additional children of the same parents.8 Hostels
were only available for primary learners in eight regions in 2006.9 Hostel fees
are paid to Treasury (not the SDF) which also grants exemptions and reductions
on an annual basis. Some communities support community hostels (that are not
financially supported by government) for their children to stay in during the
week.
7. Temporary shelters and classrooms
Parents often contribute in kind to their school, for instance through the building
of temporary shelters and classrooms when there are not enough brick classrooms.
8. Opportunity costs
Finally, there are opportunity costs associated with sending children to school,
since they are less available to assist with household chores and other activities
that are important for the survival of households, particularly in rural areas.
Naturally, as the private costs of schooling mount, there comes a tipping point
for the parent or guardian, forcing a decision that a child will not go to school.
6
Free Primary Education in Namibia: Current Context (October 2011)
Advantages and
Disadvantages of
the Private Costs of
Primary Education
Advantages
Private
contributions to children’s education have some theoretical advantages.
Having sacrificed scarce resources for the education of their children, parents
and guardians will, it is presumed, be concerned to ensure that their children
attend school regularly and are well served by their teachers.
Similarly,
children, being well aware that their education is costly, will want
to make a success of it.
There
are further possible advantages in terms of school governance, since
parents will be keeping a wary eye on the school board and the use of their
contributions. However, in practice, schools struggle to gain the participation
of adults in school governance, and discipline problems in schools abound,
including those relating to school facilities, like vandalism and theft.
School
fees also undeniably provide financial relief for the state, since items
which are the responsibility of the government are actually being purchased
by the SDF or parents. The already mentioned 2002 study of SDFs found that
primary school boards were using their resources to buy books and stationery
(27% of expenditure in rural areas and 28% in urban areas), to maintain their
buildings (13% in rural areas and 27% in urban areas), to purchase equipment
such as photocopiers (12% in rural areas and 13% in urban areas), to employ
7
staff, including relief teachers (9% rural and 13% urban), and for various other
needs, including photocopying and transport (40% rural and 19% urban).
(More recent information on the use of SDFs has not been processed yet.
Although they are meant to be audited, the Ministry apparently lacks the
capacity to properly monitor what actually happens to the funds, and there
have been occasional cases of maladministration.)
Disadvantages
The
private costs of primary education make up a significant part of the
expenditure of most households, and the proportion increases for lower-income
groups.
For instance, in the 2003/04 Namibia Household Income and Expenditure
Survey it was found that households which were dependent on remittances
and grants spent 6.2% of their resources on education, compared to the
national average of 2.7% (the latter about N$1 136 per annum). There was,
however, considerable variation between urban and rural areas in terms of the
actual amount spent, since urban households had about twice the resources
at their disposal than their rural counterparts. The average rural household
spent N$611 per annum on education, and the average urban household spent
N$1 881.10 One might assume that, based on the information given above, the
current annual cost to a household of a primary school child’s education would
be about N$2 100 in urban areas and about N$1 100 in rural areas, excluding
highly variable transport and hostel costs.11 About a third of this amount is for
the SDF and stationery, and the other two thirds are for uniforms, sport and
extramural activities. Although the cost is annualised, it tends to be needed at
the beginning of the year. A Namibian family of, say, two adults, two children
under 5 years old and two children of 6-18 years old, would spend N$1 942 per
month just to be on the poverty line in Namibia,12 which provides for food and
some non-food items. The strain imposed by education costs (especially at the
beginning of the year) is immediately evident, and increases for that quarter
of Namibian households (some headed by pensioners) living below the poverty
line.13
An illustration of this has recently come to light through a study of the
effectiveness of child welfare grants.14 In terms of the items mentioned by
grant recipients for expenditure of the grant, school-related expenses, at 43%,
rated even more highly than food-related items, at 40%. It should further
8
Free Primary Education in Namibia: Current Context (October 2011)
be considered that the recipients of grants, mostly parents and caregivers
of orphans and vulnerable children, are not necessarily the poorest group in
Namibia, and adjustment of the system is currently under consideration to make
it more inclusive of the poor. An ironic aspect of this situation is therefore that
grants from the Ministry of Gender Equality and Child Welfare are effectively
going to pay for education costs not provided for by the Ministry of Education.
Declining
access to primary education for the poorest.
Education is such an important priority that even the poorest Namibians are
willing to make considerable sacrifices to keep their children in school. Only
some 2% of children of primary school age (7-13) are not enrolled in school,
judging by the net enrolment ratio (NER) of over 98% for 2009.15 (It should be
noted, however, that this ratio is based on a projection of the 2001 census that
might not be accurate, and the NER might actually be significantly lower.)
However, data from the 2003/04 Namibia Household Income and Expenditure
Survey, for the wider age group of 7-16 years, show that the poorest decile had
an enrolment rate of 81%, compared to 89% for the average and 95% for the
richest decile. In the poorest decile, school enrolment had dropped by 5.7%,
compared to an overall decline of 1.7% since the previous survey 10 years
earlier.16
There is another worrying indication of declining access to primary education
by the most disadvantaged Namibians. Over the past seven years there has been
a decline in the number of new Grade 1 entrants, from 57 957 in 2003 to 51 407 in
2009.17 It is possible that this 11% decline is due to a lower birth rate since 1998,
but this must be considered unlikely (unless the upcoming 2011 census shows
such a drastic and unexpected trend.) In 2010, new Grade 1 entrants increased
slightly to 52 186.18
Continuing
inequality, and poor quality education for the poor.
The most harmful effect of the private cost of primary education has to do
with its contribution to continuing inequality, and more generally the poor
quality of education available to poor Namibians.
In the 2002 study of SDFs already mentioned, researchers found that the
Ministry estimated that N$65 was needed for books per primary learner
annually. The Ministry was able to allocate only about N$40 for this purpose.
On average, urban schools were able to allocate from the SDF about N$27 per
learner for books (effectively making up the deficit), while rural schools could
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Private Costs of Primary Education
9
find only N$8. Further, urban schools could afford to fund relief teachers, a
measure clearly beyond the reach of almost all rural schools. Rural schools
incur higher transport costs than their urban counterparts, for instance for
trips to the Office of the Inspector of Education or to the Regional Education
Office. Significantly, the 2010 Education Public Expenditure Review found
that at primary school level, higher contributions to the SDF were associated
with higher learner success rates.19
SMS to The Namibian newspaper, 24 February 2011
Is this what we call free education when learners have to buy exercise books? I am
teaching multigrade (1 & 2) but now only three learners have bought books for writing.
Should I give them work? Where are they going to write? What about those who don’t have
books? How do you expect me to do my duty properly when things are in a mess? Please
don’t blame teachers.
– Isaac, a teacher, Chinchimani Circuit.
Continuing
wide gap in performance between rural and urban schools.
Recent analysis of the results of Grade 6 learners in the sub-regional tests carried
out by the Southern and Eastern African Consortium for the Measurement of
Educational Quality (SACMEQ) show that there has been no progress in the past
decade in narrowing the very wide gap in performance in reading between rural
and urban schools in Namibia. This can be shown to correlate with the physical
resources available to schools.
Reading Score
Chart 1: SACMEQ Reading Scores by Location 1995-2007
City
Small Town
Isolated/Rural
Human Poverty Index 2004
Source: Ninnes, P. 2011. Improving Quality and Equity in Education in Namibia: A Trend and Gap
Analysis. Presentation to the Ministry of Education, Windhoek, 18 February.
10
Free Primary Education in Namibia: Current Context (October 2011)
Similarly, the correlation between poverty (as measured by the Human Poverty
Index for each region in Namibia) and poor performance in reading in primary
schools is very high.
Score
Chart 2: SACMEQ III Reading by Regional Poverty Index
SACMEQ III reading
Linear (SACMEQ III reading)
Human Poverty Index 2004
Source: Ninnes, P. 2011. Improving Quality and Equity in Education in Namibia: A Trend and Gap Analysis.
Presentation to the Ministry of Education, Windhoek, 18 February.
A further indication of the wide gap between rural and urban primary
schools is provided by the Standardised Achievement Tests administered for
the first time to Grade 5 learners in 2009. These show, for instance, that in
Ohangwena Region, 70% of learners were graded as “below basic achievement”
(meaning the learner demonstrated insufficient knowledge and skills across all
themes in the syllabus) in English, compared to 21% in Khomas Region and 52%
in Otjozondjupa. In Mathematics, 59% of learners in Ohangwena were rated as
below basic achievement, compared to 24% in Khomas and 48% in Otjozondjupa.20
However, at secondary level, where greater equality of resource distribution
has apparently been achieved, the gap in performance has been narrowed.21
The Public Expenditure Review also did not find a high correlation between
SDF contributions and learner success at secondary level.22 In fact, some
rural regions can now challenge their urban counterparts in Grade 10 and
Grade 12 results.
In 1993, Government set out its basic goals for education as access, equity, quality
and democracy.23 All, with the possible exception of the last, are apparently
deteriorating as a result of the high private costs of schooling. Obviously, damage is
also being done to national efforts to overcome poverty and achieve the objectives
of Vision 2030.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Private Costs of Primary Education
11
Exemption from the
School Development Fund
24
The Namibian Parliament, apparently fearing that school fees would further
disadvantage poor learners, instituted through the Education Act 2001 a system
for deserving learners to be exempted from the payment of contributions to
the SDF, and for the school to be compensated accordingly by the Education
Development Fund created for this purpose. No adequate means of compensating
schools for such exemptions has been established as yet.
The Education Development Fund was established in 2006, and small grants
were piloted in some regions for deserving learners, but the Fund has never had
substantial funds at its disposal to compensate schools for exemptions, beyond
the N$400 000 provided as a pump primer. If the Fund did have resources, it
could also undertake affirmative action measures beyond mere compensation for
foregone fees, which, as we have seen, are often meagre in the first place.
The granting of an exemption is a loss to the SDF, regarded by all school managers
and teachers as essential for achieving a reasonable level of education when
provision by government is inadequate, even in terms of the National Standards for
Schools promulgated by the Ministry. Application procedures are cumbersome.
No current data is available, but it is possible that less than 5% of learners
are granted exemptions. Schools do not readily advertise that exemptions are
possible. Some better schools, with a high demand for admission, have apparently
developed subtle systems for not enrolling those who they estimate might not be
able to pay their SDF contributions.
Interestingly, the Act does allow a school to take civil action to recover fees
from those who have not paid, but it appears that few schools have gone to court,
probably as it would not be cost-effective to do so.25 Instead, schools resort to
a variety of other methods that have proved effective, including letters, visits,
12
Free Primary Education in Namibia: Current Context (October 2011)
public announcements of those who have not paid, sending home learners until
payment has been made, and withholding year-end reports and certificates, even
though some of these actions are illegal (in terms of the Education Act and its
Regulations) or unethical, and further disadvantage poor learners. To make the
circumstances more complicated, there is now a trend for some of those who
can afford to pay refusing to pay, quoting the constitutional provision of free and
compulsory primary education, and inviting the school to sue them.
SMS to The Namibian newspaper, 24 February 2011
Minister of Education talk to the teachers of Khorab Junior Secondary School in Otavi to give
us our grade 12 certificates. They don’t want to give us our certificate because we didn’t
pay our school fees and not all of us can pay. As far as I am concerned our certificates have
nothing to do with school fees. Some of us want to go and register at institutions like IUM and
Monotronic but without our certificates we can’t do it. They are making our lives a living hell.
Please Mr Iyambo dome something. Time is passing.
– a concerned learner
Exemption from the School Development Fund
13
Compliance with
the Constitution,
Domestic Law
and International
Agreements
26
The right to free primary education is assured threefold: by the Namibian
Constitution, domestic law and international agreements.
The Constitution
Article 20 of the Namibian Constitution guarantees the right to education and
provides for compulsory education until the completion of primary education or
until the child reaches age 16, whichever comes first. It also obliges the state to
establish and maintain state schools “at which primary education will be provided
free of charge”. This right applies to “every resident within Namibia” and means
that all children in Namibia, not just Namibian citizens and not just children in
low-income families, are entitled to free primary education. The provision on
the right to education is part of the fundamental rights and freedoms which are
enforceable by the courts.
Domestic law
The constitutional provision on compulsory education is implemented by section
53 of the Education Act, which provides that “school attendance is compulsory
for every child from the beginning of the year in which the child attains the
14
Free Primary Education in Namibia: Current Context (October 2011)
age of seven years, until the day the child completes primary education before
reaching the age of 16 years; or the last school day of the year in which the child
reaches the age of 16 years”. There are provisions for making exceptions for
individual learners or groups of learners on grounds of health, public interest
or the best interest of the individual child in question. The parent of any child
for whom school attendance is compulsory has a legal duty to “ensure that such
child is registered with a school and regularly attends school”. The Minister may
institute an investigation in cases where a child is not attending school, and can
issue a written notice ordering a parent to comply with the duty of seeing that the
child attends school. Failure to comply with such a notice, or refusal to cooperate
with an investigation into a child’s failure to attend school, are criminal offences
punishable by a fine of up to N$6 000 or two years’ imprisonment.
Section 38 of the Education Act gives effect to the constitutional guarantee of
free primary education by stipulating that “All tuition provided for primary
and special education in state schools, including all school books, educational
materials and other related requisites, must be provided free of charge to learners
until the seventh grade, or until the age of 16 years, whichever occurs first.”
International agreements
Namibia is party to several binding international agreements which explicitly call
for free and compulsory primary education, including the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights, the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child,
the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the
Convention on the Rights of the Child. Namibia’s 2010 Report under the Convention
on the Rights of the Child concedes that some children are being denied the right
to education because of costs such as the SDF contributions, and that this is
unconstitutional.27 (Such an admission at international level perhaps creates the
expectation that remedial action is about to be taken.)
Since there has not yet been a court case concerning free primary education in
Namibia, it is likely that, were such an action to be brought, our courts would refer
to judgements in other jurisdictions. Many courts abroad have taken a firm line
on the excuse of insufficient resources, and governments have not been allowed
to cite insufficient funds as an excuse for avoiding legal obligations.28 Courts have
Compliance with the Constitution, Domestic Law and International Agreements
15
also pointed out that governments essentially control their own resources, and
although they must maintain some discretion in the area of state expenditure,
they cannot be excused from their duties simply because they might prefer to
allocate resources differently.
The conclusion, therefore, seems inescapable that –
The scheme of school development fund contributions in the Education
Act appears to be inconsistent with the Namibian Constitution and the
applicable international law, and should be repealed in favour of genuine
free primary education for all as promised by the Constitution.29
16
Free Primary Education in Namibia: Current Context (October 2011)
Findings on the
Current Situation
and a Way Forward
Clearly, it is not possible (nor perhaps even desirable) for government to assume
responsibility for all private costs of education. However, it is equally evident that
the current arrangement does not work. It is detracting from national objectives.
It is depriving schools in poor neighbourhoods of adequate supplies of books and
stationery, and other materials, and funds for maintenance of school buildings, all
of which are essential for learners to do well. It is demoralising the very teachers
who need to be most highly motivated. In terms of the constitutional and legal
requirements, government actually has an inescapable obligation to provide such
facilities, books, stationery and other aids essential for learning. Moreover, it can
be convincingly argued that the best way of establishing a reading culture where
one does not currently exist is to flood primary schools with interesting books for
the children to read. Similarly, children must have stationery to master the more
demanding skill of handwriting. The matter of school maintenance also needs to
be looked at in more detail. It may be reasonable to require schools to provide
some contribution in kind for minor maintenance work. A line needs to be drawn,
however, when it comes to more costly structural renovation. An equitable national
system for the appointment of relief teachers is also urgently needed.
Possible options
Maintaining the status quo
Government may feel that no major intervention is affordable at this time to reduce
the private costs of education for the following reasons: no parent or caregiver
has ever taken the matter of free primary education for judicial review; things
17
have been as they are for a decade at least; and any intervention will apparently
mean that government spending must either be re-allocated or increased at a
time of economic difficulty. However, by not being proactive, government would
leave itself open to unpredictable and possibly embarrassing challenges in our
courts, or in parliament, or in international forums, or at the ballot box. This
choice to do nothing will also mean that no impact will be made on the inequality
that is patently evident in primary education, and the lack of quality in the
primary education available to poor Namibians will continue to trouble the whole
education system, and as a result the country’s social and economic prospects.
Changing the status quo
Assuming that government feels obliged to reduce the private costs of primary
education, the following measures could be considered.
1. Abolish compulsory contributions to the SDF, in cash and in kind, for primary
education.
This would entail an amendment to section 25 of the Education Act 2001, and
the relevant Regulations. Such relief is likely to be widely welcomed, though
well-off schools may object. It will probably be accompanied by an increase
in enrolments and retention in primary schools, and government will almost
certainly have to provide extra teachers and physical facilities for such schools.
Indeed, unless compensatory mechanisms are also provided, such as those
set out below, it may lead to further decline in the quality of rural primary
education, as the resources going into these schools will be reduced.
2. Compensate schools equally, on a per capita basis, for the loss of the SDF,
by providing all schools with sufficient funds for books, stationery and the
employment of relief teachers.
It is not within the scope of this paper to calculate with any degree of accuracy
what the cost to the state might be of such a measure, but it could be in the
region of N$130 million per year.30 Since this is a measure that will apply to
all state primary schools, it is recommended that it be implemented through
normal administrative measures and funding formulas (such as a per capita
grant to schools) rather than through the Education Development Fund. It
could be considered as part of the public expenditure review of education
finances currently under way.
18
Free Primary Education in Namibia: Current Context (October 2011)
However, a cautionary note should be added: materials alone may not
improve primary education unless other quality-improvement and accountability
measures, such as those in the Education and Training Sector Improvement
Programme (ETSIP), are also implemented and monitored to ensure improved
performance.
(Alternatively, government may wish to make grants only to schools with a
certain proportion of orphans and vulnerable children, or schools that raise less
than a certain amount for their SDF. Setting cut-off points may be complex,
however, and a legal basis for such affirmative action might be difficult to
establish as the law requires that government must provide adequately for the
primary education of all children, without regard to their economic or social
status.)
3. Provide the Education Development Fund with a substantial annual grant
(say N$20 million), and a dedicated and competent secretariat, so that it can
fund affirmative action projects proposed by disadvantaged schools.
This will mean that schools that are not performing well, and that serve poor
communities, but that have proposals for how to bring about improvements
largely through their own efforts, would have a possible source of funding.
However, based on past experience, grants should be made to a school for
a certain need, but not to a school for certain individuals. The procedures
should be simple and transparent. 31 The school record of needs, currently
under development, could also guide the allocation of grants. Such measures
are foreseen in ETSIP but have not yet been implemented.
4. Train school boards in how to raise funds for the SDF through voluntary
contributions and other fundraising activities.
Of course, parents would not be prevented from making voluntary contributions
to an SDF. Training in how to maximise voluntary contributions could be
outsourced to a private or non-governmental organisation through a competitive
tender. Part of the exercise should be to improve the governance of SDFs.
5. Reduce the cost of school uniforms as far as possible.
School uniforms are not mandatory in terms of the Education Act 2001, but
are decided upon by school boards. Although school uniforms inevitably
cost money, they might be less expensive to parents and caregivers than a
situation without uniforms, but where children informally compete to be more
Findings on the Current Situation and a Way Forward
19
fashionable than their peers. The Ministry may, however, wish to standardise
school uniforms to some degree, and to consider whether shoes need to be a
compulsory part of a primary school uniform, since these are the most costly
part of the uniform, and many children take them off once they leave the
school gates.
6. Consider costs at secondary level also.
Although the constitutional requirement is for free and compulsory primary
education, the private costs of secondary education are also burdensome, and
may equally detract from efforts to reduce inequality and poverty in Namibia,
as more poor Namibians successfully complete primary education. It may
therefore be appropriate for government to have a long-term plan for reducing
the private costs of secondary education as well.
Recommendation
Government should take a decision in principle on the measures suggested above,
and make a senior official responsible for developing, by a set date, a coordinated
and costed implementation plan.
20
Free Primary Education in Namibia: Current Context (October 2011)
Notes
1
Translated from the article on page 3 of Die Republikein newspaper of 14
January 2011.
2
See note 4.
3
Godana, T. and Kalili, N. 2002. Study to cost school development fund exemption
for orphans and other vulnerable children. NEPRU. There is also an earlier
study that made similar findings: Mendlesohn, J. 2000. Private funding of
primary and secondary education in Namibia: Report of the Presidential
Commission on Education, Culture and Training (Vol. 2).
4
EMIS provided raw data which has not been processed and seems to contain
a small number of entry errors. Private schools are, of course, excluded from
these calculations. Data on the use made of SDFs may be worth processing.
5
ECORYS. 2010. “Education Public Expenditure Review”. Slide presentation.
6
Since no proper research has been done into these costs, it has been necessary
to make very rough estimates based on asking around among colleagues and
acquaintances. An urban and high bias is therefore built in.
7
Central Bureau of Statistics. 2006. 2003/2004 Namibia Houshold Income and
Expenditure Survey, p. 65.
8
Government Gazette, 28 October 2002, Annexure B. An increase in these
fees is currently under consideration as they raise perhaps 5% of the cost of
hostels. Data on boarders is no longer available from published EMIS tables.
9
List provided by the Ministry of Education for 2006. Some of the regions have
since added hostels for primary learners.
10
Central Bureau of Statistics. 2006. 2003/2004 Namibia Household Income and
Expenditure Survey, p. 115.
21
11
Estimation of Private Costs of Primary Schooling in Namibia:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Sdf
Stationery
Uniform
Extramural
Sports
Transport
Hostel
Urban
440
300
450
200
700
Rural
48
300
450
100
200
2090
1098
12
Central Bureau of Statistics. 2008. A Review of Poverty and Inequality in
Namibia. Costs have been updated using CPI.
13
More detailed work to model the impact of education and other costs on
households of different descriptions is currently being done by UNICEF, but
has not yet been published.
14
Ministry of Gender Equality and Child Welfare. 2010. The Effectiveness of
Child Welfare Grants in Namibia: Study Findings and Technical Notes.
15
Ministry of Education. 2010. EMIS 2009, Table 28. Calculation of the NER
depends on the kind of assumption made about the size of the population in
the age bracket. Projections of the 2001 census are perhaps not very reliable
at this stage.
16
Schmidt, M. 2009. Poverty and Inequality in Namibia: An Overview. Institute
for Public Policy Research. Another NHIES was conducted in 2010, but data
is not yet available.
17
Ministry of Education. 2010. EMIS 2009, Table 24.
18
Ministry of Education. 2011. EMIS 2010, Table 24.
19
ECORYS. 2010. “Education Public Expenditure Review”. Slide presentation.
20
Ministry of Education, Directorate of National Examinations and Assessment.
2011. Report on the National Standardised Achievement Test (NSAT), 2009.
21
Ninnes, P. 2011. “Improving Quality and Equity in Education in Namibia: A Trend
and Gap Analysis”. Presentation to the Ministry of Education, 18 February.
22
Free Primary Education in Namibia: Current Context (October 2011)
22
ECORYS. 2010. “Education Public Expenditure Review”. Slide presentation.
23
Ministry of Education and Culture. 1993. Toward Education for All. Windhoek:
Gamsberg Macmillan.
24
Information in this section is derived from the following sources: Hubbard, D.,
The right to free and compulsory education in Namibia, Legal Assistance Centre,
Windhoek, 2011; Godana, T. and Kalili, N., Study to cost school development
fund exemption for orphans and other vulnerable children, NEPRU, Windhoek,
2002; and Sankwasa, S.J., Mushendami, P.L. and Adeleke, I.W., Review of
the Education Development Fund, Cha-cha-cha Management Consultancy,
Windhoek, 2008.
25
On 7 March 2011, an SMS appeared in The Namibian newspaper asking, “...
I would like to know whether parents who cannot afford school fees can be
taken to court. Namib High School in Swakopmund is taking parents to court.”
26
Information in this section is largely from Hubbard, D., The right to free and
compulsory education in Namibia, Legal Assistance Centre, 2011.
27
Republic of Namibia. 2010. First, Second and Third Periodic Reports under
the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and Two Optional
Protocols, 1993-2008, Section 3.5. Report compiled by the Ministry of Gender
Equality and Child Welfare.
28
Hubbard, D. 2011. The right to free and compulsory education in Namibia. Legal
Assistance Centre. There are reports in this document on cases concerning
free primary education in Nigeria (ECOWAS Community Court), Colombia
(Constitutional Court), Brazil (Minas Gerais), Czech Republic (Constitutional
Court), India (Supreme Court), United Kingdom (House of Lords) and the
Philippines (Supreme Court).
29
Hubbard, D. 2011. The right to free and compulsory education in Namibia.
Legal Assistance Centre.
30
This figure has been estimated in three ways. Firstly, the amount for all
SDFs was estimated at N$115 in 2009. This implies about N$86 million for
primary schools. Allowance must be made for 15% of schools not participating.
N$30 million should cover additional teachers required as currently excluded
Notes
23
learners return to school. Secondly, in 2002, school funds were estimated to
bring in N$100 million, of which N$75 million was from primary schools.
Applying the Cost Price Index for education-related items (163.7 on a 2001
base of 100) suggests a current amount of N$122. Thirdly, since there were
413 061 learners enrolled in primary schools in 2009, a rate of N$300 per
learner suggests a total of N$124 million.
31
24
Sankwasa, J.S., Mushendami, P.L. and Adeleke, I.W. 2008. Review of the Education
Development Fund. Windhoek: Cha-cha-cha Management Consultancy.
Free Primary Education in Namibia: Position
Current Context
Paper (September
(October 2011)
2011)
NAMIBIAN
CONSTITUTION
Article 20: Education
(1)
All persons shall have the right to education.
(2)
Primary education shall be compulsory and the State shall provide reasonable
facilities to render effective this right for every resident within Namibia, by
establishing and maintaining State schools at which primary education will
be provided free of charge.
(3)
Children shall not be allowed to leave school until they have completed their
primary education or have attained the age of sixteen (16) years, whichever
is the sooner, save in so far as this may be authorised by Act of Parliament on
grounds of health or other considerations pertaining to the public interest.
(4)
All persons shall have the right, at their own expense, to establish and to
maintain private schools, or colleges or other institutions of tertiary education:
provided that:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
such schools, colleges or institutions of tertiary education are registered
with a Government department in accordance with any law authorising
and regulating such registration;
the standards maintained by such schools, colleges or institutions
of tertiary education are not inferior to the standards maintained
in comparable schools, colleges or institutions of tertiary education
funded by the State;
no restrictions of whatever nature are imposed with respect to the
admission of pupils based on race, colour or creed;
no restrictions of whatever nature are imposed with respect to the
recruitment of staff based on race or colour.