The Psychological and Spiritual Implications of High School
Boy Coming-of-Age Novels
A dissertation submitted to the Graduate School of
Drew University in partial fulfillment of
the requirements of the degree
Doctorate of Letters
Stacey Donovan Smith
Drew University
Madison, New Jersey
October 2008
UMI Number: 3334870
Copyright 2008 by
Smith, Stacey Donovan
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Abstract
The Psychological and Spiritual Implications of High School Boy
Coming-of-Age Novels
DLitt Dissertation by
Stacey Donovan Smith
The Caspersen School of Graduate Studies
Drew University
October 2008
In this dissertation, the studies of Gene Forrester in A Separate Peace and
Holden Caulfield in The Catcher in the Rye are donefromboth psychological and
spiritual perspectives in order delve deeper into the various levels of meaning of each
of these works.
The first chapter establishes the thesis that the "best friend" Gene claims to
have is simply afigmentof his imagination, similar to the concept of Tyler Durden in
Chuck Palahniuk's Fight Club. The major premise is that Gene needs to create an
alter ego in order to come to terms with his own indiscretions in life and thereby
mature. The second chapter continues with the analysis of the life of Gene, but from
a religious perspective. The inclusion of all biblical allusion are necessary in that
each example effects the maturation process, as well as other, less obvious religious
elements embedded within the text. For example, Gene's comments on prayer and
deadly sins are significant elements necessary in allowing Gene to achieve his coming
of age.
The third chapter focuses on Holden Caulfield's psychological breakdown and
how his fall and realization lead him down the path of maturity. Holden's lack of
communication within his family is explored through tenets of adolescent
psychology. Additionally, this lack of communication is also explored through
Holden's inability to connect with society as a whole. It is through these failed
relationships that Holden is forced to acknowledge his physical and emotional losses,
forcing him to a moment of realization.
Chapter four explores religious and spiritual implications through the
inclusion of further allusions, as well as direct references to the Bible in The Catcher
in the Rye. For example, there are clear examples of religious allusions through the
use of biblical characters. Additionally, and most significantly to Holden, the study
of Zen Buddhism, which leads Holden down the Path of Enlightenment, is studied
through the idea of his Zen master, J.D. Salinger. As a student of Buddhism, Salinger
is able to impart his thoughts on Enlightenment to Holden.
This dissertation is a critical study of the workings of the mind of teenagers
within society, social circles and their own minds. These fictional characters are
related to other elements of pop culture, connected to psychology and spirituality, in
order to make a greater connection between various forms of media and the students
who read these novels.
In Memory of Charles and Mary Kush
For Jim and Delaney
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
vi
Introduction
ix
Chapter
I.
The Psychological Downfall and Rise of Gene Forrester
II.
The Psychological Breakdown of Holden Caulfield
HI.
The Religious Implications of A Separate Peace
IV.
Religion and Zen: Holden's Saving Grace
1
35
62
92
Conclusion
121
Selected Bibliography
128
vi
Acknowledgements
This journey began seven years ago, on a whim, with my dear friend Jennifer
Rodriguez. She has enriched my life with knowledge and friendship, and I am
forever grateful for all that she has given to me over the years. There were times
when I did not think I would ever finish my research, much less the entire project.
Without the following people, this moment would not be possible:
my parents, Jackie and Dennis Powers, who have always supported and
encouraged me in all that I do;
my sister, Robyn, for encouragement and support;
the ladies at the Whippanong Library, Whippany, NJ, who handled hundreds
of inter-library loans, asked questions about my topic, and encouraged me along the
way;
the administration, faculty, staff and students of Verona High School, all of
whom have been supportive on so many levels;
Melissa Carsillo and Gina Venezia for just being there to pull me off the ledge
whenever necessary;
Allison Frazier Quick, my colleague, confidant, sounding board and friend,
whose example of intelligence and dedication continues to enrich my life on a daily
basis;
Jennifer Rodriquez, my D.Litt partner in crime. We began this journey
together and have supported each other throughout and are finally graduating together;
vii
Sister Alice Lubin and Doctor Laura Winters, my amazing advisors who have
nurtured my academic life since I was an undergraduate student at the College of
Saint Elizabeth - 1 feel that I have come foil circle through the example of
intelligence and compassion that each of the women exudes. I would not be where I
am today without them;
My husband Jim for his love, support and encouragement throughout my
many years of graduate study, and my daughter Delaney who, in her youthful way,
has understood the importance of the project as a whole - 1 hope that I have set an
example for her to follow in her future;
and in memory of my Nanny and Pop Pop - 1 hope that you are looking down
on this and are proud.
viii
Introduction
The genre of the bildungsroman has been a constant element found within
English curricula in high schools across the country for many years. The story is a
tale told to young men and women in the hope that they can relate to some element in
the character's tale of growth and not only learn literary devices and quotation
analysis, but also gain some more personal knowledge. Most often, the novel is
taught to simply present how a character, through many trials and tribulations, comes
of age by the end of their story. These elements are often simplistic, citing common
teen angst, social and academic issues that often affect the way one matures, and at
what rate. Two elements that are not often the focus of high school discussions,
religion and psychology, are two of the strongest elements found in John Knowles's A
Separate Peace and J.D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye. It is evident that without
these aspects, strongly found within each novel, the stories would not exist as they
stand today. Each story presents psychological and religious elements that influence
the interpretations of each novel in a variety of ways. Most significantly, due to the
psychological and religious elements embedded within each text, it becomes clear
that each novel cannot simply be classified as a young adult novel only taught to high
school students. Each text can independently stand as literature with deeper meaning
that can and needs to be analyzed by literary critics as well as psychologists in order
ix
to gain a deeper appreciation of all types of literature, as well as study a psychological
account of two very typical young men, Gene Forrester and Holden Caulfield.
The average high school student has not been exposed to the teachings of
Adler, Freud or Jung early in their high school careers, so these connections and
realizations come only at the urging of a teacher. I have found that the majority of
my students simply believe that each of these boys has problems. There is something
wrong. The more modern student has referred to Holden as "emo," while Gene
becomes a "head case" at best. The reality is that these young people have a limited
background on any level of psychology and cannot make these assumptions that a
more learned reader can make.
Although each novel clearly portrays the coming of age of the central
characters, in the concept of the coming-of-age novel, Gene and Holden are clearly
different:
Holden Caulfield never comes to an understanding of his experience.
He never quite knows what it means; he only feels certain things about
it.. Gene Forrester, on the other hand, arrives at a clear understanding
- a deeply felt knowledge - of the experience he narrates. At the end
of the novel he knows, unlike Holden, precisely what he thinks about.
(Weber 20-21)
But just because Gene actually comments on his evident growth and Holden does not,
it does not mean that Holden does not mature as well. Due to their differences in
understanding in time, place and socioeconomic status, the maturity of each boy
needs to be studied comparatively, as well as independently. The study of each novel
x
to gain a deeper appreciation of all types of literature, as well as study a psychological
account of two very typical young men, Gene Forrester and Holden Caulfield.
The average high school student has not been exposed to the teachings of
Adler, Freud or Jung early in their high school careers, so these connections and
realizations come only at the urging of a teacher. I have found that the majority of
my students simply believe that each of these boys has problems. There is something
wrong. The more modem student has referred to Holden as "emo," while Gene
becomes a "head case" at best. The reality is that these young people have a limited
background on any level of psychology and cannot make these assumptions that a
more learned reader can make.
Although each novel clearly portrays the coming of age of the central
characters, in the concept of the coming-of-age novel, Gene and Holden are clearly
different:
Holden Caulfield never comes to an understanding of his experience.
He never quite knows what it means; he only feels certain things about
it.. Gene Forrester, on the other hand, arrives at a clear understanding
- a deeply felt knowledge - of the experience he narrates. At the end
of the novel he knows, unlike Holden, precisely what he thinks about.
(Weber 2 0 - 2 1 )
But just because Gene actually comments on his evident growth and Holden does not,
it does not mean that Holden does not mature as well. Due to their differences in
understanding in time, place and socioeconomic status, the maturity of each boy
needs to be studied comparatively, as well as independently. The study of each novel
xi
can be done on a deeper level through the psychological and religious lens in order to
define the true meaning of each story and the growth of Gene and Holden.
The coming-of-age story, often referred to as a bildungsroman, is characterized by
a variety of elements. Patricia Alden considers the growth of the English novel,
building on the initial concept of the bildungsroman, and states:
The genre focuses on the development of a single individual within a
particular social world; it may be part autobiographical; it is likely to give the
history of this individual from childhood up to a point at which the
development is unfolding or his or her character is achieved.. Central to the
genre is the notion of individual selfhood achieved through growth and a
social experience as an education which forms, and sometimes deforms, that
self. (Alden 1)
Additionally, Anne Hiebert Alton states of A Separate Peace, ".. the novel is a
bildungsroman, a German term meaning 'novel of formation.'... The bildungsroman
focuses on the development of the protagonist's mind and character from childhood
to adulthood, charting the crises which lead to maturation and recognition of one's
identity and place in the world"(Alton 252). More specifically related to A Separate
Peace and The Catcher in the Rye, according to Jerome Hamilton Buckley, a
bildungsroman involves two or more of the following characteristics: " - childhood,
the conflict of generations, provinciality, the larger society, self-education, alienation,
ordeal by love, the search for a vocation and a working philosophy - "(Buckley 18).
Each definition clearly describes and proves both ,4 Separate Peace and The Catcher
xii
in the Rye as novels classified as coming-of-age stories or stories that can be
classified as a bildungsroman.
John Knowles and J.D. Salinger are classified as fiction writers, but the stories
told by their fictional characters, Gene Forrester and Holden Caulfield, are based
upon teen reality. In truth, their tales are essentially lies, simply because of their
adolescent need to fit into society. Each character can be classified as an unreliable
narrator. The beauty of this twist added by each author is that many teens lie, even in
present society, in order to fit into the world around them, allowing these characters
to continue to speak to contemporary students because it is not uncommon for the
average adolescent boy to create a fantasy world that empowers him and elevates him
to a higher status. It is not until Gene and Holden finally let go of their adolescent
angst and can stop lying, that each character matures. Gene proves his acceptance of
the truth when he returns to "the tree," the scene of a tragic incident, fifteen years
later. The reader needs the change. Holden, on the other hand, simply promises to at
least try to accept the truths of his life, which allows the reader to accept that his
coming of age has been or will soon be achieved.
In this dissertation, I will discuss how, psychologically, Gene and Holden are
isolated teens who exhibit disturbing behavior, and it is through their tales and
psychological growth that a coming of age is achieved. By focusing on various
aspects of adolescent psychology and the inclusion of biblical allusions, Gene and
Holden will emerge as typical boys whose inner and outer conflicts force them to
seek wisdom in order to survive in the society that seemingly rejects them both and
ultimately achieve some level a maturity. A psychological viewpoint of each
xiii
character will aid in proving that their stories are completely false, yet are
representative of aspects of many contemporary high school boys. This study will
examine the inner workings of each teen as he develops and matures by the end of
each novel. Religious implications will also aid in defining each character before and
after the maturation process begins to take place.
John Knowles's 1959 novel A Separate Peace follows aflashbackof its main
character, Gene Forrester, who hasfinallyrealized his immature ways and needs to
return to the Devon School, as he has "killed his enemy there" (Knowles 196), so that
he can accept his own character and exhibit his ultimate coming of age. As he walks
across the Devon campus during a cold fall day, he realizes that "Nothing endures,
not a tree, not love, not even a death by violence" (6). I will prove that his story is
merely an account of his youthful inability to come to terms with his own weaknesses
and inability to be accepted by his peers.
From a psychological point of view of A Separate Peace, Gene's idea of Phineas,
or Finny, his roommate and "best friend" at the Devon boarding school at the
beginning of World War II, is purely a fantasy; Finny really does not exist as Gene
sees him, but rather is Gene's alter ego. According to Gene, Finny is perfect, but this
perfection is created within Gene's mind and can never truly be achieved. But it is
ultimately this creation that enables Gene to mature. The most significant element in
the created relationship between Gene and Finny is the competition that Gene
imagines. Additionally, the discrepancy between the reality of Gene's southern
family and the fantasy world that he chooses to present to his readers and other
characters in comparison to Finny's Boston heritage is also an element that adds to
Gene's initial inability to mature. After a tragic accident involving Gene, Finny and
the proverbial tree, Gene begins to take on all the characteristics that he envies in
Finny, until the moment of final violence when Gene decides to kill his enemy, the
expendable Finny, enabling him to folly accept the self. Since Finny is Gene's
created idea, there are no outward initial consequences ultimately facing Gene in
regards to these evil actions. Throughout Gene's narration, he creates a self imposed
trial scene due to his lack of guilt, which eventually causes him to seek atonement for
his internal sins. After the passage of time, Gene returns to the tree to repent for these
sins, allowing for a coming of age.
In J.D. Salinger's 1951 novel The Catcher in the Rye, the main character, Holden
Caulfield, experiences similar teen angst and an inability to come to terms with his
own weakness while striving to achieve acceptance in the world around him. Sitting
in his therapist's office, Holden also flashes back to events that frame his character
information. Similar to Gene, Holden sets up his readers for a story of complete inner
conflict and struggle. In order to move beyond the problems that plague the youth of
both past and present day societies, young people must identify and accept these
issues found within Gene and Holden.
For Holden, in The Catcher in the Rye, the reality of his situation, a common one
among young people and similar to Gene's, is that he embellishes the facts; he admits
to excessive lying. Sitting in his therapist's office, Holden recounts his three-day
odyssey into the wilds of New York City right before Christmas, shortly after World
War II. Holden contends with the phonies of the world when he, in fact, is the true
phony, though he is not to blame. The breakdown within Holden's family has caused
xv
him to mentally and emotionally remain a thirteen-year-old boy. Holden is a product
of an upper-class Park Avenue family, whose inner downfalls do not match up with
the life his family tries to portray. Since he has been unable to come to terms with
many issues in his life, he chooses a path of destruction, but unlike Gene, whose
dealings with death are a literal and figurative finality, Holden is on a more
productive path towards healing and acceptance. These realizations create deeper
meaning in each story, leading to the ultimate growth of each character by the end of
each book.
In addition to the psychological viewpoint, religious analysis is also a significant
point of view. Religion is often a touchy subject when dealing with the teaching of
high school students, especially in a public institution. This concept of religion may
come in various forms such as the Christian Bible or Zen Buddhist ideals. The Bible
can be seen and used as a piece of literature that can shape the method and meaning
of any novel or short story. By including various biblical allusions, authors are able
to create not only a standard for their character to live up to, but also a reference point
in establishing some aspect of morality within the characters. In order to folly grasp
these elements, one must be knowledgeable in the study of the Bible. Most high
school students are not aware of the many stories and deeper meaning found within
the context of the Bible and, therefore, cannot make these connections on their own.
Buddhist stories that utilize koans are ways of replicating methods by which to
achieve Enlightenment. This religion is not common among American high school
students creating an obvious lack of knowledge within this realm of thinking as well.
Through deeper analysis and much religious research, any reader is able to make clear
connections been Christianity, Buddhism, and literature.
When using the Bible as a literary tool, it is easy for any student of literature
to make many connections. From the high school student perspective, though, these
connections are not easy, nor are they common. Many young people in today's
society not only lack a connection with faith, they have little biblical knowledge. The
students often state that I cannot teach them what to believe, and often they even lack
the maturity to accept the Bible as a piece of literature. But I have found, through my
fifteen years of teaching both of these novels, that when the religious elements are
presented parallel to the biblical text, students, even those who do not believe the
connection, accept that it is, in fact, reality when the information is presented in a way
that they can understand. I have also been able to introduce Buddhist stories enabling
my students to make even deeper connections on a very simplistic and spiritual level.
Simply citing biblical text does not create these parallels, but by showing them and
explaining the meaning, clarity is assumed on the part of the young adult reader. The
conflicts found within each boy and novel will be further developed using a variety of
biblical allusions presented within the text of A Separate Peace, as well as in The
Catcher in the Rye. Religion becomes central to the psychological analysis of each
character as elements of Christian morality support the maturation process.
Knowles's use of biblical symbolism, as well many direct biblical allusions, are
central points within the context of the novel that help the reader to fully comprehend
the growth of the main character. For example, Gene is faced with the proverbial
tree, has a baptism, and must atone for his sins. There are also other direct biblical
xvii
references found within the text that aid Gene in his coming of age throughout the
text. Each element is a stepping stone in his growth to maturity. But while Gene's
troubles are found within, Holden's troubles, on the contrary, are found without.
The religious implications found within The Catcher in the Rye are slightly
different from those ofA Separate Peace. While Knowles uses more obvious
symbols and allusions, Salinger incorporates direct discussionfromHolden regarding
religious entities. First, Holden does often make direct references to certain
characters and situations found within the Bible. Next, though, are the Zen notions
that are not directly stated, but must be picked up by the reader. Unlike the biblical
references that are obvious, the Zen references are underlying and an obvious
portrayal of the life that Salinger was experiencing prior to and while writing this
novel. Under the direction of a Zen Master, Salinger carefully incorporated ideals
that clearly allow Holden to step on the path to Enlightenment, portraying his
obvious, and eventual, coming of age.
Overall, there is little written about the religious elements embedded within A
Separate Peace and The Catcher in the Rye, and there is even less written about the
psychological implications. Considering the rise of school violence in recent years, it
is relevant that readers consider, analyze and understand the workings of not only the
teenage mind, but also the world in which we live. Readers in present day society can
learnfromthe actions and situations offictionalcharacters such as Gene and Holden.
For example, the Bible, as a piece of literature, serves as solid basis for morality. In
A Separate Peace and The Catcher in the Rye, the Bible also serves as a constant
source of symbolism with regard to each main character. It is clear that the allusions
xviii
are very purposefully chosen by each author in order to make a statement about
Gene's and Holden's characters. Although the authors are not imposing a Christian
morality on their readers, the religious allusions become essential in the
comprehension and analysis of the narrator. Additionally, psychologically, much of
today's youth is devoid of a variety of positive elements in life, (i.e. stable home life,
peer acceptance) which, in turn, causes even greater internal conflict and the
possibility of emotional outbreaks. Through these situations, each character achieves
a state of closure in relation to moral choice. They identify and seek out the goodness
around and within in order to mature and move beyond the slight indiscretions found
within each of their youthful states of innocence.
Finally, Gene and Holden exhibit all characteristics that make their stories
legitimate examples of the coming-of-age genre, but a focus on the psychological and
religious elements is necessary for not only the young readers, but the adult readers as
well to fully understand how deceit, a rather normal behavior, plays a significant role
in the maturation of Gene Forrester and Holden Caulfield. Throughout this study it
has become obvious that Gene and Holden are able to achieve maturity through
various elements around them. Most significant are the elements of psychology and
religion that are deeply embedded within each text because these ideas help to create,
develop and confirm morally sound individuals who will eventually become positive
and productive members of society.
xix
Chapter 1
The Psychological Downfall and Rise of Gene Forrester
If Gene Forrester of John Knowles's 1959 A Separate Peace were alive today,
he would fit into modern society well, with his teen angst and his personal issues. On
the surface, this novel is the story offriendshipand change in adolescence during the
time of war. On a deeper and more meaningful level, this novel details the
psychoanalytical make-up of the main character, Gene Forrester, as he returns to the
Devon School in New England 15 years after he graduated to achieve a sense of
closure andfollyachieve maturity. For Gene, though, this road is difficult for various
reasons. First, as in the premise of Chuck Palahniuk's novel Fight Club, Gene creates
his alter ego in his "best friend" Phineas, just as the narrator of Fight Club does with
his invented Tyler Durden. Such a creation is a considered a multiple personality
disorder. Additionally, the song "My Own Worst Enemy" by the band Lit uses
various lines that further exemplify the downtrodden psychological state of Gene
Forrester: "It's no surprise to me I am my own worst enemy, cuz every now and then
I kick the living shit out of me.. please tell me why.and you're gone. gone."(Lit).
Like the singer, Gene puts undue stress and pressure on himself because of a need to
fit in to the world that he believes to be perfect. Once he believes he has reached that
state of perfection, that alter ego is smashed to pieces, and is gone. Yet, at this point,
Gene has not fully reached his state of maturity. On this path to destruction, Gene
1
2
creates his own inner hell from which he cannot escape until he is able to recognize
his flaws and mature. The unfortunate circumstance is that takes him IS years of
inner turmoil to get to the place where he feels comfortable enough to accept his true
identity and move on. On the other hand, this long passage of time allows Gene to
step back and observe, digest and process his situation.
It is necessary for the novel to begin with an adult Gene who looks back on
his troubled youth and tells the story of his problematic experiences as a sixteen yearold, focusing on the summer of 1942. Knowles needs to prove the growth of Gene to
the reader for a coming of age to be more obvious and believable by the close of
Gene's story. Genefinallyrealizes his immature ways as the 1942 portion of the
novel comes to a close, but it is not until Gene enters adulthood that he can come to
terms with his actions and accept himself. When Knowles has Gene return to his
alma mater, he creates a setting that is indicative of Gene's feelings and personality:
"A little fog hung over the river so that as I neared it I felt myself becoming isolated
from everything except theriverand the few trees beside it. The wind was blowing
steadily here, and I was beginning to have cold feet" (Knowles 5). Knowles includes
the fog and the wind to help establish the significance behind Gene's inability to
achieve a sense of closure in his adult life since he has left the Devon School. The
fog represents Gene working through the uncertainty of his being, and the unclear
vision that he had of himself in the past. As this fog clears, Gene is able to mature.
Gene's cold feet at this stage in the novel arefigurativebecause, by the end of the
story, a coming of age is achieved. As an adult who has been able to accept his
3
existence, Gene sets out on a mission that he is certain in achieving; to pass marble
stairs and visit a tree. Back in 1942, though, Gene battles too many inner demons to
mature.
As Gene continues his journey through his past, the role of setting continues
to play an important role in his steps toward maturity; his inner-conflict becomes
more apparent. He trudges along on a cold, wet and muddy November day to return
to the spot most significantly related to his development as a human being:
"Changed, I headed back through the mud. I was drenched: anybody could see it was
time to come in out of the rain" (6). In literature the autumn season is symbolically
representative of a dying time. When closely examined, this does, in fact, symbolize
dying, but not in the literal sense. Here, Gene is able to allow is past to die so that he
may fully live in his present state of maturity. The creation of this type of setting is
two-fold. Gene proves to us that he is ready to move beyond the problems of his
youth, but it becomes clear that he has been punishing himself for the past 15 years.
The fact that he is moving back through the mud instead of into it is simply Gene
moving awayfromhis unclean past as he is able to easily pass through this dirty
scene: "... at any other time I would have felt like a fool slogging through mud and
rain only to look at a tree"(5). Rain symbolizes purity or a cleansing process; a
baptism. But opposite of Gene's initial baptism in the dirty Naguamsett River, this
clean rain is bringing about a change. In order for this change to come full circle,
Gene must re-create his past experiences at Devon and re-live them through his
narration to the reader.
4
Through the continued use of setting, Knowles examines Gene on both a
literal and figurative level: it is literally raining at this point in the novel, and it is
figuratively Gene's moment of maturity. Gene returns to his prep school to come to
terms with his turbulent relationship with his "best friend" Finny. It has taken him a
long time, but, by being able to separate from his adolescent angst, Gene comes of
age. According to Mary Jane DeMarr and Jane S. Bakerman: "As the adolescent
male comes to understand himself and what he wants from life, he must also come to
understand his world so he can see how he can fit into it - or whether perhaps, he
wishes instead to reject it" (DeMarr 243). The novel is a bildungsroman because
Gene achieves inner acceptance when he makes amends with his former self and his
Finny creation, and a coming of age occurs.
Part of Gene's conflict with maturation is his ongoing battle with his
roommate and best friend Phineas, better known as Finny. Knowles is very careful to
display how Gene and Finny are complete opposites: where one boy's character and
personality ends, the other's begins. But, in reality, Gene creates Finny in order to
balance out his own character. Knowles displays significant similarities in addition to
the obvious differences in order for Gene to develop, in his mind, the perfect being.
On the physical level they share a basic similarity, yet Finny proves to be the superior
being: "He was my height - five feet eight and a half inches .. He weighed a galling
ten pounds more than I did... an unemphatic unity of strength" (Knowles 8). They
are also the same age. Finny states: "Gene and I are both going to be seventeen at
the end of the summer, which is a very convenient time since it's the start of the
5
academic year. .."(15). Symbolically, the age of the boys relates to concept they are
almost forced toward maturity due to the draft, yet it also represents how Gene is not
fully ready to be a true adult and mature. Gene hides behind the creation of Finny
until he is confident enough to mature. After Gene pushes Finny out of the tree in
order to achieve some hold over his alter-ego, he states: "I decided to put on his
clothes. We wore the same size, and although he always criticized mine he used to
wear them frequently, quickly forgetting what belonged to him and what to me"( 54).
Gene further establishes the oneness of being between the two boys. There are too
many similarities between the two for them not to be understood as the same person.
The contrast of the personalities is further solidified after Finny convinces
Gene to jump out of a tree. Gene is swayed to believe that he would not accept a feat
such as this without the temptation of his more daring side: '".. .I'm good for you
that way. You have a tendency to back away from things otherwise" (10). According
to James M. Mellard: "The fundamental concept is simply that Gene is all too human
and heir to all the weaknesses of flesh and spirit, while Finny, at least as Gene sees
him most of the time, is little less than a divinity"(Mellard 40). But through these
instances it can be observed even further that Finny is not real, but instead a figment
of Gene's immature imagination. At two different points in the novel, Knowles
subtly indicates that Finny's existence is questionable. First: "I was dividing my
time between tutoring Finny in studies and being tutored by him in sports.. to our
joint amazement, began to make flashing progress where we had been bumblers
before"(Knowles 111). Knowles exemplifies the duality of the boys, yet clearly
6
stresses their vast differences. Gene possesses all of the qualities Finny lacks, and
Gene possesses all of the qualities Finny lacks. But as the story progresses, it begins
to become clearer to the reader that the relationship of Gene and Finny is more than a
young boy and his imaginary friend. Gene creates the idea of Finny in the likeness of
a being that he deems perfect or superior. In assessing his own shortcomings, Gene
establishes the level of greatness he wishes to achieve. During adolescence many
individuals falter within their identity and find ways to work through this conflict in
order to "find themselves." Gene goes about his soul searching in a more creative
manner. Continuing his contrast of being, Knowles later states:
He [Finny] possessed an extra vigor, a heightened confidence in
himself, a serene capacity for affection which saved him. Nothing as
he was growing up at home, nothing at Devon, nothing even about war
had broken his harmonious and natural unity. So at last I [Gene] had.
(194)
As the novel comes to an end, Gene has been able to fuse many characteristics of
Finny into his own. He comes to the realization, through a fellow student, a loner,
who fails to see the ugliness in the world that Gene has created. Leper Lepellier
brings it to Gene's attention that "Everything has to evolve or else it perishes" (117).
Therefore, after Gene's decision to lose his other self, he is almost able to achieve
maturity. It is not until a great passage of time that full maturity is achieved. On the
other hand, Gene observes early in the novel: "I was more and more certainly
becoming the best student in the school. Phineas was without question the best
7
athlete, so in that way we were even" (47), creating a balance of character. For Gene,
this sense of equality is a necessary step toward self-acceptance. According to Mary
Jean DeMarr; "Paradoxically, while the young male is trying to discover and assert
his adult manliness, he is also particularly concerned to fit into some group, to
achieve social approval" (DeMarr 149). Finny represents the side of Gene that he
wishes he could portray to the world around him. Gene, as any normal high school
student would be, is unhappy with his present state of being. By creating an alter ego
in Finny, Gene is able to become, in his eyes, a better human being. It is not until
many years later that Gene sees the error of his ways and comes to terms with his
own indiscretions.
Early on in the novel, Gene's self-description characterizes him as weak. He
tells us: "that was my sarcastic summer, 1942" (Knowles 7), and as the story unfolds
and Gene begins to mature, he admits this realization: "It was only long after that I
recognized sarcasm as the protest of people who are weak" (22). Gene knows the
weakness of his character; Finny's development in Gene's mind helps to balance that
weakness. Gene describes the overall mood surrounding Finny: "Phineas in those
days almost always moved in groups the size of a hockey team - and they stood with
me looking with masked apprehension from him to the tree.. naturally Finny was
going to be the first to try... he was going to inveigle others, us..."(7). Gene's vision
of Finny has a hold over him that stifles his ability to mature. There is something in
Finny's personality that enables him to emerge as the leader, while Gene is a
follower. Hallman Bell Bryant notes Claire Rosenfeld's analysis: "... she describes
8
Finny as the principal of anarchy, a rule-breaker who reacts intuitively rather than
logically to situations. Gene, on the other hand, is inhibited and repressed by rules"
(Bryant 64). Gene needs to experience a more complete self, and through Finny's
characteristics, he begins to achieve what he ultimately desires. By the merging of
two diverse personalities, where Gene lacks in character, Finny adds a balance
creating a more "perfect" individual.
Through a detailed flashback, Gene outlines his time with his "best friend"
and enemy Finny who, in reality, is merely afigmentof his imagination. It is through
the psychoanalytical lens that this becomes apparent. I have taught and researched
aspects of this novel forfifteenyears, and the concept that Finny does not exist is a
common point of discussion in my lesson each year. I have looked at Gene on
various levels and believe that the Gene - Finny relationship becomes Knowles's
metaphor for good versus evil; Gene represents the good, while Finny, in Gene's
eyes, represents the evil. On the surface, it is the Finny character that appears to
represent the goodness and the beauty of the world, but it is within Gene's mind that
the negative elements of this created being emerge, causing his need to destroy that
idea of perfection. Through Gene's repression of the id, he becomes capable of
"killing" his other, what he sees as the evil self, Finny, although Finny technically
represents the divine. "As we are told the details of the almost ideal friendship
between Gene and Finny in the first part of the novel, we gradually see that Gene and
Finny are almost one person" (Foster 90). Psychologically speaking.
9
We have the name for the pressure of excessive wishes (the 'id')
... and we have appropriate theories for the two extreme stages, when
people or peoples are dominated by one or the other of these
forces.. .as Freud puts it, is manifested in a change of moodfroma
vague anxious depression through a certain in - between stage to
heightened well - being - and back. (Erifcson 192)
Knowles also addresses the good versus evil motif through religious allusions that
will be discussed in a later chapter of this dissertation. Initially, it is more important
to establish, through the psychoanalytical lens, Gene's creation of Finny as his
repressed id that he uses to come to terms with his own inadequacies and move
forward. According to Sigmund Freud, "The Id doesn't care about reality, about the
needs of anyone else, only its satisfaction" (Heffiier 1). Gene appears to be
concerned with the world of Devon and the looming war, but deep inside he focuses
on himself and his own satisfaction: "...I felt a sense of my own real authority and
worth, I had many new experiences and I was growing up" (Knowles 148). But even
with his new found identity, Finny still does not actually exist as a regular character
in a work offictiondoes because Finny's role is that of Gene's alter ego; Finny is the
other self that eventually enables Gene to be the perfect individual in his mind's eye.
In order to establish Finny's existence, first, Gene must very accurately detail
Finny's physical aspects, which not only emphasizes the areas in which he is lacking,
but also furthers his envious emotions: "Phineas had been the best athlete in the
school - he was not spectacularly built. He was my height - five feet eight and a half
10
inches .. .He weighed a hundred and fifty pounds, a galling ten pounds more than I
did.. ."(8)- The initial similarities between the two boys denote oneness in character.
Later in the story, Gene begins to focus on Finny's outgoing personality and ability to
manipulate and influence others, everything that Gene is not and cannot achieve: "I
laughed along with Finny, my best friend, and also unique, able to get away with
anything at all... It was quite a compliment to me, as a matter of fact, to have such a
person choose me for his best friend" (21). Bryant continues his analysis even
further: "His [Gene's] anxiety and tension during their relationship in the summer of
1942 can be traced to alternating feelings of attraction and repulsion toward Finny"
(Bryant 64). Gene creates the being of Finny in the image of himself, representing all
of the ideals that he does not possess. By creating this other being, Gene is able to
see what he could be if he were, in fact, perfect, which is ironic because no one is
perfect. It is almost as if Gene cannot accept his imperfections because in his
immature state he believes that he should be able to achieve perfection.
In continuing the connection between the creation of Finny in the mind of
Gene, almost immediately after a scene where Finny very casually breaks a school
swimming record, Gene and Finny head to the beach where Gene notices more
positive characteristics regarding Finny's appearance because Gene believes that his
physicality is lacking. Similar to the biblical angel Phineas, Gene's created Phineas is
described. "His skin radiated a reddish copper glow of tan, his brown hair had been a
little bleached by the sun, and I noticed that the tan made his eyes shine with a cool
blue-green fire" (Knowles 39). Simultaneously, Finny apparently states to Gene:
11
'"Everybody's staring at you' ... 'It's because of that movie star tan you picked up
this afternoon.. .showing off again"'(39). The meaning behind these statements
represents the irony of the entire situation. Almost at the exact moment, each
character makes very similar statements to the other character, or his alter ego. Yet,
Finny's ideal exhibits angelic perfection while Gene's is simply an outside
appearance. Again, the fact that Gene is telling us this story from his perspective
offers him some flexibility with his narration. He tells us what he wants us to hear in
order to set the stage for his rise, fall, and redemption as a character.
The diverse character traits of both Gene and Finny not only compliment the
other individual, but also represent the beginning and ending of one entity. As the
boys go to sleep on the beach later that evening, a very awkward moment in the life
of any sixteen-year-old boy occurs, the confession of feeling. Finny tells Gene that
he is, in fact, his "best pal" (40). It is more common for girls of this age to openly
discuss the friendships they encounter throughout their high school careers. As
dictated by society, most girls are more open and intimate with the other females in
their lives, while many boys stay neutral or closed. Gene even comments on this rare
male expression of emotion: "It was a courageous thing to say. Exposing a sincere
emotion nakedly like that at the Devon School was the next thing to suicide" (40).
There are many boys who do experience close relationships with their male
counterparts during adolescence, but it is less common for a boy to express these
intimate feelings to another boy. Gene realizes this action: "I should have told him
then that he was my best friend also and rounded off what he had said" (40), but the
12
reality is that his self-created enemy cannot be his best friend. As the chapter
concludes, Gene's only response to this strong and personal statement is that he could
not respond because "I was stopped by that level of feeling, deeper than thought,
which contains the truth"(40). The truth is that he and Finny cannot be best friends
because Finny only represents the darkness of Gene's soul and does not truly exist as
a person. Gene's need to create Finny in order to survive is actually part of his own
dark existence and not an evil trait in the created character of Finny.
With Gene as narrator, the descriptions of characters, settings and
conversations are limited and biased. The choice of a first - person narrator through
the use of flashback is significant and essential to Gene's growth. "Although
Knowles quickly leaves the distant perspective and turns to the immediate scene, he
keeps the reader aware that Gene is looking back on the experience with a mature
vision" (Weber 22). We are only privy to the knowledge that Gene wishes us to have.
Gene is essentially his own enemy, yet names that enemy Phineas in order to act out
his frustrations regarding his inadequacies:
And also I didn't want to let him excel me in this, even though I knew
that it didn't matter whether he showed me up at the tree or not.
Because it was what was in your heart that counted. And I had
detected that Finny's was a den of lonely, selfish ambition. He was no
better than I was, no matter who won all the contests. (Knowles 48)
Gene steps away from his traditional narration to make a blanket statement about
people in general which, closely analyzed, emphasizes the creation of Finny:
13
Everyone has a moment in history which belongs particularly to him.
It is the moment when his emotions achieve their most powerful sway
over him, and afterward when you say to this person 'the world today'
or 'life' or 'reality' he will assume that you mean this moment, even if
it isfiftyyears past. The world, through his unleashed emotions,
imprinted itself upon him, and he carries the stamp of that passing
moment forever. (32)
Gene returns to his usual narration and defines this moment;
For me, this moment - four years is a moment in history- was the war.
The war was and is reality for me. I instinctively live and think in its
atmosphere. (32)
He is suggesting that the outside animosity of the world is funneling into Devon and
Gene's unconscious, causing him to experience these evil feelings toward the self:
Gene Forrester comes to learn that his war, the essential war, is fought
out on the battlefield within. Peace only comes when he face sup to
this fact. The only escape, the price of peace, is self-awareness.
(Weber 27)
His war is not the war, World War n, it is the war that he has created within himself,
furthered by his creation of Finny. His battle with Finny is the outward
representation of his repressed feelings of inadequacy. Since he cannot be happy with
himself, he creates inner conflict and the character of Finny to help resolve that
conflict. According to Thomas Reed Whissen: "Forrester is unable to prevent the
14
dark side of his inner selffromperverting and distorting his enjoyment of the world
and the people around him.... Forrester always finds something bad in the things
around him, and if he does not find it, he invents it" (Whissen 203). Gene's essence
is one that, being a sixteen-year-old boy, is easily influenced by the world around
him. Any boy his age might find fault within, and not being equipped with the proper
tools to deal with these inner feelings of turmoil, he may move into a psychosis.
Combined with his extreme feelings of inadequacy, Gene has been catapulted into a
realm of psychological hell. But through the passage of time and healing, Gene
allows himself to be forgiven for these feelings enabling a maturation process to
occur.
In A Separate Peace, a work offiction,John Knowles proves that aspects of
both the Gene and Finny characters are loosely based on people of his past. Knowles
has said of his characters himself:
I based the narrator, Gene Forrester, on myself; Phineas on my friend,
the exceptional student athlete David Hackett.. Dave was not crippled
by a fall from a tree in 1943, but I reversed matters.. and turned a real,
not very serious accident to me into a fateful fictional one for him.
The reversal made it possible to show the darker streaks of human
nature, (quoted in Karson 29)
The fact that the fall actually happened to Knowles himself, and not to his model for
Finny, makes the argument stronger that Knowles subconsciously develops these
characters on a psychological, not a literal level. Psychologically, Gene forces
15
himself to be his own worst enemy, and because of his own feelings of inadequacy,
he creates Finny. According to Milton P. Foster, "The deepest and most important
level of meaning in A Separate Peace is the struggle for self-knowledge and maturity.
To understand this meaning we must recognize that Gene, not Finny, is the central
character of this book.. the narrating central character (Gene) identifies himself with
another character (Finny) who occupies most of his thoughts"(Milton 93 - 94). It is
through this reversal of characters that Knowles accurately depicts the darkness that
lurks at every human being's core. Gene exemplifies that good individual whose evil
tendencies are able to surface through Finny, which defines his overall character
because of his inadequacies and self-consciousness. He continuously struggles with
his own identity, and creates Finny to help to ease his pain through wish fulfillment,
the "achievement of real desires in imaginary situations" ("Cambridge Dictionary"),
to achieve what he deems perfection.
Additionally, the main setting of the novel, The Devon School, represents the
qualities possessed by both boys, furthering their parallel existence "Devon was both
scholarly and very athletic" (Knowles 4). Knowles establishes Gene as the scholar:
"I [Gene] became quite a student.. I had always been a good one.. .Now I became not
just good but exceptional" (46), and Finny as the athlete: "In that short-lived and
special country we spent this summer at Devon when Finny achieved certain feats as
an athlete" (33). Within any high school setting, there are many students who are
vastly different. Some excel and emerge as heroes to contrasting groups, while others
lurk in the corners hoping not to be recognized. It is not often that the football hero is
16
also the academic genius, although this may be possible. "Knowles creates the notion
of the double both with respect to the symbolic setting and time of the tale as well as
the characters themselves "(Slethaug 95). It is within these parameters that the
perfect young man is configured in order to survive in the world that Gene has
created. Since Gene cannot locate his niche in his society and cope with the world
around him, he creates Finny as a survival technique. Once self-acceptance is
achieved, Gene no longer needs Finny in order to feel good about himself.
The two very specific points of contrast between the characters of Gene and
Finny are Gene's inherent academic ability and Finny's pure and simple athleticism.
Gene's academics represent his success as an individual, yet these achievements are
gained through much effort, while Finny can effortlessly gain praise and acceptance
in any situation except the academic realm. Finny does not even realize Gene's
weakness because his talents come so easily to him:
'I didn't know you needed to study' he said simply, 'I didn't think you
ever did. I thought it just came to you'... It seemed that he made some
kind of parallel between my studies and his sports. (Knowles 50)
Gene also wishes to gain the same type of peer and teacher acceptance that Finny has
mastered without much thought. For example, while wearing a pink shirt and the
school tie as a belt, Finny is applauded for his unique views on life, while Gene
secretly hopes that he will be punished:
17
He had gotten away with everything. I felt a sudden stab of
disappointment. That was because I just wanted to see some more
excitement; that must have been it. (21)
This conflict is common among adolescent males because of the constant need for
competition. Even though Gene creates this conflict within himself, the idea is still
there: "For most fictional adolescent male friends, the difficult lessons of evil and
loss are exacerbated by the necessity to learn to balance responsible behavior against
desire for those prizes that might be won by secretly and cleverly abandoning the
rules by which society claims to operate" (DeMarr 186). Also, when Finny breaks
the school swimming record, Gene is surprised at Finny's nonchalant reaction: "T
just wanted to see if I could do it. Now I know"' (Knowles 35), and then Gene says
to this idea of Finny, '"You're too good to be true'" (36), because he does not exist at
all. Because of his divine goodness, where he can do wrong, Finny cannot be real.
The purity and goodness that is apparent to the reader in the character of
Finny is described as the complete opposite by Gene. Knowles allows Gene to
verbalize to himself and his audience that just the concept of Finny is far beyond the
average human being. Finny's greatness exceeds all that we know is possible within
the average human being. Furthermore, Knowles even allows Gene to state the
apparent contrast between the two boys' minds: "I noticed something about Finny's
own mind, which was such an oppositefrommine. It wasn't completely unleashed
after all" (26). The irony of this statement is that Finny is "unleashed," while Gene
refrains himself throughout most of the text. Finny participates in every sporting
18
event possible, he makes up his own games, creates a group to jump out of a tree, and
basically breaks every prep school rule in the book. He is pure. Gene, on the other
hand, is "leashed" in the sense that he follows the rules until Finny persuades him to
break them. Gene focuses completely on his academics until he is torn away from
studying by Finny to spend time at the beach, he is not much of an athletic
competitor, and does not have the following of crowds of friends that Finny
possesses. He is weak. The two very distinct and contrasting personalities of these
two boys is further solidified, leading to first the creation, then the destruction of the
"perfect" being. Because Gene is jealous of the simple beauty in Finny's character,
he must destroy it in any way possible in order to feel good about himself.
Part of Gene and Finny's conflict, as well as connection of character, stems
from the family background and upbringing. Knowles establishes the background of
each boy. Finny's privileged life is established on a few occasions. "The conflict is
best seen through the characters of Gene and Finny, one from the North and one from
the South, who are highlighted against the background of Devon" (Slethaug 95).
Before the beginning of the fall session, Gene travels to Finny's home that is "high,
white, and oddly proper" with a "definite face of elegance" (Knowles 59), and at the
end when Finny is "being lowered into his family's strait-laced burial ground outside
of Boston" (186) the sense of an individual who is of a high ranking or upper-class
family is established which is in stark contrast to the life of Gene Forrester. Gene, on
the other hand, creates lies about his southern world, "..there was a fire. It was just a
grass fire out behind the out house, until the Fire Department came"(59). Gene
19
creates this story to distractfromthe truth about himself. Later on in the novel, Gene
comments on the actions he initially takes in order to make himself appear to be
something that he is not to the other students of Devon.
Over my cot I had long ago taped pictures which together amounted to
a barefaced lie about my background- weeping romantic views of
plantation mansions, moss hung trees by moonlight, lazy roads
winding dustily past the cabins of the Negroes. When asked about
them I had acquired an accent appropriate to a town three states south
of my own, and I had transmitted the impression, without actually
stating it. (148)
It is not only the drastically diverse backgrounds that separate these two boys; it is
also their views of life. Gene believes he needs to work hard and focus on school
because of his upbringing, while Finny's privileged existence allows him more fun.
But as this particular scene comes to a close, Gene proves to the reader that he is on a
path to maturity: "But now I no longer needed this vivid false identity; now I was
acquiring, I felt, a sense of my own real authority and worth, I had had many new
experiences and I was growing up" (148). This is thefirsttime that Gene allows
himself to feel comfortable in his own skin. It is no coincidence that this realization
comes shortly before the death of Finny.
Shortly after the scene where Finny persuades Gene to visit the beach, Gene
fails his trigonometry test, causing further inner conflict. To the average individual
20
this may not seem like a big deal, but to Gene, when all he has are his academics, this
failure is significant. Gene states:
... I got to Devon just in time for my test. I flunked it: I knew I was
going to as soon as I looked at the test problems. It was the first test I
had everflunked.(42)
Gene begins to realize that, subconsciously, Finny may be purposely sabotaging his
studies, and causing him to fail could very simply be a rebellion on his own part. As
Gene states; "I didn't want Finny to understand me as I understood him" (48), he
admits that his subconscious evil thoughts towards Finny are necessary for survival.
Gene's heart isfilledwith loneliness and his need to achieve a sense of acceptance,
furthering the idea that Finny is ultimately an extension of Gene's character. What
Gene seems to observe within Finny, the reader observes in Gene.
Knowles continues the parallelism of Gene and Finny by giving each
character an entirely different view on life. Finny's laid-back attitude enables him to
be "the essence of careless peace" (17). Gene, the complete opposite in character, is
overly concerned about everything,fromhis image, to his schoolwork, to his inability
to influence others as Finny does, but these are not concerns that are actually stated,
but understood. Since Gene cannot, at this moment in his adolescent existence,
become the individual he truly wants to be, he makes up an entire life for himself that
includes not only his immediate being, but also a being that encompasses all he
desires. As sole narrator of the story, Gene only allows his audience to see what he
wants them to see. Finny speaks in Gene's narration, but this does not mean that
21
Finny exists, because Finny's dialogue begins and ends in Gene's mind. For Gene,
Finny represents everything that he is not, yet hopes to be. Gene looks at the
character he has created and realizes what he has done, and the fact that he is nearing
his points of maturation indicates his need to end it. Gene states: "Finny had a
vitality.. .That was why I couldn't say anything.. about him, because he endured so
forcefully that what I had to say would have seemed crazy" (194). When Gene
finally begins to move toward maturity, he "kills" this self-defined enemy whom he
has created inside of his head, and a coming of age is achieved.
Gene cannot, though, at this adolescent point in his existence, achieve any
type of peace due to the inner turmoil that he faces. This inner conflict created by
Gene fuels his fire to lash out against all that he cannot be or control, allowing the
evil at his core to emerge. The difficult time of adolescence enables Gene to create
this other self in order to cope and survive. Not much different from any other
sixteen- year-old, Gene feels the need to conform to those around him and be
accepted; his reality is average, but the reality Gene creates for Finny is over the top.
It is almost as if Gene is so self-abusive that he cannot see the goodness that he does
possess, furthering him to place all the qualities he believes he is lacking in his
created Finny.
Once Knowles establishes the duality of the characters, he moves the reader to
the summer of 1942 and the proverbial tree where the central conflict between Gene
and Finny takes place. Knowles creates this tree as an important religious/allegorical
symbol, which will, on this level, be discussed as such in a later chapter. At this
22
point, the literal and figurative action that occurs becomes the focus of development
of the Gene - Finny relationship, and conflict of the good versus evil within Gene.
But it also represents the downfall of his character both psychologically and mentally.
Knowles presents the tree in itsfinestform:
The tree was tremendous, an irate, steely black steeple beside the river.
I was damned if I'd climb it. The hell with it. No one but Phineas
could think up such a crazy idea. (6)
Through Gene's dialogue, the idea of Finny's nonexistence becomes stronger. Gene
admits his fear surrounding this tree, yet he allows Finny to be able to devise a plan to
climb to the top and jump into the adjacent river without a second thought.
Considering Gene's adamant display of uncertainty, it is ironic that he could be so
easily manipulated by another human being. Here, Finny, as Gene's alter ego,
becomes more prominent in relation to the good versus evil motif. Finny, the evil
side of Gene's good character forces Gene to awaken his true evil. Gene commits a
daring and almost life-threatening act, which is not normally in his personality:
Yes, he had practically saved my life. He had also practically lost it
for me. I wouldn't have been on that damn limb except for him. I
wouldn't have turned around, and so lost my balance, if he hadn't been
there. I didn't need to feel any tremendous rush of gratitude toward
Phineas. (25)
More importantly, a few lines earlier, Genefindshimself standing in the tree,
questioning himself on this action:
23
What was I doing up here anyway? Why did I let Finny talk me into
stupid things like this? Was he getting some kind of hold over me? (9)
Once Finny proposes to Gene that they jump out of the tree together the plot is set.
Finny states. '"We'll go together, a double jump! Neat, eh?'"(51), but Gene takes
this moment, delves into that inner core of darkness that has ultimately been brought
to the surface by Finny, and changes everything:
I jounced the limb. Finny, his balance gone, swung around to look at
me.. and then he tumbled sideways, broke through the little branches
below and hit the bank with a sickening, unnatural thud. It was the
first clumsy physical action I have ever seen him make. (52)
Up until this point in their relationship, Finny had been the epitome of athletic
prowess. This scene does not represent the Finny Gene has discussed prior to the tree
incident. Gene has gained some strength to overpower the perfection of Finny and
blast it to the ground.
Once Gene's evil side surfaces and acts, Gene's alter ego begins to break
down through his inner desire to be his own person. In Gene's final action of chapter
four, he behaves in a manner foreign to himself: "With unthinking sureness [he]
moved out on the limb and jumped into the river, every trace of [his] fear forgotten"
(52). An action that once stirred immense fear now releases strength. Gene has
separated himself from his fears of imperfection and has broken free from his evil
side, as Finny lies lifeless at the bottom of the tree. According to Hallman Bell
Bryant, this incident occurs because "Gene has to destroy his alter ego in order to win
24
back his identity" (Bryant 63). Bryant further supports the idea that Finny does not
exist when he states: "Modern psychological studies have theorized that each of us
has within us a shadow self, a double who is manifestation of the antisocial
tendencies of the id" (63). Furthermore, "Modern psychology has further refined the
concept of the double, making the two components of character representative of the
rational and instinctive side of human nature; the clash between the conscious and the
unconscious life and the reconciliation between the dual sides of personality become
the equivalents of tragic and fortunate outcomes" (64). Gene's next action is a
peculiar one; he puts on Finny's clothes further solidifying the idea of the double and
the creation of Finny:
I felt like some nobleman, some Spanish grandee. But when I looked
in the mirror it was no remote aristocrat I had become, no character out
of daydreams. I was Phineas, Phineas to the life. I even had his
humorous expression in my face, his sharp, optimistic awareness. I
had no idea why this gave me such intense relief, but it seemed.. that I
would never stumble through the confusions of my own character
again. (Knowles 54)
Gene verbalizes that his identity crisis has subsided and that he will no longer need to
battle within himself to be that perfect being, because his other evil self has been
destroyed. By breaking down this idea of Finny to its bare minimum, Gene's ability
to step away from his inner conflict arises. Not only does Gene wear Finny's clothes,
but his entire demeanor also changes. He feels that he has finally become his own
25
person, an action that cannot simply be achieved by pushing another human being out
of a tree. Psychologically, Gene admits that confidence in himself is being achieved,
the one emotion that he had yet been able to master. And once Gene can feel secure
with his being, he will no longer need Finny.
Once on the road to maturity, Gene must come to terms with his own actions
in the conflict of good and evil. When Gene attempts to confess his indiscretion,
Finny refuses to hear this because that aspect of Gene's personality would not be
accusatory. In Gene's eyes, this created and perfect Finny could not and would not
react the way that Gene would:
I couldn't say anything to this sincere, drugged apology for having
suspected the truth. He was never going to accuse me. It was only a
feeling he had.. .Never accuse a friend of a crime if you only have a
feeling he did it. (58)
The real Gene, on the other hand, would jump at the chance to point thefingerand
blame another human being. And even when he knows what he has done, he is still
defensive. Finny describes what happened, and Gene snaps at him, almost accusing
Finny of some horrific action as well:
'I {Finny} just fell'... 'something jiggled and I fell over.. .1 thought I
could reach out to hold and get a hold of you'... Iflinchedviolently
away from him. 'To drag me down too!' ... 'To get hold of you, so I
wouldn't fall off. (57)
26
But as chapter five concludes, the discussion that Gene shares exhibits some
goodness in the identity that he has created, as well as the cold reality of his own
character. Finny comments on the incident at the tree:
'Of course you didn't do it. You damn fool. Sit down, you damn fool'
'Of course I did!'.. Had I really and definitely and knowingly done it
to him after all? I couldn't remember, I couldn't think. However it
was, it was worse for him to know it. I had to take it back. (62)
As the discussion between Gene and Finny ultimately focuses on whether or not Gene
has purged his being of evil, Finny points out that Gene cannot start living by the
rules, an action that he has donefromthe beginning of the story. Gene responds
somewhat sarcastically: '"Oh no, I wouldn't do that' and that was the most false
thing, the biggest lie of all" (63), expressing his complete denial of himself. Gene is a
liar. He admits it to his readers. He admits it to himself. But he does not admit it to
Finny. This statement further solidifies the belief that everything that Gene tells us
about Finny is based within a lie. And that Finny, himself, is a lie as well.
After having been maimed, Finny is forced to leave Devon for most of the fall
semester. Without his alter ego present, Gene can begin to act as the person he truly
hopes to be. He begins this new school year as a somewhat changed young man. He
observes: "Life at Devon was revealed as still very close to the ways of peace" (84).
Knowles gives Gene a moment to feel secure in his own skin, but his moment does
not last for very long because Gene has not fully reached a point of personal
27
acceptance. Gene professes his desire to join the war effort which is an action he
would never make while Finny was around:
To enlist. To slam the door impulsively on the past, to shed
everything down to my last bit of clothing, to break the pattern of
life.. There was no one to stop me but myself. (92 - 93)
His actions and observations present the truth of his own character at that moment.
According to James Ellis, "Gene is momentarily caught up in it and can deny the war,
the denial, however being occasioned not so much by Finny's explanation as it is by
Gene's 'own happiness' in having momentarily evaded the ugliness of war" (Ellis 9).
Gene appears to accept himself and his moment of existence, but these feelings last
for only a short time because Gene's coming of age has yet to be achieved.
Immediately after returningfromvolunteer duty as part of the war effort, everything
changes for Gene because he is not ready to move on. "Everything that had happened
throughout the day faded like that first snowfall of the winter. Phineas was back"
(Knowles 94). Gene has not fully reached maturity, therefore Finny's existence
continues, yet this existence takes on a more motivating factor in the development of
Gene's well rounded character to symbolize the steps toward maturity. By allowing
himself to take on even more traits of his self-created "bestfriend,"Gene begins to
evolve as a human being, seeing some goodness within.
Gene's coming of age has not yet occurred as he has only maimed the evil
within himself, and there is no other choice for Gene but to take on some of Finny's
more dominant characteristics. A conversation transpires that forces the reader to see
28
that where one boy's abilities and capabilities ends, the other picks up creating a
fuller human being, which, on a literal level appears okay: "' ... if I can't play sports,
you 're going to play them for me'. ..and a soaring sense of freedom revealed that this
must have been my purpose from the first: to become a part of Phineas" (77). Gene
directly states to the reader that he will become another human being, which is not at
all possible, furthering the idea that Finny is a creation rather than a person. Though
a person cannot physically become another human being, one can model another's
behavior and parallel himself or herself with that individual. Knowles leads the
reader to the truth that Finny has been made up as the other half of Gene. But as the
story progresses even further, Gene's inner self blossoms and he moves towards
maturity:
I felt magnificent. It was as though my body until that instant had
simply been lazy.. I forgot my usual self-pity when working out, I lost
myself, oppressed mind along with aching body: all entanglements
were shed, I broke unto the clear. (112)
Ironically, Finny indirectly helps Gene get to this moment of feeling because he has
been injured. As Gene trains for the '44 Olympics, which ironically never occur
because of the war, he has separated himself from weaknesses and evil and
experiences some goodness.
Knowles creates a very symbolic scene toward the end of the novel, forcing
Gene to come to terms with his inner demons and face the evil that has surfaced in his
character. As the boys of Devon enter a building where a trial will take place,
29
Knowles emphasizes a dramatic notation over the doorway written in Latin: "Here
Boys Come to Be Made Men" (157). This line works on two levels for Gene: the
literal sense exhibits his growthfroma boy to a man, while thefigurativeaspect deals
with the actions that occur once the boys pass through that doorway that aid in his
coming of age. During a very conflicted time in Gene's life, being in the midst of
adolescence and a war, his experiences enable him to become a man. The reality that
he faces in this room at Devon helps to further close the door on Gene's alter ego and
begin the maturation process. If, in fact, Finny is solely a creation within Gene's
mind, the trial that occurs is non-existent, except within Gene's mind, forcing him to
face the incident at the tree. As it is the focus of this meeting, Finny sheds some new
light on the situation:
'It's very funny,' he said 'but ever since then I've had a feeling that
the tree did it by itself. It's an impression I've had. Almost as though
the tree shook me out by itself. (161)
This statement forces Gene to come to terms with his actions: '"No, we're not
accusing you,' a boy on the platform said evenly, and then I stood accused" (163).
As the trial progresses, the reality of Gene's evil actions become even clearer to him,
especially when Finny exits for thefinaltime: "Then these separate sounds collided
into the general tumult of his body falling clumsily down the marble stairs"(169). It
is thisfinalfall of Finny that allows Gene to begin to come to terms with his
weakness. Had this not happened, a coming of age would not have been possible.
According to Hallman Bell Bryant: "Thus, in a sense the fall has been a fortunate
30
one, for it has been a fortunate, for it has led to self-discovery, making possible
Gene's realization of his own true identity. It is, however, Finny's forgiveness that
finally makes Gene's salvation possible and gives him the chance to redeem himself
during the second stage of his life" (Bryant 106). Gene needed to travel to his evil
side, through Finny, in order to come of age.
The reality of Gene's creation of Finny and his struggle to kill that evil side of
his personality is surmised when Gene displays his emotions as he walks across the
Devon campus as Finny prepares to die:
They unrolled impervious to me as though I were a roaming ghost, not
only tonight but always, as though I had never played on them a
hundred times, as though my feet never touched them, as though my
whole life at Devon had been a dream, or rather that everything at
Devon, the playing fields, the gym, the water hole, and all the other
buildings and all the people there were intensely real, wildly alive and
totally meaningful, and I alone was a dream, a figment which had
never really touched anything. I felt that I was not, never had been and
never would be a living part of this overpoweringly solid and deeply
meaningful world around me. But I could not hear, and that was
because I did not exist. (Knowles 178)
Gene's self-centeredness focuses the attention away from the loss of his evil side, to
his first and foremost conflict within himself; his inability to accept who he is and be
comfortable with that in the real world. Gene must then experience Finny's funeral in
31
a very detached manner as he says good bye to the evil motives that have created
conflict within his being for a significant amount of time:
I did not cry then or ever about Finny. I did not cry even when I stood
watching him being lowered into his family's strait-laced burial
ground outside of Boston. I could not escape a feeling that this was
my own funeral, and you do not cry in that case. (186)
He cannot cry because the Finny that is being buried is the Finny that has been
created in his mind. A literal funeral does not take place, but, more importantly for
Gene's maturation process, is thefigurativeburial of evil, allowing his good side to
become his prominent characteristic. In Gene's realistic world, this funeral does not
really take place because Finny does not exist. Thisfigurativeburial is symbolic
within Gene's mind, and is a necessary step in Gene's coming of age. According to
Hallman Bell Bryant: "Finny's death is also necessary for Gene to achieve his
eventual separate peace and to accept the understanding of himself that he learned
from Finny" (Bryant 107). Gene's maturity relies heavily on the "killing" of the
friend/enemy he has created, but the growth within Gene could have never been
possible without his connection to Finny.
Knowles moves Genefromthe winter of 1942 to his coming graduation in
June 1943, and it is here that the joining of the two characters as one is made even
clearer: "Phineas created an atmosphere in which I continued now to live, a way of
sizing up the world with erratic and entirely personal reservations.. without a sense of
chaos and loss" (194). Since Gene lived the previous year of his life in a constant
32
state of confusion, the inclusion of Finny's dominant and positive characteristics
enable him to achieve greater success in the adult world. Gene successfully gives
over his evil to Finny, and Finny absorbs his evil within his innocence. Through the
steps toward maturity Gene has made, the positive and good qualities within begin to
surface. And, according to James M. Mellard: "If Phineas has 'absorbed' the worst
of Gene and taken it with him, Gene has himself absorbed and taken with him the
best of Finny-"(Mellard 43). As World War II becomes a greater possibility for the
boys of Devon, the reality of Gene's inner war becomes clearer to him: "... it seemed
clear that wars were not made by generations and their special stupidities, but that
wars were made instead by something ignorant in the human heart"(Knowles 193).
Gene admits that his own ignorance has created this war, and it is through this
realization that Gene has been able to combine the best characteristics between the
two and become the person that he has always wanted to be. Knowles exhibits
Gene's observations of the changing world around him as, by this point in his life, he
has drastically changed as well:
I had not qualms at all; in fact I could feel now the gathering, glowing
sense of sureness in the face of it. I was ready for the war, now that I
no longer had any hatred to contribute to it. My fury was gone, I felt it
gone, dried up at the source, withered and lifeless. Phineas had
absorbed it and taken it with him, and I was rid of it forever. (195)
When faced with the reality of World War II, Gene's views will be different because
of his experiences with Finny. All the hatred and evil that built up in Gene over this
33
year was purged with the death of Finny. Gene can now exist on the level of purity
that he believed existed in Finny, even though Finny draws out the darkness within
Gene. According to Hallman Bell Bryant: "Thus, he [Gene] has made a separate
peace, and war within himself, which he had waged at such a high cost, is finally
over" (Bryant 110). In killing his "enemy," the evil side that exists at his core, Gene
comes of age.
Knowles begins and ends this tale about Gene discussing the forces of good
and evil at the core of a very human being that help that individual grow and mature.
Initially, Gene senses and expresses many levels of fear as he returns to the tree: ".. I
could see with great clarity the fear.. .1 felt fear's echo.. .Both were fearful
sites"(Knowles 2), but as Gene's inner conflict of good and evil emerges as a
necessary step through his adolescence he is able to mature. And, although this
concept is simply one psychological interpretation, had Gene not created Finny, he
would not have been able to come to terms with his inner demons and move beyond
his inner war. More significantly, had Gene not created Finny in the image of
perfection, of an almost Christ-like being, many of the changes that do occur within
Gene and the novel would not have been as powerful. In the confusing time of
adolescence, it is not surprising that Gene's creation of his opposite is the most
significant tool in his steps toward maturity. By the end of the novel, and as Gene
moves closer to his coming of age, he is able to state his fear of his created enemy in
Finny:
34
All of them, except Phineas, constructed at infinite cost to themselves
these Maginot Lines against this enemy they thought they saw across
thefrontier,this enemy who never attacked that way, if he ever
attacked at all; if he was indeed the enemy. (196)
Finny's created existence ultimately forces Gene to take a closer look at the way he
presents himself to his world. Hefinallyrealizes his need to let go of his compulsion
to achieve perfection, because this is a reality not likely attained. Although it takes
him 15 years to atone for these sins, the cleansing processfinallyoccurs; Gene
eventually frees himself and matures. Through the creation of Finny, Gene comes to
terms with his good and evil sides, kills the dark side of his being, and a coming of
age is achieved.
Chapter 2
The Religious Implications ofA Separate Peace
Religion also plays a role in the coming of age of Gene Forrester. For
Knowles the influence of Christianity helps Gene move towards the maturation
process through the use of many allusions, as well as the connection of the Bible to
his best friend, Finny or Phineas. Within the text, though, Knowles does not simply
build on elements of the Bible within Gene's life that ultimately help him become a
man. He creates allusions to specific instances in the Bible and to Christian ideals to
prove how Gene becomes a man. For example, Gene exhibits four of the Seven
Deadly Sins. These religious implications are significant aspects related to Gene's
coming of age for various reasons. The biblical allusions and deadly sins are stepping
stones in Gene's growth. Additionally, Gene speaks of moments in the chapel and
times of prayer which focus on his innocence at each given moment, moments which
help lead to the overall changes that he makes along the way. Each religious element
included within the text ofA Separate Peace has been carefully chosen by Knowles
to function symbolically within the perimeters of the story, and to have significance
in the development of Gene's maturation. "The pattern of Christian symbolism and
doctrine that underlies the structure of A Separate Peace has been noticed by
numerous commentators and is confirmed by Knowles, who acknowledges that he
35
36
was reared in a deeply religious family and consciously used biblical themes and
images as he composed the novel"(Bryant 112). For Gene Forrester to come of age,
these religious elements must function. The reader sees that they permeate his being
and enable Gene to become the man who is speaking. Through biblical elements,
Gene is able to exhibit clear growth and ultimately come of age.
In simply looking at the novel's title, A Separate Peace, it is obvious that the
element of peace will be significant. Throughout the Bible, the idea of peace is used
approximately 429 times beginning in the Book of Genesis. Peace is a noun that
means a state of calm and quiet, freedom from disturbing thoughts or emotions, and
an agreement to end hostilities (513). This idea of peace is directly stated in the
novel's title and carefully woven into the meaning and context of the book. But also
indicated through the title is the truth that this peace is apart from the traditional
definition of peace, in signifying an individual's own peace. Peace is also established
through the relationships one has with others. This peace is also presented in the
form of a human being, as Finny and peace continue to be present simultaneously
often times within the story that Gene tells his readers. Without the ideal of peace,
Gene would not have experienced so much turmoil, nor would he have had the vision
to overcome these conflicts and ultimately attain his own "separate peace." Gene's
ultimate goal is to obtain peace within, which he eventually does after a significant
passage of time and internal growth.
Throughout the text, Gene comments on the ideal and the loss of peace many
times, and how this state of being is a critical factor in his coming of age. As he
37
prepares for graduation, Gene looks positively towards his future due to this element
of peace that had been presented to him at the beginning of the tumultuous school
year: "Around them spread a beautiful New England day. Peace lay on Devon like a
blessing, the summer's peace, the reprieve, New Hampshire's response to all the
cogitation and deadness of winter"(Knowles 189). As Gene embarks on his future,
this idea of peace is hopeful and positive. Although Knowles does not include any of
these biblical citations directly within his text, there are clear connections between
Gene's plight and the images created within each biblical section. For example,
Paul's letter to the Hebrews states: "Follow peace with all men, and holiness, without
which no man shall see the Lord" (Hebrews 12:14). Looking back at his time at
Devon, Gene realizes well into the fall semester that it is this idea of peace that makes
him truly happy. He asks himself: "Why go through the motions of getting an
education and watch the war slowly chip away at the one thing I had loved here, the
peace, the measureless, careless peace of the Devon summer?"(Knowles 93). The
one constant related to peace, though, besides The Devon School itself, is Finny, who
always represents that spiritual and emotional ideal. Through Gene's creation of
Finny, biblical understandings become more apparent. These concepts may have
been introduced to Gene during chapel, or may simply be the personal influence of
Knowles's upbringing on his character. Either way, these biblical implications aid in
the coming of age of Gene Forrester. Biblically, Finny often takes on many Christlike attributes, and this idea of Christ and peace connected to Finny is displayed in
Epistle of Paul to the Ephesians: 'Tor he is our peace, who hath made both one, and
38
hath broken down the middle wall of partition between us; Having abolished in his
flesh the enmity, even the law of commandments contained in ordinances; for to
make himself of twain one new man, so making peace" (Ephesians 2:14-5). Finny
exudes this ideal expressed in the Ephesians through his simple act of existing. His
nature even influences the summer faculty at The Devon School:
The faculty threw up its hands at Phineas, and so loosened its grip on
all of us. But there was another reason. I think we reminded them of
what peace was like, we boys of sixteen. (Knowles 16)
Each boy represents an individual peace that is not easily obtained during a time of
war. Finny, though, leads by example, and is a leader to many, creating a world
where life always seems good. It is through Finny's peaceful existence that Gene is
able to obtain his own peace.
Initially, "Phineas was the essence of careless peace" (Knowles 17) because
he has the uncanny ability to look beyond the stress of a moment and just exist, while
Gene reads deep into every word and action around him, holding him back from
achieving maturity. When Finny returns to Devon after recuperating from his injury,
peace still surrounds him. Gene describes his relationship with Finny: "I found that
only through a continuous use of the imagination could I hold out against Finny's
driving offensive in favor of peace" (110). This mood permeates the summer session,
but as Finny is injured and must leave Devon for the beginning of the fall semester,
Gene returns to a place that has changed: "Peace had deserted Devon" (64) is an
39
extremely ironic statement. Not until Gene gets rid of Finny completely is his
ultimate peace achieved, and he is able to move toward his coming of age.
Throughout the Bible, Phineas is presented numerous times. In his book A
Separate Peace - The War Within, Hallman Bell Bryant discusses Finny's role: "In
the Old Testament there are three figures named Phineas. The name means 'oracle'
in Hebrew or 'mouth of brass' (Bryant 114). By definition, the name Phineas is
symbolic of one who is significant in being and is able to command many with his
words. Some representations of Phineas in the Bible are more closely related to A
Separate Peace than others, but each presentation touches on the ideals which Finny
exudes within the text that enable Gene to make life-changing decisions. Gene
presents Finny to us as an element of goodness, but one that he has a hard time
accepting because Gene is still so impure. After Finny breaks a school swimming
record because he "just wanted to see if I (he) could do it" (Knowles 35), Gene is
perplexed by how discreet Finny plans to be regarding the feat. Since Gene would
want the world to know, he comments to Finny: "'You're too good to be true,'" (36).
This innocent purity in Finny represents his innate goodness, a characteristic that
Gene lacks. By being so modest, Finny is able to command the attention of all
around him, especially Gene. Like the power that God and Jesus have over mankind,
Phineas has power over Gene and his classmates at the Devon School which will
inevitably touch each and every one of them in one way or another.
There are additional biblical allusions regarding Phineas that are less obvious.
40
In Exodus, Phineas is born into goodness: "Eleazar, son of Aaron, married one of
Putiel's daughters who bore him Phinehas" (Exodus 6:25). According to Bryant,
"Phineas, the son of Aaron, is a judge and a priest; a devout keeper of the covenant
with the Lord, he gave rise to a line of priests known as 'the sons of Phineas' (Bryant
114). Similarly, Phineas represents elements of goodness to all those around him on a
daily basis. "Phineas constantly judges Gene, but always with complete integrity, and
in the end offers him forgiveness" (Alton 253). He acts as a leader, a protector and a
seer to his peers, enabling them to enjoy the lives that they are living. In Numbers,
"Yahweh spoke to Moses and said, 'Phinehas the priest, son of Eleazar son of Aaron,
has turned my wrath away from the sons of Israel, because he was the only one
among them to have the same zeal as I have; for this I did not make an end, in my
zeal, of the sons of Israel" (Numbers 25:11). His free spirited nature is the essence of
goodness and peace.
Another biblical Phineas is the angel Phineas. There are 72 angels directly
under the Lord, and although Phineas is a minor angel, his power is still significant.
When discussing their initial jump from the tree, Gene describes how Finny is able to
captivate his peers through his personality:
'What I like best about this tree,' he said in that voice of his, the
equivalent in sound of a hypnotist's eyes, 'what I like is that it's such a
cinch!' He opened his green eyes wider and gave us his maniac
look... (Knowles 6)
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Here Knowles relates his Phineas to the angel Phineas who was noted for his
compelling voice. This concept resurfaces again, as Finny continues to pressure his
peers about the tree, '"All right, pal,' Finny spoke in his cordial, penetrating voice,
that reverberant instrument in his chest, 'don't start awarding prizes until you've
passed the course. The tree is waiting'" (9). With this same type of vocal demeanor,
Finny is able to manipulate his peers, especially Gene, to attempt activities they
would otherwise have avoided. In the Bible, Phineas is described as the angel of the
Lord:
The angle of Yahweh went up from Gilgal to Bethel and came to the
house of Israel; and he said, ...' and I brought you out of Egypt and
led you into this land which I swore to give your fathers. I said: I shall
never break my covenant with you.' (Judges 2:1-2)
Similarly, Finny is loyal to all around him, even when times get tough. Bryant
continues to support this representation of Phineas as "the youngest of the seventy
two angels of the Lord" (Bryant 114), and it is this angel whose face glowed like a
torch, which is represented with the novel on two separate occasions. First, when
Finny is "Standing in the shadows, with the bright window behind him, he blazed
with sunburned health" (Knowles 14). Next, when he and Gene are at the beach and
Finny is described as "His skin radiated a reddish copper glow of tan, his brown hair
had been a little bleached by the sun, and I noticed that the tan made his eyes shine
with a cool blue-green fire"(39). Finny's entire being is amazing to those around
him because he possesses traits that, combined, create a larger - than - life being that
42
was able to move onto the scene, immensely touch those around him, and then
disappear in an instant, escaping the world almost as innocently as he came into it.
Finally, and I believe most significantly related to the text of A Separate
Peace, Phineas is presented in the Book of Samuel on multiple occasions. He is
created as a savior to the people: "Phineas, son of Eli, was a rebellious youth who
redeemed himself by protecting the Ark: while Phineas too is rebellious, he redeems
himself by embodying the essence of boyhood before the war" (Alton 253). Both
biblical Phineas and textual Phineas are not found properly seated within the confines
of humanity. Each boy rebelled against higher authority, yet, in both instances,
courageously fought to attain ultimate goodness. Many times within the text, Finny
steps up to help or save one of his peers. For example, when Gene is jumping from
the tree and almost falls, Finny saves him. Gene description of the scene captures his
utter fear and the safety found within Finny: "There was a moment of total,
impersonal panic, and then Finny's hand shot out and grabbed my arm, and with my
balance restored, the panic immediately disappeared" (Knowles 24). Additionally,
when Leper chooses not to participate in the elusive blitzball game, Finny helps Leper
save face in front of their peers:
'Now Leper has just brought out a really important fine point of the
game. The receiver can refuse a pass if he happens to choose to.
Since we're all enemies, we can and will turn on each other all the
time. We call that the Lepellier Refusal.' (30)
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Finny follows his own set of rules during the illusive summer session, and then is able
to continue to break the winter rules due to his injury. But it is Gene's description of
Finny's perfection in character that solidifies his purity: "At dawn, all daylong, and
at midnight, Phineas always had a steady and formidableflowof usable energy" (31).
It seems as there is nothing that Finny cannot do; almost god-like, like a superhero he
is beyond all measures of humanity.
During the summer session, Gene comments on Finny's idea of prayer
through Finny's Decalogue, or his commandments, similar to the Ten
Commandments found in Exodus. These were ideas he created at moments of
necessity, but, nonetheless, rules by which he lived. Gene describes this idea: "I
noticed that he did abide by certain rules, which he seemed to cast in the form of
Commandments" (26). Similar to God speaking to Moses: "The God spoke all these
words. He said, 'I am Yahweh your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt,
out of the house of slavery" (Exodus 20:1). Finny tells Gene: '"Always say some
prayers at night because it might turn out that there is a God'" (Knowles 26).
Through prayer Knowles is able to establish the innocence and purity of Finny, which
furthers the negativity surrounding Gene. Gene continues to mention Finny's ideas
regarding religion and prayer as childlike and simplistic, representing that pure and
unadulterated innocence that only Phineas could possess: "God was always
unoccupied in Finny's universe, ready to lend an ear any time at all" (97). On
numerous occasions, Finny has taken on a Christ-like or God-like role. He is seen as
a leader by the other boys, he seems to do no wrong, and he exudes purity. For
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example, ".. Finny had tremendous loyalty to the class, as he did to any group he
belonged to, beginning with him and me and radiating outward past the limits of
humanity toward spirits and clouds and stars"(34). This larger than life existence
further establishes the idea of Finny created in Gene's mind because no one, in
reality, is this perfect. Yet, it is this created perfection of a god-like being that
enables Gene to come of age. It is through this portrayal of Finny that Knowles is
able to combine prayer and purity to allow Gene to come of age.
Finally, while spending the day at the beach, Gene reminds us of Finny's
comments to him regardingfriendshipand their trip that day: "... and at this teen-age
period in life the proper person is your best pal.' He hesitated and then added, 'which
is what you are,' and there was silence on his dune" (40). The irony is that Gene
cannot even respond to Finny's very open and moving comment because he already
knows, deep down, that he is not a true and loyal person like the character of Finny.
But it is at this moment where Gene makes a mature realization about bis character.
He cannot respond to Finny's comment because he believes: "Perhaps I was stopped
by that level of feeling, deeper than thought, which contains the truth" (40), which is
that he is truly envious and hateful. It is also at this moment where a significant
biblical allusion is presented to the reader: "The beach shed its deadness and became
a spectral gray-white, then more white then gray, and finally it was totally white and
stainless, as pure as the shores of Eden. Phineas, still asleep on is dune, made me
think of Lazarus, brought back to life by the touch of God"( 41). According to the
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Bible, Lazarus is described as he is raisedfromthe dead by Jesus who performs a
miracle for many to observe his true greatness:
The phrase Jesus used referred to the death of Lazarus, but they
thought that by 'rest' he meant 'sleep', so Jesus said plainly, 'Lazarus
is dead'... 'I know he will rise again at the resurrection on the last
day'- Jesus said:
'I am the resurrection.
If anyone believes in me, even though he dies he will live,
And whoever lives and believes in me
Will never die. (John 11:13-14, 25-6)
Similar to Lazarus, Finny believes in something pure, and, therefore, his spirit will
survive even after he is truly dead:
The allusion to Lazarus raisedfromthe dead, used to describe Finny at
the beach, now has an ironic implication. Finny has risen in a sense;
he has come backfromthe dead, but he is more like Christ in his
resurrection than Lazarus because he has a vision of peace. In the end
his mission is to heal Gene of the wound that he bears internally.
(Bryant 86)
This belief is justified at the end of the novel when Gene states that Finny was like no
other person he had ever known. "He (Finny) possessed an extra vigor, a heightened
confidence in himself, a serene capacity for affection which saved him. Nothing as
46
he was growing up at home, nothing at Devon, nothing even about the war had
broken his harmonious and natural unity"(Knowles 195).
Another significant biblical element that is presented within the context of the
novel is the concept of baptism or the purifying of one's soul. In the beginning of
one's Christian life, it is a common practice for one to be baptized. Within A
Separate Peace a baptism does take place, but this christening is very different. In
the Bible Jesus is baptized by John prior to his speech to The Sermon on the Mount:
"As soon as Jesus was baptized he came upfromthe water, and suddenly the heavens
opened and he saw the spirit of God descending like a dove and coming down on
him"(Matthew 3:16). This scene brings about an element of purity and hope, while
Gene's baptism in the dirty Naguamsett River does not imply such an element of
beauty on the surface, but deep down it does present some hope for Gene:
I had taken a shower to wash off the sticky salt of the Naguamsett
River-going into the Devon was like taking a refreshing shower.. but
the Naguamsett was something else entirely. I had never been in it
before; it seemed appropriate that my baptism there had taken place on
the first day of this winter session, and that I had been thrown into it,
in the middle of afight.(Knowles 78)
It is more common for baptism to occur at the beginning of existence, but Gene's
baptism occurs at the beginning of a time in his life where his alter ego is no longer
present. This holy moment of a sacrament also occurs not within serenity, but in the
middle of a scuffle between two adolescent boys. "The Devon, with its links to the
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Edenic time of summer, is counterpointed against the Naguamsett, into whose cold
waters Gene falls during his fight at the boat house.. .It is, however, an ironic reversal
of the sacrament of baptism because, instead of purifying Gene, it makes him feel
even dirty"(Bryant 77). But even though the elements surrounding this moment seem
bleak, it is almost like a fresh start from something sinful that Gene has done. The
setting of wintertime is also symbolic because it is frigid outside, like Gene on the
inside, and the Devon campus appears dead. A baptism will usually occur with the
use of clean and blessed water, but due to Gene's evil ways, he is purified in dirty
water. Gene must be cleansed of his evil ways in a dirty river in order to truly rid
himself of his sin. Had Gene fallen into the clean Devon River, this action would not
have been as symbolic. This is symbolic not only of Gene's behaviors and actions at
the time of the incident, but also of what is yet to come. Instead of being cleansed,
Gene is made even dirtier than he already is at that given moment, and this will then
enable Gene to accept, move beyond, and mature.
Once the baptism has occurred, most Christians take to prayer as a way to
speak to God or simply to achieve solace. Prayer is a very personal and private
action. For Gene and Finny, prayer takes on a completely different meaning. After
Finny returns from Boston, well into the fall semester, Gene comments on his change
of action regarding prayer: ".. .1 said some prayers, the first in a long time, that night
in bed. Now that Phineas was back it seemed time to start saying prayers again"
(Knowles 96 - 7). This can be interpreted in one of two ways. First, since Finny has
returned Gene is now faced with his sins, and in order to overcome this guilt, he must
48
pray. On the other hand, when Gene and Finny are in their room during the summer
session, prayer is something that Finny seems to force Gene to do as they prepare to
go to bed one evening. ".. .there was the silence in which it was understood we were
saying some prayers..." (13). Now that Finny has returned, Gene feels the need to
return to his old ways, which, on some level, is a step backward from his coming of
age. But, reverting back to prayer does prove Gene's need to achieve atonement for
what he has done. Once this forgiveness through prayer occurs, Gene is able to move
past this moment, which is a step in a positive direction. This use of prayer becomes
significant within the relationship of Gene and Finny.
The most significant biblical image found within the text is the tree that Gene
returns to Devon to see, and the image that becomes the main source of Gene's strife
while a student at Devon. ".. everything in the boys' lives changes for the worse
after the tree incident, the tree and Christ's crucifix are both wood, the slab of light
under the door that announces Phineas's return to Devon is yellow, the color of Judas
and betrayal, and Gene chins himself thirty times the next day in the school's
gymnasium"( Wolfe 63). As Gene moves into his flashback, he describes the tree as
"tremendous, and irate, steely black steeple beside the river" (Knowles 6). Biblically,
this tree represents the foundations of original sin and the loss of paradise. It is
forbidden: "Nevertheless of the tree of knowledge of good and evil you are not to
eat, for on the day you eat of it you shall most surely die" (Genesis 2:17). When Gene
and Finny initially jump from the tree, visions of Eden fill the mind of the reader.
"As the Biblical tree of knowledge it is the means by which Gene will renounce the
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Eden-like summer peace of Devon and, in so doing, both fall from innocence and at
the same time prepare himself for the second world war. As in the fall of Genesis,
there is concerning this tree a temptation" (Ellis 4). These young boys are sustained
in a state of paradise at that moment, while the conflict of World War II hovers
outside the campus walls. Even the faculty looks past the indiscretions of the boys.
Gene explains: "We were careless and wild, and I suppose we could be thought of as
a sign of the life the war was being fought to preserve... We reminded them of what
peace was like, of loves which were not bound up with destruction" (Knowles 17).
But just like in the biblical Garden of Eden, this peace is soon lost, and these boys are
hurled into conflict from which they cannot escape, most specifically Gene's conflict
within himself. Gene refers to his loss of innocence during chapel on the first day
back for the fall semester. "Still it had come to an end, in the last long rays of
daylight at the tree, when Phineas fell" (65). For Gene, though, this outside conflict
is more of a representation of his inner dealings. Gene's peace is lost just as the war
becomes a reality, but his own war is greater than that of the world conflicts because
of his immature ways.
The basis of this fall stemsfromFinny's innocent temptation of Gene to jump
from this tree. And much like Eve was tempted to eat of the tree, Gene is tempted by
Finny to jumpfromtheir tree. The serpent says to Eve: "'God knows in fact that on
the day you eat it your eyes will be opened and you will be like gods, knowing good
and evil' " (Genesis 3:5). Similarly, Gene's eyes are opened once the boys jump, and
he almost falls:
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I could have fallen on the bank and broken my back! If I had fallen
awkwardly enough I could have been killed. Finny had practically
saved my life. Yes, he had practically saved my life. He had also
practically lost it for me. (Knowles 24 -25)
This incident creates further conflict within Gene. For Gene it is the beginning of his
fall from innocence because this is where he begins to believe that his bestfriendis
out to get him. For Finny, this fall from innocence is not complete until his literal and
figurative fall from innocence. "Although it is Finny who has fallen physically, the
more significant fall here is Gene's, which has moral and psychological dimensions"
(Bryant 65). All of these falls, though, ultimately bring Gene to his moment of
maturity. According to James M. Mellard: ".. .in a novel filled with Christian
symbols and a theme linked to the concepts of original sin and the fortunate fall,
Phineas becomes both Adam and Christ, the 'second Adam,' in a concentrated,
powerful symbolism that is paradoxical, but also traditionally Christian. And,
'Phineas-filled' at the novel's conclusion, Gene is enabled to size up the world, like
Phineas" (Bloom 41). Gene comes to realize, at the very end of the novel, that Finny
did represent goodness, no matter how hard he tried to make that good evil. Gene
states: "During the time that I was with him, Phineas created an atmosphere in which
I continued now to live, a way of sizing up the world.. No one else I have ever met
could do this" (Knowles 194). The literal fall, though, is the fall that Finny makes
while he and Gene are perched on their tree of knowledge, situated in their perfect
paradise at Devon. Gene states:
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.. .1 jounced this limb. Finny, his balance gone.. .then he tumbled
sideways, broke through the little branches below and hit the bank
with a sickening, unnatural thud. It was thefirstclumsy physical
action I had ever seen him make. (52)
Even though it is Finny who literally falls out of the tree, it is here that Gene
figuratively falls, and it is this fall which helps Gene to mature. James Ellis
comments:
Unlike hisfriendswho had sought through some building of defenses
to ward off the inevitability of evil, Gene has come to see that this
enemy never comesfromwithout, but alwaysfromwithin. Such a
love did he share with Phineas in a private gypsy summer. And it
because of the purity of this love that he able to survive hisfellfrom
innocence. (Ellis 11)
This is a necessary downward movement of personality that ultimately makes way for
Gene to learn, grow and achieve maturity.
The extent of Gene's guilt has stayed with him for some time, which is what
causes the search for the tree to begin. When Gene does return to the tree after fifteen
years have passed, he experiences difficulty in locating it due to the natural erosion of
the tree itself;
There were several trees bleakly reaching into the fog. Any one of
them might have been the one I was looking for. Unbelievable that
there were other trees which looked like it here. It had loomed in my
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memory as a huge lone spike dominating the river bank... Yet here was
a scattered grove of trees, none of them of any particular grandeur.
(Knowles 5)
Since the innocence, purity and paradise has been lost, in both the tree and Gene, he
cannot clearly see what he is seeking. Gene has been able to realize the forgiveness
by Phineas and is able to fully see what he has done as wrong. Just as the passage of
time has changed the physicality of the tree, time has also changed Gene emotionally:
The tree was not only stripped by the cold season, it seemed weary
from age, enfeebled, dry. I was thankful, very thankful that I had seen
it. So the more things remain the same, the more they change after
all.. .Nothing endures, not a tree, not love, not even a death by
violence. (6)
In order to completely mature and move beyond his self-inflicted guilt, Gene needs to
experience some type of closure. Gene's journey back to the tree symbolizes what
has been achieved by Catholics through the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ. Gene
has sinned, but through religion he is able to repent and seek redemption. Biblically,
the tree represents a loss of innocence and the beginning of the downfall of humanity.
Without the incident at the tree in the Garden of Eden, the course of human existence
might be very different today. For Gene, his tree represents something very similar.
It is this tree that initially introduced him to a path of evil, but it also this tree that
enabled him to achieve closure and reach maturity because, just like everything else
in this world, it changed.
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To further the symbolic significance of the biblical implications, Knowles also
includes four of the Seven Deadly Sins, envy, anger, greed and sloth, as negative
traits present within the character of Gene, yet it is the inclusion of these sins that lead
to Gene's coming of age. The most obvious sin expressed by Gene is envy and is
described in Seven Deadly Sins Today:
The envious man does not love himself, although he begins with selflove. He is not grateful for, or happy in, what he is or what he has.
The sin is deadly, less because it destroys him, than because it will not
let him live. It will not let him live as himself, grateful for his qualities
and talents, such as they are, and making the best and most rewarding
use of them. (Fairlie 67)
This quote accurately characterizes Gene Forrester not simply for who he is, but how
he treats others as well. On more than one occasion, Gene comments on his desire to
be like Finny: "I couldn't help envying him that a little, which was perfectly normal.
There was no harm in envying even your best friend a little" (Knowles 18). Here
Gene tries to justify his feelings toward Finny by making allowances for this desire to
possess the traits of Finny that he does not possess. Instead of relishing his qualities,
he must twist his visions in order to try and feel better about himself. James Ellis
solidifies this point: "The progress of the novel after the joining of Phineas and Gene
is the progress of Gene's growing envy of Finny. Incapable of the spiritual purity of
Phineas, Genefindshimself jealous of Finny's ability tofloutDevon rules in his
quest to enjoy, according to James Ellis, an 'unregulated friendliness' with the adult
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world" (Bloom 5). But later on in the story, when Finny jokingly says to Gene, "I'd
kill myself out ofjealous envy" (Knowles 44) Gene's response is "I believed him"
(44) simply because he has been overpowered by these feelings of envy and must
justify is actions. Additionally, Gene tries to apply these feelings of envy on Finny in
order to feel better within his own being. Henry Fairlie continues by saying of the
envious man:
His disparagement of others is a reflection of his disparagement of himself; he
regards himself with as much malice as he regards them. So to torture
oneself, and to torture oneself for nothing, since there is no possibility of
satisfaction!...it is evil-minded, spiteful and given to calumny, and excited to
an undue curiosity about the affairs of other people. It must justify its selftorture. (Fairlie 67-8)
I believe this statement to be a clear summary of Gene's character. Because he is so
dissatisfied with himself, he must be dissatisfied with the world around him. He has
created this vicious cycle through his feelings of envy. Gene states his feelings of
envy of his best friend, but puts a spin on these emotions in order to feel better about
himself:
You and Phineas are even already. You are even in enmity. You did
hate him for breaking that school swimming record, but so what? He
hated you for getting an A in every course but one last term. You
would have had an A in that one except for him. Except for him.
(Knowles 45)
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The irony of this statement is that even though Gene tries to make himself believe
that Finny feels the exact same way, his ultimate realization is that these feelings are
only truly within. These feelings ofjealousy and envy that permeate Gene's character
cause many negative actions to occur, yet lead to Gene's ultimate maturity. "By
presenting the story as a remembered series of events, Knowles forces the readers to
acknowledge two Genes in the text: a young character who is prone to jealousy and
the older, more reflective narrator who has been contemplating his actions for more
than a decade" (Curnutt 45). Gene realizes that these feelings are misinterpreted on
his part, and that Finny is and was not his enemy: "And I thought we were
competitors! It was so ludicrous I wanted to cry" (Knowles 58). The concept of this
sin is real and unacceptable, and it takes the mature Gene to make this realization.
Anger is also one of the sins Gene experiences numerous times throughout the
text. Not only does he become angry with Finny's ability to do whatever he wants, he
also becomes angry with himself for not being able to achieve the state of perfection
he deems necessary in order to be accepted in his world:
Anger may not always cause a deep wound, but it must leave a residue
of hatred in the end, and a desire for revenge. The enemy whom it at
first invented will have been stung into existence by its tongue. Our
flashes of anger are not blameless, but it is assumed that our reason has
not assented to them. They are regarded therefore as venial sin.
(Fairlie 87)
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It is this anger, combined with his ongoing jealousy that causes Gene to act
negatively:
And also I didn't want to let him excel me in this, even though I knew
that it didn't matter whether he showed me up at the tree or not.
Because it was what you had in your heart that counted. And I had
detected that Finny's was a den of lonely, selfish ambition. He was
not better than I was, no matter who won all the contests. (Knowles
48)
This anger leads Gene down a path of destruction from which he has difficulty
escaping. "Something more lies behind the Anger that has been loosed in our age.
One of the most common provocations to anger in our day-to-day relationships is a
sudden onrush of fear, and one of the most common causes of this fear is that we are
anxious not be shown ignorant"(Fairlie 101). But working through one's anger leads
to peace and comfort within, which is exactly what Gene does over his 15 year span
separated from the incidents at The Devon School, and his youthful stupidity. This
anger is embedded in Gene's hatred of Finny, stemming from his own feelings of
inadequacy, which ultimately what causes Gene to create Finny in the first place:
Then a second realization broke as clearly and bleakly as dawn at the
beach. Finny had deliberately set out to wreck my studies...It was all
cold trickery, it was all calculated, it was all enmity. (Knowles 45)
Ironically, Finny's character never had a calculating bone in his body. Based on his
characteristics and connections to biblical teachings, there is no way that Finny could
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be evil. He never felt any anger toward Gene, but it is Gene who creates this evil
Finny within his own mind; this anger is only displayed from Gene toward Finny. At
that sixteen - year-old moment, though, Gene cannot see past his blinding feelings of
anger and reciprocates this immense hatred that he thinks he sees before him. It is not
until years later, when Gene is able to step back from his immediate feelings toward
Finny, that he is ultimately able to achieve solace and maturity. This concept is
continued as Gene tries to console himself into believing that rivalries are common
and accepted among all others, except Finny: "It made Finny seem too unusual for not friendship, but too unusual for rivalry. And there were few relationships among
us at Devon not based onrivalry"(37).
Finally, Gene displays greed and sloth in relation to his wants and needs in
order to be better than everyone else. Throughout the text, Gene clearly displays his
cold inner core. He has a hard time feeling joy for another's accomplishments, and
he continually compares himself to those around him. For Gene, this greed is not
simply about having what another has, it is much deeper: "Avarice is, not so much
the love of possessions, as the love merely of possessing" (Fairlie 135). For example,
Gene's rivalry with Chet Douglass for valedictorian expresses his want or need to
have more than he actually deserves: "Now I became not just good but exceptional,
with Chet Douglass my only rival in sight. But I began to see that Chet was
weakened by the genuineness of his interest in learning" (Knowles 46). By
expressing these negative feelings toward someone other than Finny, Gene further
solidifies the dark tendencies at the core of his being, further strengthening the
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goodness within Finny. Also, Gene's fight with Quackenbush represents some level
of greed. Gene states: "But it didn't feel exactly as though I had done it for Phineas.
It felt as though I had done it for myself (72). His fight, although seemingly done to
protect his friend's honor, is, in reality, a way for him to protect himself against his
guilty feelings. He becomes greedy in the hope to erase the memory of what he has
done to Finny, even though Finny cannot escapefromthe pain of his reality caused
by Gene.
On the other hand, Gene's sloth is not as simple as one may think when
hearing of this type of sin: "But the sin of Sloth is a state of dejection that gives rise
to torpor of mind and feeling and spirit; to a sluggishness or, as it has been put, a
poisoning of the will; to despair, faintheartedness, and even desirelessness, a lack of
real desire for anything, even what is good" (Fairlie 113). No, he is not lazily sitting
around in a state of despair and decay eating massive amounts of food, but instead he
makes conscious choices to be lazy and not participate in life as he did prior to
Finny's accident. As he describes his current state of being during the beginning of
the winter session: "I never used to be late. But today I was, later than I had to be"
(Knowles 67). The irony is that Gene is late in applying for a job as the assistant
crew manager; a position where he would not have to participate in any actual
activity, but also a position that was "usually taken by boys with some physical
disability" (69). On some level Gene creates a self-inflicted punishment within the
scene in order to atone for his sins. By choosing to take what appears to be the easy
way out, Gene is actually serving his penance.
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Additionally, the sins that Gene commits throughout his time at Devon, envy,
anger, greed, and sloth, lead Gene to become a betrayer of Finny, similar to Judas as
the betrayer of Jesus. Although Gene does not make this statement until the very end
of the novel, Finny presents himself in a holy light: "Only Phineas was never afraid,
only Phineas never hated anyone" (196). Finny is innocent and, similar to Jesus
Christ, is willing to forgive anyone. Gene, on the other hand, is guilty of his negative
and ill feelings toward his bestfriend,even if his ultimate betrayal was not what he
originally planned:
This act of betrayal is obviously unpremeditated; Gene has not
indicated to the reader that he planned to do any harm to his friend.
Indeed, the reader is prepared for just the opposite. Tragically, though,
Gene does not yet understand himself. (Bryant 60)
Here, Hallman Bell Bryant clearly displays how a coming of age is needed for Gene
to realize what he has done and accept his actions. He may not have set out to
personally maim another human being, his own bestfriend,or created idea of
perfection, at any rate, but since he did, Gene needs to come to terms with his
personal issues regarding Finny, as well as himself in order to fully come of age by
then end of the novel. Gene proves himself to be parallel to Judas, and Finny as
parallel with Jesus when he states: "My fury was gone, I felt it gone, dried up at the
source, withered and lifeless. Phineas had absorbed it and taken it with him, and I was
rid of it forever" (Knowles 195). Since Finny could move through life with this
positive aura surrounding him and Gene could not, Gene had to put an end to this in
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any way that he knew how, furthering Finny as his complete opposite. Throughout
the novel, Finny constantly comments on his loyalties to Gene. Even after the
realization that Gene did, in fact, knock him out of the tree. Gene tells us that Finny,
in true Christian form, simply states forgiveness:
'He was nodding his head, his jaw tightening and his eyes closed on
tears. 'I believe you. It's okay because I understand and I believe
you. You've already shown me and I believe you.' (183)
Finny's pure heart only allows him to speak forgiveness to the person who has
betrayed him, while Gene, at that moment, considers only his own feelings. Through
the passage of time, Gene is able to come to terms with what he has done and seek the
final forgiveness: the forgiveness from himself.
Religious and biblical elements are often found throughout many pieces of
literature and for a variety of reasons. In A Separate Peace, Knowles relies on
Christianity to further the development of his characters, as well as prove a point
about teen-age boys. Gene is able to grow and mature due to his connection to the
deep biblical allusions included in the text by Knowles. It is through this growth and
acceptance that Gene's coming of age is achieved. Although not necessarily a
religious character at the core, Gene appears to have some connection to a higher
power which allows him to eventually see the bigger picture. I do not believe he ever
comes to the goodness that he tries to portray through his creation of Finny, but he
does make various religious connections that cleanse his soul. For example, Gene
does not simply pray because he believes that Finny wants him to do it, but because
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he needs to atone for his sins. Furthermore, Finny emerges as a Christ-like angelical
figure who symbolizes innate goodness and purity to all those around him. Without
these elements found within Finny, Gene might not have ever achieved the maturity
that he so desperately desires. Without these ties to religion, Gene would not have
experienced life the way that he did, nor would he have been able to see past his sins,
repent, and mature.
Chapter 3
The Psychological Breakdown of Holden Caulfield
When looking at Holden Caulfield through the psychological lens, it is easy to
observe a textbook case. He has issues with just about everyone and everything
around him. He is a loner, his parents do not understand him, he lost a younger
brother to cancer, and he cannot have any type of relationship with a girl. He is very
similar to the characters portrayed in John Hughes's 1985filmThe Breakfast Club;
much of his psychological imbalance stemsfroman unhappy home-life. In the film
the "basket case" character, Allison Reynolds, states: "My home-life is unsatisfying."
To which "brain" Brian Johnson responds: "So, you're saying that you would subject
yourself to the violent dangers of these Chicago streets, because 'your home-life is
unsatisfying'" (Hughes). Although the film was written 34 years later, these young
people embody the same ideas and fears that Holden expresses, in addition to his
need to run away in J.D. Salinger's 1951 novel. At the end of the novel and the film,
both the group of young people and Holden Caulfield walk away from an experience
leaving the audience without certainty that they have changed or matured. The
comparison between these two forms of media proves the struggles within teens
throughout the ages. Fashion and music may change, but teenagers are still teenagers.
And although we do not observe positive elements in the lives of the characters in the
62
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film, we do experience hopeful elements within Holden Caulfield. The only positive
influence in his life is his ten-year-old sister Phoebe, who should not even be
responsible for dealing with his imbalanced state. The psychological implications are
more obvious in The Catcher in the Rye than they are in A Separate Peace, but how
these implications lead to Holden Caulfield's coming of age are just as significant.
In an unidentified sanatorium, somewhere on the west coast, Holden instantly begins
his story with tales of woe. As easy as it is to feel sorry for this young man; it is also
just as easy to tell him to get his life together and move on.
Back in the late 1940's, the setting of this story, psychological understandings
and prescription drugs were not as common as they are today. Students were not
placed in special classes or special schools because there were problems within: these
individuals dealt with their issues. Holden cannot deal with his issues. In present
society, Holden would be more accepted for his outward teen angst and inability to
connect with the world around him. Holden's little psychological indiscretions
leading to hisfinalbreakdown are significant elements in the hopeful coming of age
of Holden after the story isfinishedbeing told:
Holden Caulfield never comes to an understanding of his experience.
He never quite knows what it means; he only feels certain things about
it... At the end, as throughout the novel.. .Holden is much more aware
of what he feels.. He tells his story in only a short remove of time
from the actual experience of it.. Holden is not sufficiently separated
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from his experience, either in time or attitude, to admit any real
mastery of it. (Weber 21)
Unlike Gene's 15 year analysis of his actions, Holden has almost immediately gone
from the experience to therapy. By the end of the novel we are not privy to Holden's
complete recovery, but it is hopeful on the part of the reader that, through telling his
tale, Holden achieves closure, acceptance, and maturity because he leads us to believe
that he will actually try to be a better and more successful human being.
There are many pieces to the puzzle of Holden Caulfield; a careful reader will
pick up on his mental breakdown when beginning to read the text. There are many
times where Holden tells us he feels like he is losing control, and depression takes
over his entire being. Almost immediately upon telling his tale, wefindout that his
mental decay is affecting him physically. "After I got across the road, I felt like I was
sort of disappearing. It was that kind of a crazy afternoon, terrifically cold, and no
sun out or anything, and you felt like you were disappearing every time you crossed a
road"(Salinger 5). Many of his outward moments of depression are when he is just
leaving a situation where he has been surrounded by adults or the self-proclaimed
phonies of the world. "At this point Holden's neurosis verges on madness.. .as a
literal, psychologically valid description of a boy's breakdown" (Bryan 46-7). When
put in situations where he does not feel comfortable, which are most instances in this
novel, Holden reacts physically and/or mentally. He cannot outwardly express his
fear because he is too immature and insecure to first realize what is going on inside of
him, and second, to come to terms with these issues and make the necessary changes
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in his life. But there are also many times where his depression stemsfromhis
complete and utter loneliness which leads to other outside issues in his life. Holden
Caulfield has been noted as one of the loneliest characters in fiction:
In truth the loneliness of this boy is depressing. Holden's feelings and
thoughts isolate him from his vulgar, clique-ridden schoolmates, from
his teachers,fromthe strangers andfriendswhom he meets during his
wanderings in Manhattan and who live in a world different from his.
He is keenly aware of his loneliness. (Bungert 180)
It can be argued that Holden chose this path of existence in order to protect himself
from further disappointment, similar to what he has experienced in his own home. By
forcing himself to remain alone, Holden cannot be hurt any deeper than he already
has.
It is obvious to the reader that Holden has landed himself in a place of
recovery, but the steps to how he got there are more significant than the fact that he is
there. There are many elements that have led to Holden's psychological breakdown,
and I believe the most significant piece in Holden's puzzle is his relationship, or lack
there of, with is parents. Since who we are ultimately begins with the way we have
been nurtured at home, the basic neglect that Holden feels from his parents is a
significant factor in his initial downfall and subsequent coming of age. Holden tells
very little about his parents. He opens by letting us know that"... my parents would
have about two hemorrhages a- piece if I told anything pretty personal about them.
They're quite touchy about anything like that, especially my father" (Salinger 1). Not
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too many parents would want their child to air their dirty laundry, especially during
the late 1940's, but Holden's description gives a clear indication to the reader that
there is a huge lack of communication among these three individuals. Again, like the
teens in The Breakfast Club, Holden's relationship with his parents is unfulfilling.
Criminal John Bender and athlete Andrew Clark discuss the roles that parents play in
the lives of their children:
'You get along with your parents?'
'Well, if I say 'yes,' I'm an idiot, right?'
'You're an idiot anyway. But if you say you get along with your
parents, well, you're a liar, too.' (Hughes)
The expectation is not for teens to always get along and agree with their parents, but
there is the hope and expectation that these teens will not disappoint them and will
listen to what their parents expect them to do in life. For Holden, though,
expectations are not clear. By not talking about his feelings with his parents, Holden
has been left to deal with these emotions on in own, which he has obviously not done
well.
Holden's discussions of his parents are very limited in the text. For one
reason he has been removedfromthem in boarding schools for the last three years.
The less obvious reason is their lack of connection to Holden's immediate existence.
During the 1940's most fathers were the bread winners in the family while the
mothers stayed at home to tend to the children. This is the case within Holden's
family unit. Because he has little connection with his father, his mother emerges as
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the first one to blame. According to Erik Erikson, ".. .the troubled
American.. blames his mother for having let him down. His father, so he claims, had
not much to do with it" (Erikson 296). What is ironic, and a major step towards
Holden's maturity, is that he does not blame his mother, yet sympathizes with her
situation. When he discusses his mother, he focuses on how she will be disappointed
in him. Typical mother behavior, as Holden might call it, but her disappointment
stems from her own basic neglect of her child. On a mature level, Holden notes her
reasons: "She hasn't felt too healthy since my brother Allie died. She's very
nervous. That's another reason why I hated like hell for her to know I got the ax
again" (Salinger 107). He has almost accepted her inability to care for him, but has
not bought into the reasoning: "On several occasions Holden comments that his
mother has never gotten over Allie's death, which may or may not be an accurate
appraisal of Mrs. Caulfield, since the first-person narrative makes it difficult to judge.
What we can deduce, though, is that in his eyes his mother is so preoccupied with
Allie that she continues to neglect Holden, as presumably she did when Allie was
dying" (Miller 88). This situation would cause emotional conflict for any child
because not only is Holden dealing with the loss of his sibling, but he is dealing with
the loss of his mother as well. Also, it seems that there has been very little discussion
in the Caulfield family regarding Allie's death.
On the other hand, Holden's father is less of a concern because he had little to
do with the rearing of his children because he needed to support the family
financially: "My father's quite wealthy, though.. .he's a corporation lawyer"
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(Salinger 107). Holden, although disgusted with the phony adult world, accepts his
father's vocation as the reason for his absence:
Holden says that lawyers are all right if they are committed to saving
innocent people's lives. But not that's not what lawyers do. All they
do is make tons of money, play golf, buy expensive cars and drink
martinis. In short, in Holden's view, even his own father is phony
because he is more interested in making money than in helping others.
(Alsen 56)
Holden's father falls into Holden's world of phoniness. He represents the adult world
where money equals success, which is also a significant element in Holden's
depression: "Goddam money. It always ends up making you blue as hell" (Salinger
113). This dissolution of the Caulfield family has had a profound impact on Holden's
development:
Holden's alienation, however, goes deeper than his ambiguous
relationships with people. His family, for one thing, has come apart at
the seams. There is no longer a unit he can rejoin. (Whissen 50)
Holden's separation from the outside world has obviously stemmed from the one
place a child should feel the most comfort and safety; his home.
Another significant element adding to Holden's depressive state is his
relationships with his siblings. His older brother, D.B, is prostituting himself in
Hollywood, his younger brother, whom he adored, Allie, is dead, and his ten year-old
sister, Phoebe, is his onlyfriendand confidant. Holden looked up to D.B. when "He
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used to be a regular writer, when he was home" (Salinger 1), but now D.B. has
succumbed to the evils of society in order to make lots of money and "Now he's out
in Hollywood, D.B., being a prostitute "(2), reiterating Holden's disappointment or
disgust with money. Outside of representing all that Holden hates, money and the
movies, D.B.'s role in his younger brother's life is insignificant.
His other brother, Allie, although dead, embodied a standard by which Holden
cannot live. While alive, Holden revered this young man because Allie created a
sense of perfection and innocence that Holden has yet to achieve or observe again.
By not being able to separate himselffromthis dead boy, Holden is caught in a place
from where he feels he cannot escape. Holden describes Allie's innocence and
purity: "You'd have liked him . . . he was the most intelligent member in the family.
He was also the nicest" (38). Allie embodied perfection to Holden, and having died
as child, at the peak of his innocence, Holden cannot do anything but hold on to the
fond memories that have beenfrozenwithin innocence. This memory is idolized in
Allie's baseball mitt:
.. he had poems written all over thefingersand the pocket and
everywhere. In green ink. He wrote them on it so that he'd have
something to read when he was in thefieldand nobody was up at bat.
(38)
Not only does this symbol represent Allie to Holden, but it also embodies the idea of
innocence that Allie has created in Holden's mind, but it is not simply the mitt itself
that attracts Holden, it is what is written on the mitt as well: "Some poems of Emily
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Dickinson are on his dead brother's baseball mitt. In them is embodied the
connection between death and isolation, and the need to rejoin the world and accept
the loss of innocence as part of the magic youth that cannot be prolonged" (Diggins
200). This is where I believe a grievous lack of communication has occurred between
Holden and his parents. This being such a tragic event, it seems that there was never
a discussion in the Caulfield household regarding the loss. D.B. escapes to
Hollywood, Phoebe is too young to understand, but Holden is left without any form
of grieving process, further causing him to slip in to a state of mental decay. His only
course of action was physically maiming himself the night of Allie's death, causing
mental issues to surface:
I was only thirteen, and they were going to have me psychoanalyzed
and all, because I broke all the windows in the garage. I don't blame
them. I really don't. I slept in the garage the night he died, and I
broke all the goddam windows with my fist, just for the hell of it. I
even tried to break all the windows in the station wagon we had that
summer.. .it was a stupid thing to do, I'll admit, but I hardly didn't
even know I was doing it, and you didn't know Allie. (Salinger 39)
It is obvious that Holden loved his brother very much and has been deeply affected by
this loss, but when looking deeper at the situation another element becomes clear:
Holden's fear of his own mortality. If Allie could die so young and innocent, Holden,
without all of that Allie goodness in his system, could just as easily die.
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This connection to Allie does not simply end with the notion of innocence.
Psychologically, Holden uses Allie's memory to protect himself. As Holden is
walking up Fifth Avenue on his way to meet Phoebe, his psychological breakdown is
in full swing. He is getting hot flashes, the sweats, and he feels like he will never
make it to his destination. He calls upon Allie for assistance:
'Allie, don't let me disappear. Allie, don't let me disappear. Allie, don't let
me disappear. Please Allie.' (198)
He continues this mantra until he feels better, but his safety is not complete. This is
the moment Holden decides to run away from the world that he completely despises
and live, like Salinger, alone in the woods:
'I decided I'd go away.. .1 thought what I'd do was, I'd pretend I was
one of those deaf-mutes. That way I wouldn't have to have any
goddam stupid useless conversations with anybody.' (198)
Similar to Allie escaping from this world while he was still innocent, Holden believes
that he can escape as well and protect what he still has, and any future Caulfields that
he may produce. "Holden wishes, in fact, to be a deaf-mute, to be cut off from
mankind's common base, language. He prefers to seek the company of a dead
brother, and through this positive orientation with someone dead, he reveals his
tendency to isolate himself (Huber 151). Allie has been frozen in time as the
innocent child that Holden hopes to protect. By not dealing with this loss, Holden is
not able to move beyond and experience the steps of the grieving process. He is stuck
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in a state of anger and disbelief, a problem that could have been rectified with the
right parenting skills.
Finally, his relationship with his younger sister Phoebe is warm and nurturing,
yet very odd because, although she is simply a ten-year-old girl, she appears to be the
older of the two. For the majority of their interactions in the novel, Phoebe is forced
to take care of Holden because he is mentally incapable of making realistic decisions.
As he returns home to see his sister, Holden's feelings change: "I felt swell, for a
change.. I just felt good, for a change" (Salinger 159). Holden has successfully
blocked out most of society in order to protect himself and his innocence for the
majority of the novel. It is not unbelievable that his moments of happiness come
while he sits with his innocent younger sister. It is Phoebe, though, who makes him
realize his inability to connect and mature in life. She calls attention to this fact and
Holden becomes defensive and angry because reality hasfinallyhit him in the face,
and in the form of a little girl. Phoebe forces Holden to look at what he has been
doing to himself over the last few years and take ownership of these actions, a task
that Holden has been unable to complete up to this point in his journey: '"You don't
like anything that's happening.' It made me more depressed when she said
that."(169). She calls attention to Holden's outward hatred of the world, which has
caused him most of the problems that he has experienced. This analysis is pretty
insightful for a ten-year-old and it solidifies not only their strong bond, but her role of
initial therapist as well. Since Holden is clearly unable to make concrete choices
regarding his own well being, he needs an outside force to be the voice of reason.
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Their conversation continues, causing Holden to come to a realization. She forces
him to look within and "Name one thing" (169) that he likes. His response is simple,
telling, and sad, and after a page and a half of a digression about the dead James
Castle, Holden comes to a realization:
'I like Allie,' I said. 'And I like what I'm doing right now. Sitting here
with you, and talking and thinking about stuff, and-'(171)
Although sweet, the connection to death and his brother Allie is psychologically
harmful. Additionally, the connection to his sister is imbedded in his unrealistic goal
of being "the catcher in the rye" and saving innocence in order to never have to face
the cruel adult world that has so often disappointed him. Holden cannot separate
himself from reality and his own mind, signifying his immaturity at this point. But,
through his relationship with Phoebe and her inability to simply let him go, Holden
will be able to see his life for what it has become, and take steps toward maturation.
Phoebe tries to help Holden overcome this breakdown by using tough love:
'"Allie's dead- You always say that!" (171). She tries to force him to accept reality,
but being embedded in this moment does not allow Holden the clarity that he needs to
escape; he cannot achieve a sense of closure or maturity. Holden's love of his dead
brother and idle chatting with his younger sister seems trivial and irrelevant in the
grand scheme of things, similar to his obsession with the ducks. But after a long
conversation of Holden's unrealistic goal to save all of the children in the world,
Holden and Phoebe come to an agreement that ultimately saves his life. She
continues to help Holden over some of his mental instabilities as she convinces him
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not to run away. It is her urging that ultimately keeps Holden safe and affords him
the help he so desperately needs.
'Did you mean it what you said? You really aren't going away
anywhere? Are you really going home afterwards?' she asked
me.'(212)
As they stand around the carrousel in Central Park, Holden begins to realize that he
cannot be "the catcher in the rye" as he allows Phoebe to take a chance:
All the kids kept trying to grab for the gold ring, and so was old
Phoebe, and I was sort of afraid she'd fall off the goddam horse, but I
didn't say anything or do anything. The thing with kids is, if they
want to grab for the gold ring, you have to let them do it, and not say
anything. If they fall off, they fall off, but it's bad if you say anything
to them. (211)
Through a ten-year-old girl, Holden is able to realize his ridiculous and immature
ways, and make a positive change in his life. "The psychoanalytical axiom may here
apply that a sister is often the first replacement of the mother as love object, and that
normal maturation guides the boyfromsister to other women"(Bryan 38). By
making a promise to his sister that he knows that he must keep, Holden begins to
mend his psychological issues and take steps to a more positive way of life. From the
outside, Phoebe may be the key to Holden making a change in his life. The reality is
that she is simply a ten-year-old girl who loves her older brother and does not wish
him any harm. She has already lost one brother to cancer, and she is not prepared to
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lose another. "However innocent, Phoebe's response to Holden's secret needs
becomes the catalyst for both his breakdown and recovery" (43). Phoebe forces
Holden to look directly at his situation, ultimately causing him to fall. But had this
fall not taken place, Holden would not have had the opportunity to maturefromthe
situation.
In addition to his family, Holden's beloved red hunting hat becomes
psychologically symbolic as the story progresses. He initially purchases this hat in
New York City:
It was this red hunting hat, with one of those very, very long peaks. I
saw it in the window of a sports store when we got out of the subway,
just after I noticed I'd lost all the goddam foils. It only cost me a buck.
The way I wore it, I swung the old peak way around to the back - very
corny, I'll admit, but I liked it that way. (Salinger 17-18)
The purchase of the hat comes immediately after Holden loses the fencing equipment
which, from his perspective, causes the fencing team to become angry with him: "The
whole team ostracized me the whole way back on the train. It was pretty funny, in a
way"(3). The cause for the purchase becomes significant in the ironic way in which
Holden chooses to wear this hat, becoming a statement regarding his choice of
isolation. Having purchased this hat surrounded by isolating factors, the way Holden
chooses to wear this hat becomes significant in Holden's maturity as the novel
progresses. The hat, according to James Bryan, is symbolic of Holden's
psychological state throughout the text:
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But more that that, it becomes the most reliable symbolic designation
of Holden's psychic condition through the novel.. .When one
remembers that hunters wear red hats to keepfrombeing shot and that
Holden usually wears his backwards in the manner of a baseball
catcher, the symbol embraces Holden's aggressive and withdrawing
tendencies as well as the outlandish daydreams of becoming the
messiah in the rye. (Bryan 49)
Initially, the hat being turned backwards displays Holden's comfortable state of
being, while the brim turned forward displays Holden's choice to be disconnected
from society. When dealing with his peers at Pencey, this hat becomes his "people
shooting hat" (Salinger 22) as he chooses to separate himselffromthe gross and dirty
Ackley. When Ackley walks into Holden's room he tells us, "I pulled the old peak of
my red hunting hat around to thefront,then pulled it down over my eyes" (21). He
consciously chooses to separate himself from Ackley in order to not be forced to
make a human connection. Once he has accepted Ackley into his moment, Holden
changes the hat once again: "I pulled the peak way around to the back again, and
relaxed" (22). Additionally, after hisfightwith Stradlater over Jane Gallagher, where
he cannot connect with his target, Holden changes the style of his hat to fit his mood.
"I couldn't find my goddam hunting hat anywhere. Finally I found it. It was under
the bed. I put it on, and turned the old peak around to the back, the way I liked it"
(45). Once Stradlater leaves the room, Holden is in a better mental position. Finally,
as he departsfromPencey in the middle of the night, again not making a connection
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to the people there, Holden states: "I put my red hunting hat on, and turned the peak
around to the back, the way I liked it," (52). Although his choice to run away without
saying good-bye or at least letting his parents know is immature, the placement of his
hat continues to represent the stability Holden feels within himself. At this point he
feels confident in what he is doing because he needs to separate himself from a place
that does not make him feel stable or secure.
Once Holden leaves Pencey and travels into the city, the red hunting hat no
longer becomes a method by which Holden can separate himself from the world
around him. In today's society the fear and uncertainty a young person would face
alone on the streets of New York is great, but for Holden there is some solace. He
returns to his hometown, just not his home, and he feels confident, at this moment, in
facing the situations yet to come. As an element of growth within Holden's being, the
red hunting hat is used as protection against the elements. "But it was freezing cold,
and I took my red hunting hat out of my pocket and put it on - 1 didn't give a damn
how I looked. I even put the earlaps down" (88). Only a few more hours into
Holden's journey, he gets drunk because he "was feeling so damned depressed and
lonesome" (153), and sticks his head in a sink to cool off and sober up. The red
hunting hat continues to protect him as Holden actually makes a connection with
another person, the coat check girl at the bar where he has spent his evening:
I showed her my goddamn red hunting hat, and she liked it. She made
me put it on before I went out, because my hair was still pretty wet.
She was alright. (153)
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As Holden continues to mature, the symbolism of this hat changes because he no
longer needs it to protect himself from society. He comes to realize the true nature of
its meaning and uses it for its intended purpose. By the end of his journey, he has
made the decision to go home, and as she stands at the carrousel, Phoebe returns the
hat to him to protect him from the elements once again. The symbolic purity of the
rain falls down upon him and cleanses him as he stands in Central Park: "Then what
she did - it damn near killed me-she reached in my coat pocket and took out my red
hunting hat and put it on my head" (212). Here, the hat comes full circle. As he
initially used that hat to separate himself as he planned to run away from all of his
problems, the hat now is leading him down the road of recovery.
Holden's relationships with his "friends" and with girls are also significant
elements of his maturation process that is created by is psychological shortcomings.
Through his inability to connect with just about everyone, we are able to clearly
observe a psychological breakdown within Holden. He chooses not to establish
relationships with anyone because he starts to see that it creates depression and
loneliness within. By the end of the novel he comes to this realization about the
people in his tale: "About all I know is I sort of miss everybody I told about. Even
old Stradlater and Ackley, for instance" (Salinger 214). No matter how much any one
person dislikes most of the people around them, every human being needs nurturing
and fulfilling relationships in order to survive and strive. Without these bonds,
Holden has ostracized himself to a world where he has no choice but to feel alone.
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While still at school, Holden fails to establish any form of connection with
everyone, except one teacher. At the beginning of the novel, Holden tells us that he
has literally been isolated by the boys on the hockey team due to a complete accident:
I left all the foils and equipment and stuff on the goddam subway. It wasn't
all my fault...The whole team ostracized me the whole way back on the train.
(3)
Similar to Gene's decision to apply to be assistant crew manager in A Separate
Peace, Holden is not really part of the team, furthering his inability to connect with
those around him. Instead of being part of a team, he chooses to manage the team as
a passive way to keep himself far enough awayfromthe phony world of the boarding
school, yet still, on some level, trying to gain acceptance. But when he returns from
the event, he continues to "ostracize" himselffromthe rest of the campus: "Anyway,
it was the Saturday of the football game with Saxon Hall.. .1 was standing way the
hell up on top of Thomsen Hill" (2). Instead ofjoining the rest of the school in a
significant prep school event, Holden makes the conscious choice to stand above the
rest of the school. His feelings of superiority over the masses are obvious in his
choice of location. He cannot be a part of what is going on, but he can place himself
above it. Holdenfinallydecides to completely separate himselffromthe phonies of
Pencey; although he has already been kicked out, he does not need to leave until
Wednesday, but he chooses to depart late Saturday night. Instead of feeling some
type of closure, Holden basically sneaks away, leaving his third boarding school with
hisfinalthoughts: "Sleep tight, ya morons!" (52). His departure, though, is not that
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simple. Even though Holden makes it appear that he could care less about the people
at Pencey, he is obviously moved by the entire experience: ".. .1 stood for awhile next
to the stairs and took a last look down the goddam corridor, I was sort of crying. I
don't know why" (52). The mature side of Holden is disappointed in himself and the
way he leaves, yet the immature side cannot leave without having the last, ridiculous
word.
Holden's constant inability to connect with those around him continues within
his relationship with his roommate, Ward Stradlater and his dorm mate Robert
Ackley. Stradlater makes Holden feel uncomfortable on a variety of levels, and he
clearly cannot make the choice to connect with this young man because, on the
surface, he represents all that Holden seemingly despises. He is a "secret slob"
(Salinger 27), who "was madly in love with himself (27), and although Holden
agrees that Stradlater "was pretty handsome" (27), he still cannot accept him into his
world. "The five Stradlater and Ackley chapters make for closely woven, dramatized
exposition of Holden's psychological quandary.. .Rejecting the alternatives implicit in
Stradlater and Ackley, Holden wants his life to be vital without appropriation,
innocent without retrogression"(Bryan 35). Ackley, on the other hand, seems almost
worse because, on some level, he is more closely related to Holden than he would like
to believe. Holden states: "He was probably the only guy in the whole dorm, besides
me, that wasn't down at the game" (Salinger 19). Ackley is also not accepted by the
world around him, and although Holden states that he dislikes Ackley as much as he
dislikes Stradlater, there is an obvious connection between the two boys.
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Holden's main mental and emotional conflict with Stradlater occurs when
Stradlater goes on a date with Holden's youthful love interest, Jane Gallagher. He
fears sexual intimacy, an action that he cannot achieve with a girl, but to him this is
not just any girl; this is the love of his life. The conversation begins with Stradlater
being so cool that he calls her Jean instead of Jane, initiating Holden's rage regarding
this encounter. The psychological imbalance of immaturity in this specific situation
surfaces on two levels. Holden is obviously jealous and concerned about Jane loosing
her innocence, furthering his desire to be "the catcher in the rye"; yet he is unable to
make a connection to Jane on his own terms. Stradlater appears to be the focus of
conflict in this situation, but it is realistically Holden's own insecurities that cause the
conflict and the immature behavior regarding this overall situation. Stradlater never
makes a direct comment regarding what may or may not have occurred on the date.
He simply states '"That's a professional secret, buddy'" (43), sending Holden
mentally out of control. He creates a situation leading to further conflict by assuming
Stradlater had sex with Jane. Not only does Holden display his mentally immature
side, but he also proves his inability to connect with others on so many levels:
... and then I tried to sock him, with all my might, right smack in the
toothbrush, so it would split his goddam throat open. Only I missed. I
didn't connect. (43)
Holden is clearly defending the love of his life, but it is a love that is not set in reality.
This scene clearly solidifies Holden's immature weakness of character on various
levels.
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The connection between Holden and Robert Ackley is more obvious than
Holden would like to believe because it paints a picture of who Holden really is
within society. There is validity in the outward dislike Holden expresses toward
Ackley because this relationship causes Holden to look at himself more closely,
which is something, at this point, he is incapable of doing. On the surface, Ackley
represents disgust:
He was always cleaning his fingernails. It was funny, in a way. His
teeth were always mossy-looking, and his ears were always dirty as
hell, but he was always cleaning his fingernails. (Salinger 22)
But, in reality, Ackley is no different from Holden. They are both loners and both at
the dorm, alone, on a Saturday night. And even though Holden seemingly despises
and is annoyed by Ackley, it is to Ackley Holden turns when he is desperate. After
hisfightwith Stradlater, Holden seeks comfort and attention from Ackley and steps
outside of his self developed box of protection against the world around him: '"..do
you feel like laying a little Canasta?'"(47). Although this request may seem to be
trivial, it is very symbolic of Holden's overall identity. He does want to achieve
connection, but he is not ready or able to simply state that emotion. But when Ackley
is clearly unmoved by Holden's grasp for friendship, Holden's true nature emerges,
'"You're a prince Ackley kid,' I said. 'You know that? '" (47). Since Ackley denies
Holden friendship when he needs it most, his only course of action is to leave.
Holden has not achieved the maturity one needs to work out his emotions at this point
and time.
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Holden's interactions with other people he meets throughout the text also
establishes many of his psychological imbalances. Often while telling his tale,
Holden becomes fixated on the ducks at the lagoon in Central Park South. These
ducks are symbolic of Holden's personality on various levels: "The question of the
ducks is representative of all the questions in Salinger's novels, and perhaps the world
at large, regarding the destiny of irrelevant things, things that get lost in the
whirlwinds of history, mindless consumption and general phoniness" (Hemon 65).
Additionally, the ducks are also significant in the steps of Holden's mental
breakdown as the story unfolds. "His desperation at the park is certainly one extreme
of his vacillation, the withdrawing extreme which is imaged by coldness and thoughts
of death" (Bryan 41-2).
Holden often comments on his disgust with the adult world, further
developing his fear of aging. The only two adults Holden seems to respect and feel
any sort of a connection to are his history teacher from Pencey, Mr. Spencer, and his
English teacher from Whooton, Mr. Antolini. As Holden prepares for his departure
from Pencey he meets with Mr. Spencer whose words of wisdom deliver Holden to
hisfirstdigression to the Central Park ducks: "Life is a game, boy. Life is a game
that one plays according to the rule" (Salinger 8). The problem is that Holden plays
by his own rules because he believes that society's rules are skewed to fit the "hotshots" (Salinger 8), and everybody else just burns. Holden respects Mr. Spencer and
the fact that Spencer had to fail him because he chose to do nothing. Holden simply
responds: "I'm just going through a phase right now. Everybody goes through phase
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and all, don't they?"(Salinger 15). The scene quickly comes to an end as Holden feels
the need to escape the smell of Vicks and old people, which is also the beginning of
Holden's quick escapes from situations that he does not like. Part of Holden's
immaturity is that he cannot accept the words of an older and wiser man, but this
action is typical of children his age. He walks away from the experience knowing
that Spencer did what he could in the time that he had with Holden and respects the
man for trying, but his immaturity does not allow him to grow at the given moment.
Mr. Antolini, on the other hand, is a different matter.
Once in New York City, Holden's last refuge is the apartment of Mr. Antolini:
Mr. Antolini, a former English teacher of Holden's, is the nearest thing
that Holden knows to the non-phony adult, and, as such, he is
Holden's last refuge. As the person who protected the body of James
Castle, he is also to Holden a kind of catcher figure, an image of his
own ideal, therefore. In his understanding concern for Holden, and
through his remarkably appropriate advice, Antolini does, in fact, seem
to be saving him. (Trowbridge 26)
Once settled in his apartment, Holden begins his tale of woe to his favorite English
teacher who tells him: '"I have a feeling that you're riding for some kind of a
terrible, terrible fall. But I don't honestly what kind...Are you listening to me?' "
(Salinger 186). Ultimately, this fall occurs at various levels, both literally and
figuratively. Antolini continues:
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'This fall I think you'reridingfor - it's a special kind of fall, a horrible
kind. The man falling isn't permitted to feel or hear himself hit
bottom. He just keeps falling and falling. The whole arrangement's
designed for men who, at some time or other in their lives, were
looking for something their own environment couldn't supply them
with. Or they though their own environment couldn't supply then
with. So they gave up looking. They gave it up before they ever even
got started. You follow me?'(187)
Antolini prepares us for the desperate spiral of Holden as the novel closes and he ends
up in a sanatorium, but at this moment Holden is incapable of embracing this advice.
The immature Holden looks awayfromthe words of his mentor. Finally, Antolini
spells it out in simple terms as he quotes psychoanalyst Wilhelm Steckel: '"The mark
of the immature man is that he wants to die nobly for a cause, while the mark of the
mature man is that he wants to live humbly for one'"(188). And although Holden
cannot see what Antolini is trying to tell him, the message is, in fact, hopeful that
Holden's fight can be won if he goes about it therightway:
Holden's immaturity on this point is apparent: As the catcher in the
rye, he sees himselfriskinghis own life (in fact denying through his
refusal to grow up and through his wish to keep other children from
doing so) on the edge of the 'crazy cliff.' His conception is an
overdramatized vision of himself as a 'savior,' nobly sacrificing
himself for the sake of preserving what he takes to be the innocent and
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the good. What he needs is to find something he can live for, instead
of something he wants to die for. (Lundquist 120)
Through his years of experience, Antolini is able to see Holden's situation and try to
give him clarity. Holden, still too immature and psychologically imbalanced, cannot
initially accept this advice.
Symbolically, Holden's emotional downfall begins with his physical
breakdown and leads to his suicidal thoughts. Although there are many moments
throughout the text where Holden comments on his depression and/or physical issues,
there are three specific instances where Holden creates a "death wish" for himself.
There is no clear indication that Holden will actual pursue suicide as an option,
considering he is even too scared to have sex, the thoughts are there indicating a
clear cry for help. Additionally, these moments are even further symbolic because
after each incident, Holden tries tofleefromthe uncomfortable situation: "Holden is
a fledging existentialist, learning where he is going by going there. He sees that it is
up to him to create values in a world that seems to have lost or abandoned its"
(Whissen 51). Initially, Holden's first literal cry occurs when he finishes packing his
suitcase and prepares to leave Pencey. He continually comments on how depressed
he is as he prepares leaving this institution, although he has not mentioned one
positive outcome of his time there. He comments on how awful the place truly is, but
if it were so bad, he would not have the emotional reaction that he does as he prepares
for his departure:
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When I was all set to go, when I had my bags and all, I stood for a
while next to the stairs and took a last look down the goddam corridor.
I was sort of crying. I don't know why. (Salinger 52)
At this point, being very early in the novel, Holden is still too emotionally involved
and unsure of himself to realize his potential breakdown. He sees only the immediate
moment, not realizing that his tears represent another loss that he is experiencing.
Through the later parts of his journey, he is able to come to terms with these
emotions, but at this point he is simply not ready.
Holden's next moment where he cries and hopes for death is when he is
beaten up by the pimp, Maurice. The verbal exchange between these two people
proves not only Holden's fear, but his broken inner being as well. When Maurice
enters the room, Holden being a sixteen-year-old boy states, "Boy, was I
nervous"(101) because he fears what Maurice will do to him over a lousyfivebucks;
it is important to remember at this point that Holden feels that money is always
making him "blue as hell." As this scene progresses, Holden states, "All of a sudden
I started to cry" (103). As Maurice continues to pressure Holden for the money,
Holden tells us, "I was still sort of crying. I was so damn mad and nervous and all"
(103), and then Maurice punches Holden. In typical Caulfield behavior, Holden acts
as though he has been shot in the stomach, causing Maurice and Sunny to leave the
room. In The Catcher in the Rye - Innocence Under Pressure, Sanford Pinsker
comments on the true nature of this scene in connection with Holden's connection to
depression throughout the entirety of the novel; "That the utter depression of being
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'down and out,' of falling, will continue is true enough, but in this scene's movement
from an elaborately reconstructed movie script.. .to his thoughts on suicide, one sees
the archetype of the novel's darkly comic design" (Pinsker 70). Additionally,
Holden's creation of this fantasy of being shot and left to care for his own wounds is
a part of his bigger issues. "His mental breakdown is a direct result of his inability to
come to terms with adult reality. Consequently he invents other fantasies, tinged with
paranoia, in which he sees himself as a martyr-victim" (Seng 64). The significance of
the scene after he is alone is Holden's comment on his depression: "What I really felt
like, though was committing suicide. I felt like jumping out the window" (Salinger
104). Still, Holden reiterates his true inner sadness.
Probably Holden's lowest moment of depression occurs after he meets with
Mr. Antolini. From an outside perspective, this scene is the most important, prior to
Holden's interactions with Phoebe, because Antolini actually "gets" Holden. Even
though Holden believes that Antolini may have been "flirty" with him but, in
retrospect, he realizes that"... maybe I was wrong about thinking he was making a
flitty pass at me... .even if he was a flit he certainly'd been very nice to me"(Salinger
194-5). After the fact, when Holden reflects on the scene in Antolini's apartment
while sitting in the train station he comes to realize that Antolini is actual a good guy,
especially when he remembers that Antolini was the only person to help James Castle
when he actually committed suicide:
I thought about all that stuff. And the more I thought about it, the
more depressed I got ...The more I thought about it, thought, the more
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depressed and screwed up about it I got. What made it even worse, my
eyes were sore as hell.. I was sort of getting a cold... (195)
It is at this moment that Holden's mental and physical downfall completely
intertwines and his full breakdown occurs.
Holden's religious connections and beliefs, as well as his unrealistic goals,
also play in to his levels of mental instability throughout the text. Most significantly,
when Holden establishes himself as a Christ-likefigureand states that he would like
to be the "...catcher in the rye and all. I know it's crazy, but that's the only thing I'd
really like to be. I know it's crazy" (Salinger 173), he further establishes his
psychological issues. According to David Galloway, "Holden's reiteration of the
word 'crazy' reminds us that his ambition is also 'absurd,' for his Christ-like intention
(sufFering the little children to come unto him) is opposed to the reality in which
children, like his own sister Phoebe... move along grimy corridors which flaunt 'Fuck
you!' at them"(Galloway 207). In trying to save the children from falling off of the
world into corruption, Holden comes face to face with the harsh realities of society.
"What is in question here is not the 'innocence' of children, but their total presence in
this world and their real connection to it" (Hemon 68). A mentally stable and mature
individual would be able to accept that there are just certain elements of the world
that you cannot change, but Holden, having not yet attained his complete coming of
age, simply cannot move beyond life's little indiscretions. As we are closer to the
end of his tale, even though this scene makes his feel sick, he does achieve some
sense of stability: "It's hopeless anyway. If you had a million years to do it in, you
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couldn't rub out even half the 'Fuck you' signs in the world. It's impossible"
(Salinger 202). The irony if this situation is that even as Holden moves to the
museum and observes another "Fuck you" (Salinger 204) which he says makes him
"sort of had diarrhea" and "sort of pass out" (Salinger 204), he begins to accept that
there are little indiscretions in life that we cannot change. "But by the end of the
book, however, he recognizes that his own pose of virtuous innocence may be just as
shallow as the compromises of everyday society" (Diggins 200). Life often gets in
the way of living, and for Holden, saving lives becomes his obstacle. He often puts
the fairy-tale idea of perfection before the harsh realities of his own world. But once
he realizes that there are some "Fuck you's" that you simply cannot erase, he comes
to accept the true nature of his own reality.
As the novel comes to a close, it is perfectly clear to the reader that Holden
has willingly accepted the psychological help that has been afforded to him; mainly
due to Phoebe's concern for her older brother. And even though he is still bothered
by the elements in the world that he cannot change, this acceptance of assistance is
moving Holden closer to a state of maturity that he so desperately needs to achieve:
His self-imposed quest has led him to an acceptance of the world as it
is, but it is a grudging acceptance that certainly gives no promise that
he will become a team player. His 'initiation' is actually a deinitiation
that confirms is dissociation from a world that he has come to
understand better. He has not abandoned his defiance, however; he is
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still a 'hater,' but he is no longer blinded by his own romantic vision he has cleared the smoke from his eyes. (French 48)
Even though Holden may not fall in love with the society in which he lives, he now
has a clear understanding of his being because "granted, he is adolescent enough to
patronize others at times, but he also is mature enough to know that he, too, is
vulnerable"(Wbissen 51). And maybe, just maybe, Holden will be able to let go of all
of the problems that have plagued him throughout his teenage existence and become a
positive member of society. Although it is obvious that the story clearly expresses
"the physical, emotional, or intellectual crises that the hypersensitive Holden
Caulfield passes through during the brief but terrifying period when he begins to
discover that he is not a carefree, childish animal, but a unique human being" (French
124), it is even more obvious that Holden is not that different from any other
teenager. He experiences as much teen angst as the next guy; he just goes about
dealing with his issues a bit differently. But it is through these differences that we are
able to observe a caring young man grow and change into an adult who will hopefully
be just as caring, yet more realistic. But even if he does not, he has achieved levels
of closure and will receive some balance psychologically.
Chapter 4
Religion and Zen: Holden's Saving Grace
Gene Forrester's coming of age is clearly apparent in A Separate Peace, but in
J.D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye, Holden's Caulfield's maturation process is
one that is assumed, and often hoped for, on the part of the reader. Part of Holden's
emotional development is related to his dealings with and comments on religion.
From what he tells us, he has not been given a solid upbringing on any level, so it is
through his own interpretations and realizations of religious entities that Holden takes
one step closer toward maturity. Since religion has not been a ritual of his
upbringing, he does not belong to one organized religion and clearly tells us why he
does not attend any regular religious service: "I don't. In the first place, my parents
are different religions, and all the children in out family are atheists" (Salinger 100).
This comment not only creates a religiously confused individual, but also mimics the
life of J.D. Salinger, the son of a Jewish father and a Christian mother. Due to his
religiously mixed upbringing, Salinger, according to his daughter's biography of him,
Dream Catcher, studies Christian Science and Zen Buddhism, and he relies heavily
on a yogi named Lahiri Mahasaya for emotional and spiritual guidance. To that end,
Holden makes various references to aspects of the Christian Bible as well as Zen
Buddhism which also becomes a significant factor in the maturation process.
Through biographical studies of Salinger, it is obvious that he believes in and follows
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many ideals of Buddhism which also impact the character of Holden Caulfield. Many
critics believe that the influence of Christianity is solely apparent in the novel through
an individual reader's background and ideas. I believe one cannot deny that there are
clearly both Christian and Buddhist ideals found throughout the text of The Catcher
in the Rye, and each of the elements plays a role in aiding Holden down his path
toward maturity. In Sanford Ymsker's Innocence Under Pressure, he states: "There
is plenty of textual evidence then, to support the view that Holden's quest has a
religious dimension without inventing nuances where none exist" (Pinsker 75).
Spiritually, Holden begins as a lost soul. He has little or no connection to any one
person or any one thing. He lacks a sense of unity with the world around him. It is
not so much that he transforms from a non-believer to a Bible-thumper, even though
he does state, "I'm sort of an atheist" (Salinger 99); but the inclusion of biblical and
religious references and underlying Zen ideals enable the reader to ascertain Holden's
growth as it is portrayed through the life of Salinger on his main character. Even
though he may not be readily willing to accept it, there is some belief in a higher
power within the mind of Holden Caulfield. Salinger displays symbolism through
Christianity and the simple beliefs of Zen Buddhism in a variety of ways that enable
Holden to mature and come of age at some point and time.
The main concept behind Holden's quest is saving the innocence of the
children, not letting them fall. This fall can be viewed as both the literal and
figurative fall from innocence, similar to the fall in the Garden of Eden, tying together
the concepts of religion to Holden's belief system. Initially, Holden decides that he
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wants to be "the catcher in the rye and all" (Salinger 173). But as the story progresses
and he meets with his favorite former English teacher, Mr. Antolini, the concept of
the fall progresses even farther within Holden, and the concept of the fall is more
closely related to his inner conflicts than to his personal fight against the world.
Although previously applied to Holden's physical and emotional fall, the following
statement by Mr. Antolini is two-fold because it also emphasizes Holden's spiritual
downfall:
This fall I think you're riding for- it's a special kind of fall, a horrible
kind. The man falling isn't permitted to feel or hear himself hit
bottom. He just keeps falling and falling. The whole arrangement's
designed for men who, at some time or other in their lives, were
looking for something their own environment couldn't supply them
with... So they gave up looking. They gave it up before they ever
really got started. (Salinger 187)
This whole moment of realization on Antonlini's part, trying to be forthcoming with
Holden, is significant in Holden's overall fallfromgrace or innocence. In trying to
save the rest of the world, Holden has allowed himself to fall victim to his own worst
fear. ".. the motif of the fall suggests that the loss of innocence is inevitable. The
evocative power of the fall arises from its symbolic association with the biblical story
of Adam and Eve's initiation into mortality" (Curnutt 109). It is through this basic
religious allusion that further spiritual connections will be made, helping Holden seek
and find salvation, redemption, and maturity. Additionally, this scene with Antolini
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also lends to the Zen ideals that will be discussed later on in this chapter. On some
level, Antolini is also acting as a Zen master for Holden, leading him to his Path of
Enlightenment. Mr. Antolini does not try to change Holden, as a Zen master knows
that is not his job. Instead, Antolini expresses concern for Holden and allows him to
observe a path before him that will lead to a greater peace. Antolini warns Holden:
'"I don't want to scare you,' he said, 'but I can very clearly see you dying nobly, one
way or another, for some highly unworthy cause "'(Salinger 188). Although at the
moment of this discussion Holden dismisses Antolini's advice, these words
essentially enable Holden to step on his path to maturity, Enlightenment and a selfrealization.
The most significant Christian allusion is presented in chapter 14. Holden
begins his explanation of this situation in his typical manner, still leaving the reader
unsure of how much of his story is true: "If you want to know the truth, the guy I like
best in the Bible, next to Jesus, was that lunatic and all, that lived in the tombs and
kept cutting himself with stones. I like him ten times as much as I like the disciples"
(Salinger 99). Holden is citing a minor biblical character, one who accurately depicts
Holden's personality and existence. In The Book of Mark the lunatic is described:
... and no sooner had they left the boat than a man with an unclean
spirit came outfromthe tombs towards him. The man lived in the
tombs and no one could secure him anymore, even with a chain...and
no one had the strength to control him" (Mark 5:2-5)
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Similar to Holden, this figure is alone and isolated from the rest of his society. This
element represents the immature aspect of Holden's character. "... since Holden
cannot live up to his Christ ideal, he will choose to emulate the only other character in
the Bible he likes, the lunatic" (Trowbridge 23). He chooses to separate himself from
the world around him. Holden's true spirit is still innocent, but his breath and clothes
constantly smell of cigarettes, and his breath often smells of alcohol, making him, on
some level, an unclean spirit as well: "Holden apparently identifies with this man
because he feels himself to be existing in a similar state.. .the correlation of tainted
breath-unclean spirit- madman is maintained throughout the novel" (Glasser 91). The
biblical passage continues, "All night and all day, among the tombs and in the
mountains, he would howl and gash himself with stones."(Mark 5:5-6). Holden does
not physically hurt himself on a regular basis, but he does suffer emotionally. For
example, we often observe Holden crying as the novel progresses.
Then, all of a sudden, I started to cry. I couldn't help it. I did it so nobody
could hear me, but I did it. (Salinger 179)
Also, through his various actions, we can observe Holden move closer to his
emotional breakdown. The one time that Holden does physically harm himself is
immediately after the death of Allie. His actions are simply the reaction to the loss of
innocence, yet very connected to the lunatic because Holden chooses to separate
himself from the rest of his family and deal with the current situation on his own: "I
slept in the garage the night he died, and I broke all the goddam windows with my
fist, just for the hell of it" (39). Holden's emotional scars run deep because he
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continually beats himself up over things; since he is still in a solid state of immaturity,
he does not realize he can change. It is no surprise that Holden can identify with the
figure of the lunatic, yet he does not even know his name because this is typical
Caulfield behavior. But in the Book of Mark, when Jesus asks this man his name, the
lunatic responds: "'My name is legion,' he answered 'for there are many of us' ""
(Mark 5:9- 10). Holden does have a mature, though unconscious, realization that he
is not the only person in the world who feels like he does, and he connects with this
biblical character for that reason: "It's true that Holden and the lunatic have
something in common: both spend time in the tombs; both suffer; both are mentally
ill"(Edwards 109).
On some level, Holden represents Everyman, allowing him to
move closer to a state of maturity. This helps in his maturation process as he moves
forward, and also connects with his feelings on Judas.
Judas is known as an evil character because he betrayed Jesus, but one who
truly believes in the power of, or the idea of, Jesus, as Holden seems to do, would
know that Jesus is one who forgives, no matter what. In a conversation Holden has
with another student, Arthur Childs, a Quaker, Holden reveals his true feelings on
Judas:
I'd said I'd bet a thousand bucks that Jesus never sent old Judas to
Hell.
I still would, too, if I had a thousand bucks. I think any one of
the Disciples would've sent him to Hell and all - and fast, too-but I'll
bet anything Jesus didn't do it. (Salinger 100)
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This interpretation of Judas is simplistic at best, but it first represents Holden's
immaturity and second, proves Holden's possibility of maturation. His childlike
innocence is what expresses Holden's belief that Judas was forgiven and saved from
the ravages of hell. It is this innocence that is a positive step in Holden's maturation
process because it represents a hopeful future for Holden. This level of understanding
leads Holden toward his coming of age in that he can accept and analyze his own life
as well as scripture. For someone like Holden, who is not perfect and who rebels
against his society, he needs to believe that there is some sort of redemption waiting
for him, similar to that in the Book of Luke:
But at this Jesus spoke. 'Leave off!' he said 'That will do!' And
touching the man's eat he healed him. (Luke 22:51)
The actions of Holden and Judas cannot be compared verbatim, yet the idea is similar.
For Holden to move closer to his coming of age, he must believe there is something
waiting for him at the end of the tunnel. Just as Jesus forgave Judas, someone will
forgive Holden for his little indiscretions in life, and Holden will continue to forgive
all those whom he feels have betrayed him as well: "And like his Jesus with his
Judas, he still forgives Stradlater and the bellboy Maurice who have betrayed him"
(Gwynn and Blotner 86). This analysis of Judas allows a more positive side of
Holden to surface, further proving that with some level of understanding of himself,
religion, and the world around him, Holden will achieve growth within his character.
It is this analysis of Judas that begins the connection between Holden and
Jesus Christ. I cannot state that Holden is a Christ-like figure, but it is through
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Holden's ideas and beliefs on certain aspects of life that prove that there is clearly a
correlation between these two individuals. "Like Christ, hefindspity and compassion
to be stronger in him than self-will; unlike Christ, he is unable to find anything in
himself approximating to the love of God, anything that can make of this pity and
compassion a positive force"(Trowbridge 23). Holden hopes to be a savior of
children, a much smaller feat than being savior of the world, but the mindset does
promote some connections between the character of Holden and the man, Jesus
Christ. In Sanford Vmsker's Innocence Under Pressure, he states: "Holden's vision
of innocence protected and of himself as a savior is a way of answering that most
dreaded of questions adults regularly put to adolescents- namely, 'And what do you
want you be when you grow up?'"(Pinsker 76). Holden's goal is similar to that of
Jesus Christ, to be a savior. What differs is that Holden simply wants to save the
childrenfromthe phony adult world, not society as a whole. As he discusses his
goals with his younger sister, Phoebe, he states:
Anyway, I keep picturing all these little kids playing some game in
this bigfieldof rye and all... and nobody's around- nobody big, I mean
- except me... What I have to do, I have to catch everybody if they
start going over the cliff-I mean if they're running and they don't look
where they are going I have to come outfromsomewhere and catch
them. That's all I'd do all day. I'd just be the catcher in the rye and
all. (Salinger 173)
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At this moment, Holden's ideas are immature because, in reality, no one can stop the
childrenfromfalling. Holden, still being a child himself, has not accepted the reality
that it is part of life to fall, which is ironic because all Holden seems to do is fall in all
that he attempts. He continues to view himself as a savior. Holden is too innocent to
realize this at this moment. But, the significant factor is that Holden is mature
enough to want to, like Jesus Christ, preserve some of the goodness that he sees in the
world. As the novel progresses, Holden will realize that this goal is unachievable,
though, leading him closer to his ultimate maturity. This realization proves not only
Holden's level of humanity, but also his growth and significant steps towards a solid
coming of age.
Holden's overall view of society is similar to the disgust he believes that Jesus
felt toward the disciples. "They were alright after Jesus was dead and all, but while
He was alive, they were about as much use to Him as a hole in the head. All they did
was keep letting Him down" (99). When discussing his knowledge and interest in the
stories of the Bible he states:
I like Jesus and all, but I don't care too much for most of the other
stuff in the Bible. Take the Disciples, for instance. They annoy the
hell out of me, if you want to know the truth. (99)
Similar to Jesus and the disciples, Holden cannot rely on the people in is life when he
needs them the most. On some level, Holden compares the choice that Jesus Christ
makes in choosing the disciples to his own decisions in life. In his initial analysis of
the work of Salinger, Warren French notes: "Holden is here obviously reading into
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Jesus' behavior his own failure to think things through before making important
decisions" (French 42). When looking at Holden's existence, it is clear that he has
felt betrayed and let down numerous times. For example, in his overall outlook on
society, Holden states: "People never believe you" (Salinger 37), leaving Holden
feeling let down. Because of his feelings of loss and betrayal, Holden consciously
chooses to be critical of everyone and everything around him, but unlike Jesus Christ,
he cannot move beyond his present state of immaturity and become the savior and the
survivor that he hopes to be. Holden has expectations of the people around him that
are often too high. Even though he does not practice what he preaches, he still
believes that people should behave in a certain manner. It is to this end that Holden
feels let down and betrayed. If he chose a Buddhist perspective, he, instead, would
focus on his own strengths and weaknesses, improve his being, and move on.
Instead, Holden dwells on the behaviors of others around him, not allowing himself to
move beyond the moment and attain peace. Holden makes this connection to Jesus
Christ in order to try to feel secure in his present situation. If Jesus was continually
let down by others and continued to be forgiving, then there is hope that Holden will
be able to forget his cynical ways, forgive the world around him, and move on to a
state of maturity.
For example, being let down within various relationships is a common
situation experienced by Holden throughout the text. One of the most significant
relationships where Holden is feeling let down is the one with his parents. It is true
that he has let them down by being kicked out of three schools in total, but their
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betrayal of him runs much deeper. As Holden describes his parents, his true feelings
become clear. In Holden's mind, these feelings are similar to the feelings that Jesus
had toward Judas. It is not that he does not love them, but that they have
disappointed him. First, his father basically represents everything Holden despises.
When he and Phoebe discuss their father's role in the world around them, Holden can
only comment on the negativity his father represents through his work as a
corporation lawyer and the negativity surrounding this career:
'I mean they're all right if they go around saving innocent guys' lives
all the time...but you don't do that kind of stuff if you're a
lawyer.. because what you really wanted to do was be a terrific
lawyer.. .How would you know you weren't being a phony? The
trouble is, you wouldn't.' (172)
There is really not much else significant that is stated about Holden's father because
Holden has nothing else to say about him because the man cares little about his
children, especially Holden. Mr. Caulfield participates in the portion of society that
creates the phoniness and corruption in the adult world, the world that Holden is
trying to avoid, but he is still Holden's father. Holden, like Jesus, wished to
perpetuate goodness. Also, Holden's mother disappoints Holden, yet he feels sorry
for her at the same time: "She's nervous as hell. Half the time she's up all night
smoking cigarettes" (158). Even though Holden is mature enough to realize the true
problem lurking inside of his parents, he is still at the point of immaturity that he
needs his parents to be more caring and supportive, even though they have lost
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another child. Holden's parents' betrayal is not typical, but to a young man in great
need of guidance it is the worst kind: he is forsaken for the loss of another child.
As Holden continues on his journey, he comes in contact with two nuns.
There are many significant factors surrounding this encounter. The setting of the
diner where he meets these nuns is symbolic because it represents a level of safety for
Holden on various levels. In American culture, especially on the east coast, a diner is
a place of comfort; the regularity of patrons and the simple, feel-good food create a
sense of security. As simple as it is, a diner is reliable, and always open. For Holden,
though, the nuns he encounters at the diner are not his typical view of the adult world,
but by the end of their conversation, they become typical in Holden's view of
religion. Here, Holden looks at these women from both a positive and negative
perspective. "Thus, Holden's biting but revealing point of view is not clouded by
specific religious commitments, and he can love the nuns.. .even though he feels that
Catholicism usually throws up insurmountable barriers to communication"(Galloway
205). He cannot deny the simplicity of this meeting. Holden meets these two
"Salvation Army babes collecting dough" (Salinger 109) and feels sorry for them
because they are simple. Holden realizes that the nuns are not phony as he has
observed the rest of the world to be. Yet, as their conversation comes to an end,
Holden returns to the negative views of Catholicism: "I said I'd enjoyed talking to
them a lot, too.. .Catholics are always trying to find out if you're a Catholic" (112).
These women wear black, no make-up, and simply have toast and coffee for
breakfast, creating a sense of sympathy inside of Holden.
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A portion of what indicates to the reader that the nuns add to Holden's coming
of age is first the fact that he gives them money: '"I could make a small contribution.
You could keep the money for when you do take up a collection'" (109). The
average sixteen year old boy would not willfully give up his money to two nuns he
has just met in a diner, but Holden offers them this money without being asked to do
so. He is willing to contribute to whatever these nuns religiously represent, without
thinking twice about it. Additionally, when Holden's behavior around these nuns
becomes questionable in his eyes he gets upset and feels the need to atone for any sins
he has committed. While smoking a cigarette in front of the nuns, Holden states:
"... by mistake I blew some smoke in their face. I apologized like a madman, and
they were very polite and nice about it, but it was very embarrassing anyway" (113).
Again, Holden reacts on the side of maturity. He realizes it is disrespectful to blow
smoke in anyone's face, and he does not just ignore this action. He tries to make
amends for this minor indiscretion, which is the action of a boy on his way to
manhood. His level of respect is high, when necessary, and he realizes his faults in
life.
On the other hand, even though Holden makes his readers believe he is
stepping in the right direction, he makes comments that bring him two steps
backwards. Although not associated completely with immaturity, suicide is a
constant idea in Holden's mind. Looking at the Old Testament, suicide is considered
a major sin: In both Exodus 20:13 and Deuteronomy 5:17 it states "Thou shall not
kill". Although this statement can be read and interpreted on various levels, it clearly
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states that the taking of a life, any life, is a sin. Additionally, the Bible questions why
one would wish to take one's own life: "Do not be wicked to excess, and do not be a
fool; why die before your time?"(Ecclesiastes 7:17-18). With this said, it is obvious
that committing suicide is a sin, yet the Bible never states that one who does commit
suicide will be damned to hell for all eternity. Holden knows that suicide is not
acceptable behavior, but it is not a sin to talk about it. After his fight with Stradlater,
Holden seeks comfort with Ackley, a phony boy whom he outwardly despises. But
because it is in the middle of the night, Ackley will not give Holden the time of day,
turning Holden's thoughts to sadness: "Every time I thought about it, I felt like
jumping out the window" (Salinger 48). Again, when life gets too difficult, Holden
considers ending it all: "What I really felt like, though, was committing suicide"
(104). The action of actually taking his life is probably something that would not
happen for two significant reasons. First, Holden states: "I didn't want a bunch of
stupid rubbernecks looking at me when I was all gory" (104). But more significantly
is the fact that Holden would be too afraid to actually go through with it, which is
essentially a good element and a step in the right direction. Thinking about taking
one's life is a thought that has entered the mind a more teenagers than we would like
to believe. The key element here is that through elements of his own morality,
Holden is unable to actually go through with this act and continues to live and
become a better person. Although he may not be directly influenced by religion in
the situation, he does solidify earlier religious beliefs in order to make a conscious
moral decision not to step over the edge. His fear of suicide is much more focused in
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the idea of what others around him will think and see; there is a slight religious
element behind his decision due to his earlier discussion of the suicide of Judas.
Realistically, if he were to take such a drastic measure, he would also not be able to
be the "catcher" and the savior, Christ, of the youthful world.
Holden remembers the suicide of James Castle because it speaks to all that he
desires: "...but Holden's memory of James Castle, the only person he has ever known
who died for a principle, suggests to him a way in which he can devote his life to the
protection of goodness" (Trowbridge 25). Here Holden not only comments on the
reasons behind this boy's death, but he also makes a connection between Castle's
inability to survive with his own failings at that moment in life. Although Holden's
connections to James Castle solidify some of his reasons for wanting to be "the
catcher in the rye," this realization furthers the reasons why this wish simply cannot
be but connect to Holden's religious connection: "First of all, it is a savior image,
and shows us the extent of Holden's religious idealism"(25). When Holden discusses
the boy he knew who did commit suicide, we are further able to observe Christ-like
elements on the part of Holden:
And you should've seen him. He was a skinny weak looking guy,
with wrists about the size of pencils. Finally, what he did, instead of
taking back what he said, he jumped out the window. (Salinger 170)
Holden's description of James Castle proves weakness in character; he could not take
the pressure so he completely avoided it, yet Holden still desires to save other young
people, like James Castle,fromthis same fate. James Castle could not tolerate the
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occurrences around him, so he killed himself. Holden, on the other hand, has made a
conscience choice to try to deal with these issues in some way shape or form, even if
these dealings are a bit unrealistic. Although Holden seems to be avoiding many
situations as the novel progresses, it is obvious at the end of the novel he chooses to
deal with his problems. In Innocence Under Pressure, Sanford Pinsker states: "So, if
anyone is a Christ figure in Salinger's novel, it is Holden Caulfield rather than James
Castle... If Holden is a would-be saint, he is also an uncompromising critic and
... something of a prig" (Pinsker 76). Holden then seeks shelterfromthe one adult
who seems to care for him, Mr. Antolini. According to Jonathan Baumbach: "The
episode of the suicide is one of the looming shadows darkening Holden's world;
Holden seeks out Antolini because he hopes that gentle teacher - the substitute fatherwill 'pick him up' before he is irrevocably fallen"(Curnutt 126). Antolini is the only
adult who arrives to attempt to mend the affects of the suicide:
He was the one that finally picked up that boy that jumped out of the
window that I told you about, James Castle. Old Mr. Antolini felt his
pulse and all, and then he took off his coat and put it over James Castle
and carried him all the way to the infirmary. He didn't even give a
damn if his coat got all bloody. (Salinger 174)
Holden's hope in humanity is restored because there is an adult out there who cares.
By viewing this scene, and continuing to discuss it years after it has happened,
Holden reiterates his hope in humanity, allowing him to avoid the action of suicide
himself, and continue to mature.
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Another instance that proves that Christianity does have an impact on
Holden's life is when he tries to pray. A more mature individual would look to
religion as a method of guidance, while a more immature individual would not be
able to see or believe in that higher power. For Holden, prayer can be a time of
meditation and reflection, as well as a time to focus on his wants and needs in life.
Holden states:
Finally, though, I got undressed and got in bed. I felt like praying or
something, when I was in bed, but I couldn't do it. I can't always pray
when I feel like it. (99)
His want and need of prayer is symbolic in the sense that he knows he needs
assistance in some way, shape or form. Yet, his inability to achieve this state of
prayer is representative of his state of immaturity at that moment.
Finally, another element of Christian teaching that is apparent in Holden's
character and does influence his maturation process on a variety of levels is his
reluctance to have a sexual experience with a girl. A portion of this action does relate
to Holden's psychological issues and the fact that he is simply not ready to have sex,
but in light of the other religious implications found within the text, it is obvious that
there is a slight religious implication during these intimate moments as well. The
seventh commandment is "You must not commit adultery" (Matthew 5:27). Holden
abides by this commandment, which is a very mature action. Most sixteen- year-old
boys are doing nothing but trying to have a sexual relationship, but Holden feels that
he simply cannot do this for a variety of reasons, which are very mature. He does,
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though, let us know that sex is something he frequently thinks about: "In my mind,
I'm probably the biggest sex maniac you ever saw" (Salinger 62). He admits to us
that he does think about it, but he does not act on it for the following reason: "I think
if you don't like really like a girl, you shouldn't horse around with her at all, and if
you do like her, then your supposed to like her face, and if you like her face, you
ought to be careful about doing crumby stuff to it, like squirting water all over it"
(62). On the surface this scene may simply portray a young man who is too immature
to have sex, but there is an alternate side to Holden's action. Holden displays his
respect for the opposite sex. Just because everyone else is doing it, or it is the thing to
do when you are dating someone, is not a reason for Holden to have sex. He looks at
the experience as something special, not one that should be taken lightly. Even when
Holden is faced with a sure thing with the Sunny the prostitute, he cannot go through
with it. He says to Sunny after she is already undressing herself in his room" '"I
don't feel much like myself tonight.. but do you mind very much if we don't do it?
Do you mind very much?'"(96). Similar to Jesus Christ with Mary Magdalene,
Holden feels sorry for Sunny and wants to help her. Holden feels so sorry for her that
he makes him upset as well:
I know you're supposed to feel pretty sexy when someone gets up and
pulls their dress over their head, but I didn't. Sexy was about the last
thing I was feeling. I felt much more depressed than sexy. (Salinger
95)
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Although this inability to have a sexual experience does connect with his
psychological meltdown, there are also religious elements present. Holden will not
just have a sexual encounter with a girl because she is willing to have one with him.
He wants to be ready physically, and morally. This inability to have sex is a genuine
step in his coming of age, not because he cannot or will not have sex, but because of
why the action cannot occur. When he is fully mature and capable, and the right girl
comes along, the action will occur, and Holden is becoming mature enough to realize
when that time is, in fact, the right time.
In addition to the obvious Christian references, I must note that since Salinger
has studied the beliefs of Buddhism, it becomes obvious that Holden's needs could
easily be met if his being were centered and followed those Zen beliefs as well. It has
been observed that "Salinger's interest in Zen began at least as early as the mid 1940s, and as we have seen, is important to the ending The Catcher in the Rye"
(Lundquist 7 0 - 1 ) . When carefully looking at the character of Holden Caulfield, I
believe that Salinger slowly and carefully infuses some of these beliefs in Holden's
growth and development. By placing Holden on the Path to Enlightenment, Salinger
is acting as his Zen master in the sense that the master will show the path, but the
student must seek and find his own Enlightenment. Salinger lays out what Holden
needs to do, and Holden, by the end of the novel, finds his way. No one's life is
perfect and without conflict, but by looking beyond and achieving peace, one can
survive quite well. According to Alexander Hemon, "Children are natural Zen
masters for Salinger, as they are able to bypass the mirage of essences and access
Ill
things as material, real objects. Children know things, not their essences" (Hemon
68). The Noble Truths of Zen Buddhism state: "It is the nature of life that all beings
will face difficulties; through enlightened living one can transcend these difficulties
ultimately becoming fulfilled, liberated andfree(Das 76). Holden has always had
the ability tofreehimself, yet his immature mind does to allow him to fully achieve
this goal. According to Buddhist beliefs Holden exists within dukkha which is
translated as, "hard to bear.. .dissatisfactory.. .frequently translated as hard to bear"
(77). He looks at his lifefromthis perspective and because he has not yet come of
age, he is not able to come to terms with the Third Noble Truth of Zen Buddhism:
"The Third Noble Truth is that nirvana exists.. .Nirvana is liberation, everlasting
freedom, fulfillment and enlightenment itself (84). Looking at itfroma Buddhist
perspective, Holden could view his life scenario differently. If Holden stopped being
so critical of others, he could exist in a state of peace and fulfillment. Because
Buddhism is simply a collection of beliefs and not an organized religion, Holden can
still hold on to the ideas he has and focus his being in order to achieve a place of
happiness, which would ultimately allow him to achieve a sense of maturity and
ultimate fulfillment. Lama Surya Das believes that".. .Buddhism is not a mystical
encounter with God. Enlightenment is not about becoming divine. Instead it's about
becoming more fully human" (14). Das also indicates that in following these beliefs,
there is hope for Holden, "Buddhism says yes, change is possible. It tells us that no
matter what our background, each of us is the creator of his or her own destiny" (17).
Salinger's practice of Buddhist beliefs allows the reader to expect a coming of age,
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even if it is after the novel is finished. A portion of what establishes hope for Holden
through Salinger's beliefs in Zen Buddhism is that "the life of the mystic is only
temporarily one of isolation, for after the achievement of satori, the state of total
enlightenment and consciousness that is the goal of Zen Buddhism, the enlightened
man re-enters the world to perform good works" (Galloway 208-9). Holden has spent
a significant amount of time alone, and he is now ready to become one with the world
around him as he moves to a state of maturity and acceptance of himself and others,
as indicated by the last line of the text: "It's fiinny. Don't ever tell anybody anything.
If you do, you start missing everybody" (Salinger 214).
Ideals of Zen, known as Koans, or parables, become apparent at three
significant points within Holden's journey. First, are Holden's numerous discussions
of the Central Park ducks, next is the scene in the cafe in Grand Central Station where
Holden is unable to swallow the doughnuts that he has ordered for breakfast, and,
finally, is the recurring symbol of the Central Park carrousel. The ducks are
portrayed through "Hyakujo's Geese", while the doughnuts are described in
"Amban's Doughnuts" and the carrousel is detailed in "Rilke's Carrousel". More
specifically, the concept of Zen can be directly related to the ducks that Holden
ponders numerous times within the text. "If the attending reader should happen to be
familiar with Zen folklore, he might suddenly recognize the duck's symbolic
derivation therein, at which point it would become quite obvious that these
'extraneous' fowl lie right in the heart of Holden's identity crisis"(McCort 121). The
first time the ducks appear are shortly before HoldenfinallydepartsfromPencey.
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Mr. Spencer, Holden's favorite history teacher, attempts to give Holden some advice,
but as the conversation progresses, Holden digresses within his own mind:
The runny thing is, though, I was sort of thinking of something else
while I shot the bull. I live in New York, and I was thinking about the
lagoon in Central Park, down near Central Park South. I was
wondering if it would befrozenover when I got home, and if it was,
where did the ducks go. I was wondering where the ducks went when
the lagoon got all icy and frozen over. I wondered if some guy came
in a truck and took them away to a zoo or something. Or if they just
flew away. (Salinger 13)
Here, the pure innocent, yet trivial and inconsequential side of Holden Caulfield
emerges. It may not be uncommon for a young adult to digress within his own mind,
especially when being directed by an adult to simply become a better person, yet
Holden's thoughts are so immature. "With the ducks first appearance - in Holden's
consciousness during that farewell chat with Mr. Spencer - Salinger makes allusion
to an interesting aspect of koan psychology: even when the aspirant allows the koan
to move from the center of the periphery of his attention so that he can take up other
tasks, the koan continues to exert its influence"( McCort 123). Even when a sort of
master, Mr. Spencer, is trying to show Holden the Path to Enlightenment, since he is
clearly not ready or able to see that light on his own, that master cannot see it for him.
The next instance with the ducks appears when Holden begins his three day
odyssey in New York City. Holden hails a taxi right outside of Penn Station, and he
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begins a conversation with the driver. A bit out of the ordinary to begin with, but
Holden's conversation becomes strange when he questions the driver about the ducks
he pondered while listening to Mr. Spencer:
Then I thought of something, all of a sudden. 'Hey, listen' I said. 'You
know those ducks in that lagoon right near Central Park South? That
little lake? By any chance, do you happen to know where they go, the
ducks, when it gets all frozen over? Do you happen to know, by any
chance?' I realized it was only a chance in a million. (Salinger 60)
Holden sounds rather ridiculous asking this question, not simply because it is
uncommon, but it is also a simplistic statement. The cab driver does not ignore the
statement, but he focuses on Holden's personality: "He turned around and looked at
me like I was a madman. 'What're ya tryna do, bud?' he said. 'Kid me?"'(60). And
Holden responds, '"No - 1 was just interested, that's all" (60). This unknown taxi
driver is as confused by Holden as Holden is of himself:
In verbalizing his concern Holden begins to experience the unsettling
ubiquity of the koan as it spreads from private inner to social domain.
At the same time he is becoming aware of its frustrating
imponderability. For koan to be effective, the mediator must at some
point come against its diamond-hard resistance to reason, otherwise he
will not be driven to arouse his own latent supra-rational resources.
(McCort 123 - 4)
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Holden continues to ponder the trivial existence of the ducks, even though the world
around him is clearly unaffected by their existence.
Later on in the novel, Holden meets another taxi driver, but this time they
become more personally acquainted, and Holden learns that is name is Horwitz. The
change in this scene, though, is that Holden has just left his hotel lobby and he is
attempting to go to Ernie's bar. He has already entered his quest for Enlightenment.
They converse:
'Hey Horwitz,' I said. 'You ever pass by the lagoon in Central Park?
Down by Central Park South?' 'The what?' 'The lagoon. That little
lake, like, there. Where the ducks are. You know.' 'Yeah, what about
it?' 'Well, you know the ducks that swim around in it? In the
springtime and all? Do you happen to know where they go in the
wintertime, by any chance?' (Salinger 81)
Due to the triviality of Holden's questions, Horwitz is initially unclear of what
Holden is asking, but he does not ignore Holden's question: "Unlike his predecessor
who dismissed Holden's question with contempt, this cabby engages him in a mockcomic round of what is known in Zen as 'dharma dueling,' defined .. as a 'verbal
joust or battle of'wit' as respects the dharma, usually between two enlightened
persons'" (McCort 124). The concept of the ducks is not an element most ponder.
They are there. We know that they are there. But how they got there and where they
go is an irrelevant fact in most people's lives, except Holden's. There conversation
continues, and Horwitz is blatantly honest regarding Holden's ridiculous question:
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'"How the hell should I know' he said. 'How the hell should I know a stupid thing
like that?'"(Salinger 82). The honesty of Horwitz is crass, but realistic. "Here
Horwitz takes the role of Holden's/Hyakujo's enlightened master whose task it is to
pry his student loose from a one-sided view of things: whereas Holden continues to
brood obsessively on the ephemeral (the vanished ducks, with their unconscious
association to Holden's brother's death and to the impending 'death' of his own
innocence" (McCort 124). These comments are, on some level, stupid, but to Holden,
this is important. But as the conversation continues, Horwitz introduces an element
that solidifies the beauty of existence, and helps Holden see that God, or nature will
take care of him, just like all the creatures of the world: " 'The fish don't go no place.
They stay right where they are, the fish. Right in the goddam lake.'... 'It's tougher
for the fish, the winter and all, than it is for the ducks, for Chrissake. Use your head,
for Chrissake'" (Salinger 82). The fish, unlike the ducks, are constant; they do not
leave, and they do not change and they, like Holden, are or will ultimately be cared
for in the grand scheme of things.
After drunkenness, fights, and extreme feelings of loneliness and depression,
Holden arrives at the lake, by himself, in the middle of the night, to see the location of
his beloved ducks, but things are not as he hoped they would be:
I kept walking and walking, and it kept getting darker and darker and
spookier and spookier. I didn't see one person the whole time I was in
the park.. Then I finally found it. What it was, it was partly frozen
and partly not frozen. But I didn't see any ducks around. I walked all
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around the whole damn lake - 1 damn near fell in once, in fact, but I
didn't see a single duck.. .But I couldn't find any. (154)
As Holden comes to the realization that the ducks are not there, his innocence
becomes compromised. This connection with Zen proves definitively that Holden is
on his way to maturity: "Only the Middle Way, a central tenet of Buddhism, leads by
its very a-positional 'narrowness' to the promised land of Enlightenment, to the
ineffable coincidentia oppositorum in which all dualities are transcended, all
contradictions resolved. Holden has not yet arrived at the promised land..., but he is,
at this point, well along the path" (McCort 125). This scene, as well as many others
within the text, unifies religious beliefs as a premise for the coming of age of Holden
Caulfield.
Another minor, yet significant, Zen scene found within the text is when
Holden arrives at Grand Central Station after a very rough evening and decides he
needs some food. At a small cafe he orders coffee and doughnuts, but for some
reason he cannot eat these doughnuts: "Only I didn't eat the doughnuts. I couldn't
swallow them too well" (Salinger 196). Holden's difficulty swallowing may seem,
on the surface, to be simply caused by illness or depression, but the deeper meaning
of this scene lies within "Amban's Doughnuts." Within this one line, a reader can
simply observes Holden's inner issues, but "Holden's gagging on the doughnuts is an
allusion to the forty-ninth andfinalkoan contained mMumonkcm, the renowned
medieval Chinese collection assembled in 1928 by Master Mumon Eikai"(McCort
126). This incident goes much deeper than Holden's surface display of depression:
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"Indigestible doughnuts are an apt comic image for the psycho-spiritual impasse that
koans are designed to produce. Unaided reason does not equip man to comprehend
('swallow') thefreedomfrom,indeed within, contradiction (permanence/change,
innocence/corruption, childhood/adulthood) promised by Enlightenment" (McCort
127). A simple action of swallowing, on a Zen level, becomes representative of
Holden's inability to mature at this point. Holden not swallowing his doughnuts is
symbolic of his inability to swallow his present state of being. He is clearly
dissatisfied with himself, but as he steps on the Path to Enlightenment, he is able to
accept and move on. The key element with these koans is that Holden does have the
potential, through enlightenment and acceptance to mature. As with all his biblical
encounters throughout his journey, his Buddhist encounters aid in his growth as well.
Finally, the symbolic carrousel that appears at the very end of Holden's three
day odyssey also relates to Zen. In the text, Holden arrives at Central Park with his
sister. Phoebe, and suggests that she take a ride: "'Do you want to go for a ride on
it?' I said. I knew she probably did" (Salinger 210). But the fact that he offers this
service to his little sister is less important than Holden's overall notion of this
symbolic entity: "That's one nice thing about carrousels, they always play the same
songs" (210). Here, Holden finds comfort in the carrousel because it, unlike the rest
of his life, does not change. As he stands there and watches Phoebe go around in
circles, similar to what he has just done for the past three days, he comes to terms
with himself and makes some very significant and mature decisions regarding his
future. First, he realizes that he cannot save the children of the world; his idea to be
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the "catcher in the rye" has fallen from his reality: "The thing with kids is, if they
want to grab for the golden ring, you have to let them do it, and not say anything. If
they fall off, they fall off, but it's bad if you say anything to them" (211). But, more
important, and more closely related to his well being is his ultimate and final decision
when he says, "I really did go home afterwards" (212). Ultimately, Holden comes to
realize that life, in all of its simplicity, can be good. And at the ripe old age of
sixteen, he does not have all of the answers or the ability to make grand changes in
his world. According Zen beliefs:
What Holden does in fact 'do' at the carrousel is resolve his life koan.
His subsequent 'illness' and therapeutic confinement in no way cast
doubt on this. Zen is replete with accounts of Enlightenment
experiences (kensho or satori) that are so shattering to the individual's
conditioned world view that the rush of emancipation they bring is
initially experienced as a kind of a nervous breakdown. (McCort 129)
Holden's placement in the sanatorium after this scene may, according to Zen, be a
direct result of the intense experience of this young man while watching his sister
enjoy the simplicity of a childhoodride.Hefindssolace in the carrousel: "I was
damn near bawling, I felt so damn happy.. .It was just that she looked so damn nice
going around and around.. ."(Salinger 213). For once, Holden is happy and satisfied;
he can move on.
Religious implications are included within Holden's journey for a variety of
reasons. On the surface one might say that these allusions are assumed by the reader
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because of Salinger's beliefs in so many other forms of prayer or meditation, but it
cannot be denied that these religious notions enable Holden to step closer to maturity
by the end of his three-day journey. Additionally, the inclusion of Zen enables the
reader to view Holden from a different perspective that allows him to "bask in the
glow of Enlightenment" (McCort 132). And ultimately achieve the ability to take
steps toward maturity. According to Jonathan Baumbach:
Holden not only suffers as a victim from the effects of the evil in the
world, but for it as its conscience - so that his experiences are
exemplary. In this sense, The Catcher in the Rye is a religious, or to
be more exact, spiritual novel.. .he experiences guilt, unhappiness, and
spiritual deformities of others more intensely than he does his own
misfortunes. (Curnutt 96)
Religion, whatever the denomination, does impact the lives of the people who
practice it on a variety of levels. From Catholic school guilt to the ideals of the
Jewish mother, one cannot escape the influence of some higher power, and Holden is
no different.
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Conclusion
The cornerstone of most high school English curricula, coming-of-age stories
are relevant academically, socially and emotionally. The characters of coming-ofage novels speak directly to readers in ways that parents, teachers and peers cannot.
Considering the rise of school violence in recent years, I believe that it is relevant for
readers to consider all aspects of any piece of literature written to be regarded as
teaching tools in examining the youth in society so that further acts of violence do not
occur. This will enable society to consider, analyze and understand the workings of
not only the teenage mind, but also the world in which we live. Although many
elements of society have changed from the similar settings of the novels J4 Separate
Peace and The Catcher in the Rye, lessons can be learned from each novel in order to
create some level of peace and understanding within society and the self. Readers in
present society can learn from the actions and situations of fictional characters such
as Gene Forrester and Holden Caulfield through the inclusion of psychological and
biblical concepts that build these characters to a moment where they can exhibit some
personal acceptance and mature, or at least step on the road that will lead them to a
clear coming of age. Novels do not simply need to be taught as groups of words with
themes and motifs in abundance. These stories can delve deeply in the social and
moral ideals on which every society is based, and act as prototypes for lessons of the
future.
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The correlation between the author's inclusion of symbols and devices and
the overall meaning of any given text is often obvious and clear. High school
teachers investigate these aspects every year with their students in order to gain a
basic understanding of the concept of the novel as a whole. In the case of
psychological and biblical ideals represented in John Knowles's^ Separate Peace
and J.D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye, though, these elements are deeper than
the average high school student can readily observe, but are just as significant as any
other symbols presented in these coming-of-age novels. I believe that these concepts
also step each novel up from the genre of young adult literature, to works that can be
studied at various levels for various objectives. Through the psychological lens,
coming-of-age novels can often shed light on personal issues and create balance in
the life of a reader. From the biblical perspective, the readers can make connections
through past teachings, but can also observe a deeper connection between the
literature read and a higher meaning in life. Without these two ideas considered,
these novels are simply stories of two typical high-school-aged boys who experience
very typical high-school-aged issues. Through a deeper analysis, these tales can serve
as tools of experience, allowing readers to observe growth and change among
fictional characters on a deeper level.
In order to fully analyze and prove the significance of these works, I represent
Gene and Holden as prototypes for other males in similar situations in present society
to serve as a message and a warning to future generations of adolescent males. Gene
and Holden exist in a time and place much different from present-day society, where
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although there was a greater emphasis on family, there was less attention paid to the
emotional and psychological issues of children growing up in that time period. As
times passes and the levels of violence continues to increase, the outcomes of
individuals such as Gene and Holden existing in present day society may have been
much different, yet each boy may also have been given greater attention regarding his
psychological disabilities.
John Knowles's A Separate Peace is often taught as a story of two innocent
friends in conflict who experience many losses due to the war within and the war
without. On a deeper, psychological level, these conflicts are created by the main
character, Gene Forrester, which enables him to ultimately come of age by the end of
hisflashbackand return to his present society. Knowles allows Gene to rehash a
tragic experience while attending the Devon school in during the conflict of World
War II, and also to display this boy's personal downfalls, conflicts, and reasons
behind creating his perfect best friend. Realistically, Gene creates Finny in order to
validate his own agenda; he is not satisfied within, so he must create this alternate
being in order to balance out his character. Since Finny is clearly all that Gene is not,
Gene is able to live vicariously through this concept of perfection that seemingly
appears as a devil that tempts to move beyond his borders of safety. Once these
boundaries have been broken, Gene matures by killing off his created alter ego
because in his maturation he has come to accept himself for who he is and achieve
happiness.
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This idea of war sets the back drop for the true war occurring within the text,
which is Gene's psychological war within himself. Although Knowles does allow
other characters to engage in dialogue, these conversations are clearly creations in the
mind of Gene, who at the beginning of the novel has not yet come to terms with his
own inner conflicts. Psychologically speaking, Gene creates the character of Phineas,
better known as Finny, to act as the fall guy for his own inadequacies. Since Gene is
dissatisfied with himself, he must create a bestfriend/enemywhom he must
figuratively kill when he is ready to come to terms with his being. Without these
psychological implications, Gene would not have grown as a character.
For Holden Caulfield, this psychological war is much different because it
clearly initializes within the home. After the death of his younger brother, Holden is
sent away and the emotions associated with such a loss are clearly avoided by the
people he is supposed to rely on the most, his parents. Holden battles the phony adult
world in his quest to save the children from falling off the cliff. This cliff figuratively
represents the fall from innocence to adult maturity where corruption lies and people
become, as Holden views them, phony. As the novel progresses, Holden's
psychological inadequacies become more apparent as he begins to physically react to
things around him. By the end of his journey, Holden has achieved the perfect
balance of psychology since he has landed in a therapist's office, telling this tale.
Again, like Gene's story, Holden's story can also be made up in order to make him
feel good about himself. Little, all, or none of this tale could be true, but it is clear
that psychology plays a significant role in Holden's coming of age.
125
The Bible, as a piece of literature, serves as a solid basis for morality, and all
of the biblical and other religious allusions presented in each text acts as a basis for
this ideal. The Bible often only discussed as a work of divinity, can also be utilized
as a piece of literature that connects symbolically to other pieces of literature. In
present society, morals are greatly lacking and people, as a whole, put less emphasis
on faith, and more emphasis on the material aspects of the world. On the other hand,
both Gene and Holden are created within a time where these morals and values were
a bit more important and accepted as a necessity. To this end, each author utilizes
religious implications to allow each boy to present, experience, and accomplish a
goal. Within each text, the Bible also serves as a constant source of symbolism with
regard to each main character. Buddhist beliefs through the application of Zen ideals
and koan are also included within Holden's story to create an even deeper analysis
and Enlightenment, leading to his coming of age.
For Gene, the ideals of religion come in a pure form of symbolism. On the
surface, the tree next to the Devon River is simply a treefromwhich boys jump as an
adolescent game, but symbolically, due to the incidents that occur, this tree represents
a paradise lost. There is a clear connection to the forbidden tree found in the Garden
of Eden; the events that take place in Eden change humanity, while the events at
Devon change Gene Forrester. Throughout the text, these subtle hints included by
Knowles add for a solid basis of morality that is further solidified by the end of the
novel when a sense of goodness is achieved. Without the inclusion of these elements,
126
Gene's story would simply be that of a boy who goes to private school and deals with
some moral issues.
On the other hand, religion, for Holden becomes two-fold; there are obvious
elements of Christianity, but due to Salinger's study of Buddhism, there are also
significant Zen symbols that directly catapult Holden down the Path of
Enlightenment. When looking at Holden on a superficial level, he generally seems
like a teen-age boy who is simply dissatisfied with his existence, making him not
much different from the rest of the teen-age world. But, when looking deeper into
Holden's issues, and the symbols carefully placed by Salinger, it becomes clear that
there is a higher being intervening in the life of Holden Caulfield. Whether this being
is God or a Zen Master, more likely than not the later, is not specifically stated, but
rather the ideal that something deeper and bigger than Holden Caulfield is there to
"catch" him is what makes his story a success. Without these religious implications,
Holden would not be the icon that he is today.
In conclusion, without the clear use of psychology and religion neither of
these books would speak on the levels that the do. By delving deeper into these
mindsets, a reader can clearly observe the break down of a character, but also revel in
their rise to maturation. Novels do not need to be simple stories that tell of trials and
tribulations of the characters, but can also represent significant movements in
teaching techniques, as well as world lessons learned. Gene Forrester and Holden
Caulfield represent these lessons to be learned through their psychological
127
misfortunes and the reference to a higher power that leads all individuals to as sense
of goodness, maturity, and Enlightenment.
128
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VITA
Stacey Donovan Smith
Plainfield, NJ, August 13, 1969
Jacqueline Kush Powers and Robert Donovan
Middlesex High School
Middlesex, NJ
diploma
College of St. Elizabeth
Convent Station, NJ BA
June, 1987
May, 1993
William Paterson University Wayne, NJ
MA
May, 1999
Drew University
D. Litt
October, 2008
Madison, NJ
I understand that the Drew University Library
may have this dissertation reproduced by
microphotography and made available by sale
to scholars and other libraries.