C OM PA RA T IV E ST U D IE S
IN TH E
P sy c h o l o g y
Ants
of
an d
of
H i gh e r A n i m al s
.
WA SM A N N
E R IC
e
P l us
stu p e mu s
(S
i m me m a
q u am
e
,
D e Ci t/ i t
e E glish V e i
sc
f th
E l ge d
d r vis d b y t h
A ut h o ri z d
n
rs o n
n ar
ST
.
L
O UI S
,
an
Mo
.
l
,
e
AN D
e
o
e
F
P ub i sh e d b y B
1 905
L
ON D O N AN D
E
.
f o rm i cu l aru m
n im
A u g u st i n
.
s
,
e
a p i cu l a r u
et
.
G e r m an
,
c.
.
( BADE N )
,
.
.
SAND S
o p e ra
2 4,
Ed i t i
H E RD E R
D I N B U R GH :
m
b a l ae n aru m ,
c o rp o r a
A uth o r
R E I B URG
.
.
D ei , I 22 ,
,
on d
e
J
CO
.
on
n
.
.
C OP Y R I G H T 1 90 5
BY
J OS E P H G U M M E R S B A C H
P
RI I
B E C KTO LD
NT NG AND B OO K
ST
.
I
MFG C O
LO U S . MO
.
.
.
.
P R E FA C E
OM E
T O TH E FI R S T E D ITI O N
.
ti me
a g o we published an essay entitled
“
I nstinct an d Intelligence i n the A nimal K ing
dom
exam ining in detail th e concepts of i nsti n c t
and i n tel l i g en ce with their application to animals
The discu ssion showed that i n tel l i g en ce i s the spiritual
power o f abstraction and not the mere f aculty o f
fo rm ing compl ex sense representations ; for the l aw s
O f a ssociation in sense perceptions belon g to the sphere
o f instinctive s ensitive li f e and n o t to spiritual i n tell i
ge nce Now wh at mod ern ani m al psychol ogy term s
“
”
intell igence o f animal s
i s nothing but inborn
instinct rai sed to a highe r l evel of per fection by the
individual s sensuou s experience Thi s i n its tu rn
is based o n th e very same law s Of association o f sense
representations H ence there i s no reason for a scri b
ing to animal s i n tell i g en ce i n th e stri ct sense I ndeed
o ur reasoning led u s to t ak e a further step
and we
proved th at a ni mal s h ave n o i n tel l i g en ce at al l I f
they we re gi fted with a spi ri tual power o f abstraction
i t woul d n ecessarily b e mani fested i n their o u tward
actions especially by the formation o f an arbitrary
phonetic o r graphi c language A nimal s however
h ave n o langu a ge ; h ence they have n o intelligence
Besi des we have sh own in the same es say that
th e mani festati ons of the psych ic l i fe bo th o f higher
and o f l o wer animal s are to b e j udged acco rding to
o n e an d t h e so me cri ti cal stan d ard
The anatomical
‘
,
.
,
,
-
-
,
.
,
,
’
.
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
.
,
,
,
'
,
.
iii
,
P ref a ce to th e Fi rst E d i ti o n
.
d i f ference that e xists between the s ense or g ans and
t he nervous system o f A r throp o ds o n th e o n e hand and
Of V ert e brates o n the other i s not a su f ficie nt a p ri o r i
r e ason for ascribin g intel ligence to th e latter only and
d e nyin g it to th e former The proo f of these asser
ti o ns form s the groundwork O
f the p resent essay We
shall compare more at length the psychic li fe O f the
“
most intelligent A rthropods nam ely the ants with
th a t of the higher V ertebrates and o f man F rom thi s
“
di scu ssion we shal l learn whether th e missing l ink
with which moder n evolutionists hop e to bridge over
the chasm b etween the insti nct of animals and the
spiritual soul of man i s t o b e looked f o r i n ants o r
in the higher V ertebrates or w hether i n fact it exi sts
at all B iol o gists w ill be pleased to fin d that the
pre sent essay contains many new observations o n the
habits o f ants and their guests
,
,
.
.
”
,
,
.
”
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
P R E FA CE
T O TH E S E CON D ED I T I ON
.
HE nu merous Observations of modern scientists
illustrating th e relation s betwe en the psychic l i fe
Of ants an d o f higher animals have been extensively
uti lized i n preparing thi s secon d edition We have
pai d due regard to the Observations and experiment s
publ ishe d s i nce 1 897 o n the di f ferent iation o f castes
in be e hives Besid e s w e h ave turned to account the
results Of a statistical chart now compl e ted extending
over five ye ars and comprising all the colonies o f
F ormi ca sang ui n ea i n th e neighb o rhood o f E xat en
Holland Thi s ant i s the most interesting o f all
Eur o pean species Thus we are abl e to publish many
ne w facts o f
interest i n scientific biol ogy regarding
th e slave making habits o f thi s ant its metho ds o f
nest construction
its rel ationship to its gu e st
L a i n ech i t sa and th e infl uence o f the latter in t h e
di f ferenti ati o n of cast e s in an t communities Final ly
tw o additional illu str a tion s of L o rn ech n sa struni osa
and of it s la rv a have been added in the text
,
,
.
,
,
-
.
,
,
,
.
.
-
,
,
,
.
.
,
T R A N S L A T OR S P R E FA CE
’
.
A S MA N N S
’
Instinct and Intelligence in the
”
which appeared recently in
A nimal K ingdom
an Engli sh dress ( Herd e r S t Lou is Mo ) w as so
favorably received that it has been thought advi sable
to follow it up w ith this translat ion o f another e ssay
by the same author T h e se tw o books supple m
ent
each oth e r a s may b e gathered from the frequent
cross references they contain an d more especially
f rom the close relationship o f th e subj ects o f which
they treat
T h e be st recom mend a tion o f Wasmann s biological
and psychologic a l essays i s given in the following
l ines o f W M Wh eel er P rof o f th e University Of
“
1
Texas :
Wasm a nn in h i s numerou s writings has
u ndoubtedly done mu ch at l east i n G e rmari y tow ard s
the exposure o f thi s pseu do psychology ( o f B rehm
Buechner an d others ) and a more r ational conc e ption
ant behavior H i s long famil iarity with these
of
animal s and thei r gu ests has given hi m a singularly
luci d insight into their activities M y o w n more
l imit e d observati o ns o n ou r North A merican speci e s
l ead m e to agree with hi m so far as the facts are con
cerned and many Of th e inferences whi ch he has
”
drawn from them
A s to hi s additional rem ark
I am const rained t o say however that I cannot adopt
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
’
,
.
.
.
,
,
-
,
.
.
,
.
,
1
“
)
Ame
“
ric
p
N tur list
The
an
C
a
om
a
o un d
”
,
N st s f
XXV 1 90 1 p 808
an d
V ol
.
,
M ix
ed
,
VI
e
,
o
.
.
A me
ric
an
An t
s
"
,
in
'
T ra nsl a tor s P ref a ce
.
either hi s psychological definitions or h i s ps y ch ogenetic
”
rese rvations —w e call the critic s attention to the en d
“
o f the fourth chapte r O f Instinct and I ntel ligence in
”
th e A ni mal K in g dom w here P rof Wheeler s Ob j ec
tions have been answered
I n order to make the Engl ish translation more
valuable for North A merica the author has k indly
added a series o f notes and Observations o n the ant
fauna o f the Unite d S tates H e h as added moreover
the fi gures representin g th e No rth A merican form O f
F ormi ca sangui n ea and that of its gue st X en o d usa
cava
Th e present work there fore i s m ore th an a
translation ; it may be call e d a new edition revis ed
and enlarged by Father Was m ann
’
,
’
.
,
.
,
.
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
Can i si ns Col l eg e B u ff al o N
,
,
.
Y
.
C ON T E N T S
P re f ac e t o t h e fi r st
P r e f ac e t o t h e
T ran sl a t o r s
’
ed i ti o n
e di ti o n
se c o n d
p re f a c e
I N T ROD U CT ION
So m e
.
i
m o d e rn
an d
an c e n t
t
Of
an s an d
h i gh e
vi e
w s Of
.
t h e p sy c h
i c life
r
CH A P T E R 1
.
O M M U NI TY L I FE I N T H E A NI MA L K I N GDO M
A g e n e a l v i e w Of t h e f o m s O f a n i m a l c o m m un i t i e s
D i ff r t d g r s f c mm i ty li f i th
i m l k i gd m
C mm i t i s f b s d t s c m p r d A t s t t s t h
m st p r f c t
i m l s ci t i s b th si m pl
d c m pl x
C
I
.
.
r
.
o
un
o
e
Th e
r
en
e
2
of
e
ee
O
e
P lym rp h is m
o
o
P sych ic t i s
a
o
h u m an
an n o t
s t a te
u
o
”
a
3 T h e c o m m un i t i e s
t h o se o f a n t s
of
o
a e
o
f o r th e
of
un ten a
an t
h i gh er
Of
.
i
.
ou nt
an
e
n
a
n
.
o u n d at o n
an
t h at
an
e
.
e
,
.
st at e s
an t
o on e
e
e
a
r g ic f
c l i s I t is
an t
en
o
,
of
o
wi th
s ffici tly cc
“
e
n
e
an
e
th e
,
in
e
c
an
f o un d at i o n s
so c i al
un
o
ee
an
e
o
.
s
A
l tt r
“
.
a
e
bl
s ci t i s
i d ti f y th
t ic
i sti c ts
an t
o
to
e
ut o ma
e
e
en
”
.
e
n
n
.
w i th
a n i in a l s c o m p a r e d
.
M t l w r i g f d g r S t i ls M t l c h ri t y
f l b r
d d ivisi
N rsi g f t h sic k C p r t i
C mm d f s
Fi d li t y d b d i c i
im l
Bri f s m m ry
i ti
u ua
u
on
c e
e en
e
es
.
an
o
e
o
n
o
a n n
“
u
e a
an
e
a
en
.
o o
.
e.
e
ne
an
on
o
u ua
.
on
en
e
a
e
”
n
.
a
o
a
an
o
.
so'
.
CH A P T E R II
.
WA
RFA R E
A N D SL
A VE RY
THE
IN
I W a r s am o n g h i g h e r
F b l s d st ri s f w r b t w
l tt r
w p s t ls
A N I MAL
K
I N GDO M
.
.
a
a
e
e
an
u se n o
o
ea
e
on
o
or
a s
oo
,
e
ee n
t
r ps
oo
of
a
ps
e
.
T he
Co n ten ts
.
P AGE
2
T h e w ar l i k e
xp e d i t i o n s Of
Fo rmi ca
T h ir
s kill f
sa n
c ics
t h e A mazo n
e
-
.
g ui n ea
.
vic t rs
Am
t s ; t h ir i
bility t f
th
m
Th
m ili t ry t c t ics
f th
s g i
l
g i ) d isc ss d
psych l g ic l g r ds
ta t
e
o
th e
,
az o n
e
n
ua
n
o
a
a e
e
an
”
ili t ry
t h ms lv s
( F r mi c
Th e m
.
ee d
o
u ne
s ave
a
ou n
o o
a
e
e
ak e r
e
.
a
o
.
i n th e p sy ch i c
en
nu
e
“
e
a
a
“
life
o f an t s
e
en
ue
ue
e
o
an
o on
o on
.
e
a
a
on
ua
n
o
e
a
n
.
a
a
sa n
u n e a,
o
s
e
ana
a
e
u
on
e
e
u
e
o e
o
on
ue n e
n
ou a
a
e en
ac
.
e
.
n
e
ne
n
e
a
o
.
o
a
o
n
e
o on e
rO
o
n
un
an
ee
a
o
nu
e
a
ee
n
e
e
e
o
e
.
e
au o
an
e
ca
o
o
n or
n
a
o.
e
n
o on e
e
x er
.
.
e
an
n
s
e
an
e
e
or
e en
o
an
,
o
ne
e en
e
na u e
e
an
n
o
o
n e
”
a
an
e
n
e
e
.
”
au
-
o
o
on
e
u
n
“
en
o
o
e
a
,
n
o
on
n e
ua
e
”
a
e
-
a
s
u
an
on e
o
.
or e
o
.
o
i d ivi d ls f
y t d i ff r t ly
d th s m c l
f t l r
i
c mb t A cq ir d i d ivi d l h b i t s P rs c ti
t d
v
f tr
g s t s A t s t m b l P syc h ic i fl c
f th
m b rs
cl y
r g i c mb t
f
t h ir c
M rk d h r is m f i d ivi d ls M r ti l sp r t s ?
T h e sl v e m aki ng i n st i n cts o f Fo rm i ca sa ng ui n ea
Tr d it i
i s c t c mm i ti s E p i
d i str ct i
i
m ts m d
wi th s l f t gh t
d b s
S m i g ly
ts
i t lli g t pl s t ici t y f t h i s ti c t f sl v ry i F rmi
th
d t
b t h wi th r g r d t t h
sp ci s
mb r
g i
f i t sl v s
Th
ts
c rr c t
O th
t r
f sl v ry i
xpl t i is i th r th p m p h i m
ic t m
m ch
ti m
b t s m th i g b t w
tw
th
Oth e r w a r s a n d a l l i an ce s o f an t s
Fi gh t s b t w
i gh b ri g c l i s A lli c s b t w
h s ti l c l
i s d th ir psyc h l g ic l xpl ti S mm ry
Th e
5
th e
na
e
mat i sm
a ut o
.
of
on
e
3 T h e p r e t e n de d
4
an
o
u
san u n ea
.
iy
h um an t
a
a
e
“
th e
ant an d
e
on
an a
e
a
o o
an
.
ee n
e
u
.
a
.
CH A P T E R I I I
.
R
R
A NI MA L
A C H IT E CT U E I N T H E
I
2
.
A g en e ral su r vey Of th e
T h e l l ests Of an t s
l
a rch i t e ct ure o f a n i m a s
.
.
‘
0
ri s
ou
f eren t
3 T he
an
e
e
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
e
‘
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
;
r b i t r ry f r m s f th i r s t s N s ts f di f
t sp ci s
P syc h l g ic l xpl t i
f t h is d i ff r
c
an d
e
V ri t y
a
e
a
O
o
o o
.
Fo rmi ca
n e st s Of
.
sa n
a
ne
e
on O
an a
e
o
e
.
e.
e en
gu i n e a
mb r
f
pl st ici t y i th ir f r m s V ri b l
th
s t s f c l y P ri d ic c h g s f st s ; d i ff r t
pl c s f r si d c i d i ff r t s s s T h s p h m
psych l gic lly xpl i d P w r f d pt i g th c s t r
ti
f t h ir
st s t th s rr d i gs i r d r t s c r
th m
g i st h s t il i r d s
H o w d o a nt s b ui l d t h e i r n e st s ?
N
ri gi d sys t m f
p r t i ; s m i gly i t lli g t l f
d t r mi t i
S i t b l c si d r t i
f th
di f r t
di ti
f t mp r t r
d m is t r
A rc h i t c t r
f b ir d s
c m p r d wi t h t h t f t s ; wi th t h t f m mm ls i p
ti
l
f b v rs
a
e
ne
e
a e
on
o
en e
a
on s
o
o
on
e
n
e
o
co o
a
ea
-
a
e
.
o
an
an
n
o
o
e
en
e
o
ena
ue
on
e
n
e
en o
e e
a
,
nu
e
ne
o
.
a
n
a
e
u e
.
e
on
e
e a u e
e
oa
o
oun
u
e
e
ea o n
e
o
a
.
an
o
.
o
u
.
o
e en
o
a e
c u ar o
n
ne
a n
e
e
.
a ne
e
e
na
o on
a
o
e e
n
a
e
o
a
e
and
o
o o
.
t
-
Va
4
I N GDO M
K
a
on
e a
o
n
ee
on
u e
o
e
e
.
a
o
en
n e
a
con
e en
u e
a
se
o
,
n
ar
.
Co n tents
.
P AGE .
5 Oth er
skil l
t ural
on
r mp rt s
r li t y
a
a
ea
,
o ad
etc
,
mp l o y
s g ll ri s st b l s
Th
gr v y r d s f
a
,
e
e
a
e
.
a
.
e
f or
o
an
a
-
a ct i v
.
si g
A s
b il d i g f
E xp ri m
ts
R s ul t s s m m
nt
u
u
a
e
an a
,
n
ri s
e
an d
on
n
an
o
of
en
u
e
i ty
o f an t s
,
in
g ui d e d b y
ir l rv
spi i g w h ls
ts
cc r d i g t W M rsh ll
L bb c k d B t h M y w
th e
n
”
e
a
a
ae
n
o
u
nn n
as
o
a
.
an
o
e
R DI N G
B EE
A g en e r a l
ee
-
o
b ri d g
ch r
d B
xp ri m t
“
The
.
a
e.
an
n
e
ue
e
ne
.
e n s.
e
e d up .
CH A P T E R IV
.
p h i d s gr
fic ti
ts i
e
.
6 Is th e b ui l di ng
I
t h ei r a rc h i t e c
an t s e
.
S t ti s r
a
w h i ch
f or
p urp o ses,
.
N UR S I NG
AND
v i ew
A NI MA L
TH E
IN
.
b re e d i n g i n sti n ct s
Of t h e
KI
o f an
N GDO M
.
i mal s
Br d i g d f m ily li f i
i m ls wi th r f r c t t h
f
pr s rv t i
sp ci s T h is r l t i sh ip psyc h l gic lly
xpl i d Br d i g i s ci l i s c t s Th b r d i g i st i c t
f
ts d p
d t
l ws f r g ic d v l p m t
th
ee
n
e e
e
a ne
o
2
.
a
on
en
e
en
on
t h e y o un g
e en
ee
e
on
e
o
a
o o
ee
e
.
an
o
o
mo n g
e
an a
e
on
u en
n
e
n
n
en
e o
n
.
an t s
an
o
on
an
n
oo
an
n
on
a
e
an
,
on
.
a e
o
o
ec
o
o
”
e
o
n
e
e
on
s
o
a
o
n e
.
e a
e
e
n
en
u a
e
n es
ee d n
e
e
o
o
ir b r
e
e
an
o
th e
.
an
se u
.
on
a
a e
en
a
“
e
an
an
of
e
an
ee n
e
.
a
e
en
e
i g i sti ct d f i t
d i ff r t m
i f s t t i s T h di ff r t i t i
f
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b tw
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T h ir f r q t cc rr c P sych l gic l xpl t i
A ts
rsi g L m h l rv
D i ff r t t r t m t f th s
l rv b t h i
rm l s g i
c l i s d i s ch
c t i p d gy
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rsi g f L m h l rv
i s ti c t s i b ir d s d m mm ls R s l t s s mm d p ;
l si s
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I NT R OD U CT I ON
.
n i nt ti mes o b serv er s of ani mal l i fe
notice d that bodily size and psychic perfection
are not alw ays in direct proportion but that the
1
reverse i s not unfrequently the case Thus A ristotle
declared that keenness o f perception ( rip ni s (Sta n0 6a ;
more mani fest in smal ler
dxp ifia a v) was o ften
than i n l arger animal s N o r di d i t escape th e great
S tagirite who was not only a logi cal thinker but al so
a ski l ful observer that many animals o f l o w rank
i n the zoologi cal scale were endowed in some way
with a higher p sychi c l i fe th an the highest mammal s
so much so that i ts m ani festations could b e com
pared w ith human institutions only H e mentions
”
especially ants an d bees among thos e bloodl es s
animal s which possess a m ore intel lectual soul than
2
m any anim al s o f the other kind T he same thought
was express e d by S t A ugustine o n e o f the lo ftiest
We admire
Chri stian minds i n the following terms :
the works o f the tiny ants and bees more than the
”3
bulky form s O f whales
A n d a d istingui shed modern
naturali st Em il D u b oi s —
Reymond has ac k nowledged
VE N i n
a c e
,
,
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/
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,
,
,
,
,
,
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,
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,
ck r I
c 4 ( B ck r I
A ris t t l s
) D
p t b
f
d ivisi
im ls i t t h s wi th d b l d d th s wi th c l r l
b l d i r li ty c i ci d s wi th th t f V r t b r t s d N V r t b r t s
H
s s th t r m Bl dl ss A i m ls f th s w h ich h v
d
bl d
D
iv D
1 22 c 24
XLI
5 ( Mi g
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In tro ducti on
2
.
“
With revere nti al aw e
in the nam e o f hi s collea gues :
does he ( the naturalist ) gaze at the m icroscopic speck
o f nervous substance
which harbors the soul Of the
ant with its industry its instincts o f architecture
o rder
fidelity and courage
S u rely i t was not without great reason that
scientific Observers o f recent tim e s appl ied them selves
to the most careful and detailed examination Of the
li fe o f ants especi ally since the publ ication Of P ierre
“
Huber s classical Rech erch es sur l es M o en rs d cs
”
F o urmi s i n di g en es
V ery many interesting
fact s Of great value for psychologic al research have
thu s been furni shed Howe ver dabblers in popular
science who viewed things from th e s ta ndpoint Of
“
vulgar p sychology
as Wundt termed it mi sinter
p re t e d these facts i n a very unscientific manner ; for
they tried to draw conclusion s from them which led
to the humaniz ation o f ani mal s and denied th e
existence O f any e ssential diff e rence betwe e n th e
p sychi c faculti es o f man and brute I t i s not so very
long since Ludwi g Buechner endeavored to pro
“
mote th e se i deas i n h is G ei stesl eb en d er T i e re
A s i s g e n eral l v the c a se with such
( Berl in
shallow elaborations Bu echner has found n o t a few
imitators and pl agiari st s There fore it m ay not be
out o f place to examine thes e deductions fro m th e
standpoint O f critical psychology
S i r John Lubbock who devoted him sel f to the
study o f ant l i fe with th e accuracy o f a pro fes sional
sci enti st and who carefully refrained from the
1
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’
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,
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s
1 27
.
.
L c tur
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es
by
E
.
I n tro d ucti o n
4
.
de g ree o f per fection in their social instincts and that
thereby the higher animal was gradually trans formed
i nto man
The tenability Of this assumption w ill be di scu s sed
i n the following chapters I t i s understood that in our
comparative investigation w e shall be gui d e d not by
the postul a tes of e volutionist th e ories but by the prin
set fo rth at l e ngth in our
c i p l es o f critical psychology
“
former ess ay Instinct and Int e lligenc e i n th e A nimal
”
K ingdom ( Herder S t Louis MO
Lat e ly there has be e n inv e nted a th eory o n the
p sychic li f e o f a nts wh ich i s d iam e tri cally oppos e d
to the popular attempts at hum ani zation A l b B eth e
“
has tri e d to se t dow n ant s a n d b ee s a s mere refl e x
machin e s d e voi d ev e n of the simpl e st s e nsitive per
c ep t i o n an d cognition
whil st h e consi d e rs t h e i n tell i
gence Of higher a nimal s to be beyond all doubt Thu s
h e hoped to succ ee d i n destroying th e p a r a llel i sm
established by u s b e tween the p sych ic faculti e s Of a n t s
a nd those o f higher animal s from which w e had
drawn the conclusion : w e do not need ant i nt ellige nce
therefore neither ani mal i ntelligence B et h e s work i s
Of undoubted valu e o n accou nt o f its attack o n the still
wi de spread popular view s r egarding ants as i n te l l i
2
gent human beings i n m iniature
H i s theory has
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si o l o g i c ,
”
,
is r g r d th B t r c h t g
b r d i s t t lic h l b d
I mm
p b lish d g i st B th
ss y b y C h rl s S j o i
P r m th s ( 1 0 J h g 1 899 N 486 d
b y d wh t
f
g
is dm issi b l S i m il rly th ss y b y K i i t z G rl ff B si t z di
A m is
I t lli g z ? i N at u w i
sc h ri f t ( X I V
h f tl W c h
2
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I n tro d ucti o n
5
.
al ready o n another occasion been subj ected by u s t o
a thorough discu ssion B esides in a longer essay
2
especially intended f o r p rofessional z oologist s w e have
since then perfected o ur former argument p roving
that ants are no more mere refle x machines than dogs
an d apes are i ntelligent beings The theoretical side of
B eth e s psychological view s was al so noticed in the
“
second edition O f o ur essay Instinct and Intelligence
I n thi s
i n the A nimal K ingdom ( chapters 7 and
work therefore w e shall return to them but occa
si o n al l y
to show the fatal result s Of attempting to
vindicate the intelligence o f higher animals by com
l
p e t e l y denyin g psychi c activities i n ant s
1
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
’
”
,
,
,
.
1
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)
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r
n ew
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t h eo
ry
of
an t
p 577
psyc h isc h F h i gk i t
) Di
Z l gi c H f t 2 6 ) p 1 34 d f
d f ll wi g
) p 1 44
1 898
,
2
n
.
1 5,
“
a,
3
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( B i ol og
Ce n t ral b l
.
.
,
XV III
,
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1 8 99
.
CH A P TE R
C OM
1
.
M U N I T Y L I FE
A Gen eral S urvey
IN THE
o
f
th e
I
.
A N IM A L
F o rms of
K I N GD OM
.
A ni mal C o m
m n n i ti es
.
HE multiplicity o f bodily shapes apparent i n an
mal s i s n o t more remarkabl e than th e variety
found i n thei r biological relations The maj ority o f
ani mal s low e r a s well as higher l ive singly an d only
‘
temporarily j oin other indivi duals Of the same species
for breeding purpos es ; no l a sting p sychi c ti e unites
th e m w ith others o f thei r speci es O ther animal s l i v e
i n pairs during the bre e ding season and r e main united
until the young are Ol d e nough to shi ft for themselves ;
thi s i s th e case w ith most birds and mammals I f the
Off spring continue to remain with thei r parents fam
i li e s develop into h e r ds embracin g the members Of
diff e rent allie d fam il ies Thus v g wil d oxen and
horses th e Chamoi s antelopes an d many apes are
gregariou s animal s
Whil e real gregariou sness i s
base d on family ti es i n a wid e r s e nse and is mostly
permanent other ani mal s flock together to form troops
o r hordes to undertake j ourne ys in com mon e g
o ur
migratory birds i n autumn the S candinavian l em
mings etc Insects too gather i nto s imilar temporary
masses o f individual s o f the sam e or closely all ie d
speci e s a ssuming the form o f migrating swarms
M igratin g locust s are known to everybody ; but also
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7
Ch ap ter I
8
.
butterflies dragon fl i es and other insect s have b een
Observed to form similar swarms
But few animal species are so per fect in their social
organization that the members o f the family construct
thei r habitations rear their O ff spring and provide for
thei r foo d in common These are what A ri stotl e call s
zaa m m m a animal s leading a w el l r eg ul a t e d so c i al
l i f e comparable i n a way to the social l i fe o f m an
Thes e animal s are chi e fly the so —called state fo rmi ng
i nsec ts th e social wasps b e es ants and termit e s With
the two latter soci al l i fe i s c a rri e d to the high e st degree
found in th e whole animal kingdom
o f per f e ction
True al so among bi rds the social w eav e rs ( P l o ceus)
construct h abit a tion s i n comm on inasmuch a s they
bu il d th e i r nests close toge ther and beavers unite in
colonies to buil d thei r dam s when di ff er e nt pairs are
i nterest e d in rai sing th e w ater level at the same spot
But what i s wanting i n the a ssoci ation s Of higher ani
m als i s co —Operation including some suitable divi sion
o f l abor for the rearing and nourishing o f their Off
spring The co m bi nati o n Of all these el ements Of
social li fe i s found only amon g the social i nsects and
in a prominent degree amon g an ts
V iewed from the standpoint o f comparative p sy
‘
c h o l o g y social i s pre ferable b y f ar to single li fe
In thi s
connection o f course we mean a social li fe based o n
so ci al i nsti n c ts on the laws Of sensi ti ve co g n i ti o n an d
n o t merely a union caused b y the law s o f veg e ta ti ve
l i f e as i s th e case with certain a n i mal co ng l o mera tes
as sponges coral s polyps an d many species o f Tuni
cates The bond which unites th e di ff e rent indivi dual s
o f these specie s to a colony i s entirely m aterial
They
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Co mmuni ty L i f e
i n th e A n i mal
K i ng d o m
9
.
live together from im mediate vegetative necessity ;
for they literally grow as branches from a common
trunk A s it i s an immediate v e getativ e n e cessity for
plants to bri n g forth twigs l e aves and blos soms so
m ere veg e ta ti v e necessity forces a colony o f S i p h o n o
p h o re s to separate into di ff erent loos e ly conn e cted
indivi dual s som e serving the purpose o f nutrition
( nutrient polyps ) others o f propagation ( s e xu a l
polyps ) Of p e rceptio n ( perception polyps ) o f loco
motion ( swi mming polyps ) and o f protection ( pro
t e c ti ve polyps )
To apply to the members o f suc h
“
colo n ies the term persons ( eating persons swim
mi n g p e rson s
as Haeck e l an d s e veral oth e r
zoologists have done i s evi dently out o f pl a ce becau se
thi s term implies a p sychi c independence w hich these
animal s do not possess I t woul d be m ore j ustifiable
to conceive th e whol e growth Of S iphonophor e s a s
o n e individu a l o f i mper f e ct unity consisting O f variou s
m e mbers which on account o f thei r diff erent func
“
”
“
t ions can more fi tl y b e t e rme d organs than persons
The similarity Of social l i fe i n the colonies o f
polyps and Of ants i s very sl ight an d superficial The
latt e r i n Opposition to the former consi sts of indi
vi d ual s orga n ical ly separated and ind e pendent in th e i r
psychi c activiti e s The members o f an ant colony are
complete indivi dual s united to each other n o t by the
l aw s of veg e ta ti ve g row th but by i nsti n c ti ve sy m
h
t
h
T
is
kin
d
o
f
o
habitation
mu
st
ind
e
ed
be
a
c
p y
regarded a s a high e r mani festation o f psychic li fe
unknown among solitar y animal s
It i s tru e w ith th e state forming insect s al so the
instinctive association o f the i ndivi du al s O f a colony
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Ch ap ter
10
I
.
an org an i c i e veg etati ve fact namely
o n the com mon descent from o n e and th e same parent
”
“
calle d a qu een
Honey bee s have never m ore than o ne queen in the
hive ants may have several o f them The instinctive
depend e nce o f be es o n thei r queen i s not so gr e at as
was formerly believed M oreover in th e b e e hive the
queen ha s essenti ally n o othe r function than that o f
layin g e ggs ; for the rest h er attitude towards th e
social activiti e s Of the colony i s enti r e ly passive ; even
“
”
when the b ee s are swar ming the Ol d sovereign i s
“
general l y hurrie d along by the crow d o f h e r faith ful
subj ects
she does not l ead th e e xpedition neither
1
does she determ ine its dire ction However a swarm
o f be es deprived Of their qu ee n will disperse
because
the y have no common ce nter Of attraction no point
Of crystallization so to say
around which to for m a
new colony In bee hives th e i nstinctive bond uniting
queen an d w orkers i s cl oser than among ants becau se
the Odor emitted by the que e n exerci ses a far mor e
2
powerful att raction o n the workers th an in the ca se
i s b ased
on
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,
bb é J I K i fl c mm ic t d th f ll wi g Ob s rv t i s
c t lly f rc d t f t h h iv b y t h b s
ld q
m st f t
b
A
lr d y sw rm i g ; s m t i m s t h b s
g
q
b i g l ft
th
b h i d i t h h iv I th r c s s I b s rv d t h t th l d q
h d
d r pp d t
th
g r u d ; i spi t f th is t h b s s t tl d t q i t
d i ff r t pl c
s m tr
d s ff r d t h m s lv s t
b
p t i
w h ic h h w v r t h y s
w h iv
g i b c s th q
w
n l ft
m issi g
b g th r d f r m
b
) H w p w r f l is t h is t t r c ti
v ti m d b y Fr S p i l l m
S I i J
1 896
O c tc h i g
cl st r f sw r m i g b s f w h d r d w r k rs h d r m i d i t h
c tc h i g pp r t s d c l d t fi d t h ir w y t t h w h iv L d
b y th ir s s f s m ll h w v r t h y cl s t r d r d q
th t
lyi g d d t h g d f i gh t d ys l th gh i t b l g d
h d b
d i ff r t h iv
t
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e
ua
e a
o
a e
”
2
u
o
un
o
e
n
.
e
e
n
a
e
er
en
o
o
e
o
ne
u
n
a
n
e
.
.
ea
e
'
'
a
u e en
e on
e
a
e
C h ap ter I
12
.
bers and the consequent greater independenc e o f
i nstincts i n the single work e r an ant colony bears th e
stamp rather o f d emo cra ti c r ep ub l i can even so ci al i sti c
institutions V iewed from the standpoint o f compara
tive p sychology the community li fe o f ants i s m or e
per fect than th at Of bee s o n account of the gre at e r
psyc h i c i n d ep en d en ce o f e ach i ndividual It i s thi s
quality O f individual indep e ndence that lends to ant
states among all a ssociations Of anim a ls the g r eatest
r ese m b l a n c e to the p o l i ti ca l so c i e t i es o f m a n base d o n
individual intelligence and free w ill Thi s resemblance
i s Of course never more th a n m ere anal og y ; but it i s th e
h i g h est d eg ree o f analogy known to exi st b e tween th e
social institutions o f man an d o f th e brute Nor i s th e
“
”
term state appl icabl e to the social organizations Of
ants o r in fact to any animal com munity in any other
1
than a m e taph ori ca l meaning ; yet i t applies more
per fectly to ant states than to any other family o f
i ns e cts and to insect states rather than to thos e o f any
other animals
A nother important r e a son why w ith ant colonie s
”
“
the u se of th e term state i s comparatively m o re
appropriate than with the social organizations Of other
animals i s becau se col o nies O f ants are Often n ot
”
m erely e nl arged fami li e s
but contain al so m e mbers
O f en ti rely di ff eren t speci es which are hospitabl y shel
t e re d in the colony
Thu s a si mpl e ant c o lony comes
to b e a co mpo un d animal soci ety
Th e above men
ti o n e d strangers are partly ant s b elon g ing to other
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
.
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
-
.
is p i t vi d A Espi s D s c i t es i m l s
p 37 2 A ls K rl E v B r ( i S t l l K E v B r
W W dt V rl s g
W l t sch
g
p
M sc h u d Ti rs l 2 d d p 451
1
) On t h
o
.
.
e
en
au u n
an
en
n
o n
a
e
.
na
.
n
ae
.
es
,
oe z e,
”
.
e
e e e,
un
.
c
.
,
.
.
o
an
e
a e
“
.
“
,
.
o
.
e un
”
ae
en
( 2e
un d
u ebe
’
ed
.
si
r di
)
e ne
e
Co mmuni ty L i f e
K i ng d o m
i n t h e A n i m al
13
.
1
speci es
“
slaves
living i n th e colony as auxiliaries o r
partly they are members Of altog ether di f
f e ren t o rd e rs o f insects especi a lly o f cert a in beetl e s
as the gen era A temel es and L o m ech usa which are
accorded a friendly reception by the ants are l icked
and fed thei r larva e being reared by the ant s as i f
2
they were th e l atters own
Thi s i s a special form
o f communi ty li fe ( symbi osi s) found nowher e e lse
throughout the animal k ingdom S ymbio si s i s only
equal to real community li fe when the member s
engage i n mutual psy ch i c i n terco urse
Between a
h ermit cr ab a n d a sea anemone that se ttl es o n the
form e r s back b e tw e en a smal l fish ( Tr achi cht hys tu ni
ca tus ) and a l a rg e sea nettl e harboring i t w ithin th e
3
circle Of it s tent a cl e s there i s a m utual relat ion ( m utu
u se ful to both o f th e m w ithout how e ver
a l i sm )
approaching any p sychic int e rcours e although the o n e
instinctively looks for the oth e r There i s a simil a r
relation b etwe e n ants and many o f th e i r tolerat e d
guests wh i lst thei r r e lation to th e ir slaves and to thei r
genuine guests attains a higher d e gree o f psycho
logical intercourse and b e comes re a l co mm uni ty l i f e
M o reov e r parasites hostil e intru ders and indi f ferently
,
,
,
,
-
,
’
.
,
.
,
.
'
’
’
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
z s mm g s t z t N s t r d g m isc h t
K l i d A m is
p rt I I
f
L m h
th
i
S t i mm
A t b i gr ph y
) S
M ri L c h L I I
li t r t r f t h s bj ct is
6 9 wh r
th
mb r
f th
m r t d
Th
rg l r
tm t
f
d
ts
is r th r c si d r bl O
K ri t isc h s V rz ic h is d
t rmi t s
d t r m i t p h il
A rth r p d
p b lish d i 1 89 4
m y m k p h il
lr d y c t i s
t g
s t s d 1 0 9 t rm i t g s t s h vi g t h
s b i l gic l r l t i s t t h ir h s t s S i c th m y w
m s t v ri
d
sp ci s f r m l l q rt rs f t h w rl d h v b
d isc v r d
d s ri b d
n 2 7 8 p 240
V l XI
) S ee 2 1 A n z i g r
1
s
) S e e W a m an n
o on en
2
enu
e
a
e
o
e
.
on a n
ou
a
o
o
e
e
e c
3
O
e
a
ua
a
e
e
e
e
ur
.
ue
u a
o
o
o
en ,
e
e
o
o
a
u
a
en
een
e
00
.
e
e ,
o
.
.
,
o
.
er
n
,
e
an
n
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ue
n
.
e
au s
e
an
o
e
e
u
e
a es
”
e
o
o
e
an
on
n es
“
en
.
“
en
e
n
a u e
e
e
e
en
o
e a
a
un
e
u sa,
ec
o
a
e
o
an
o o
.
e
e
e
.
a
on
e
un
en
o
nu
en
e e
en
,
a
ea
e
u o
a
,
e
r
“
en ,
u a
”
aa
e a e
e
e
ee
a
a
er
Die
,
.
.
e
n
an
ne
e e
an
Ch ap ter I
14
.
tolerated coha b itan ts are found in th e soci ety o f many
higher and lower animals They are present l ike
wise i n the nests o f social wasps hornets and bumble
bees ; but genui ne g uests ( S ymphiles ) which i n spite
O f thei r morphological di fference are treated by their
hosts a s enj oying equal rights as members Of the
family are met with onl y among ants an d termites
That stray chamoi s or steinbocks shoul d j oin a h erd
O f goats i s evi d e ntly som e thing quite di ff erent from
the fact that ants keep aphides and scale insects as
thei r mi lk cows and tend even thei r eggs ; or that
they feed from th e i r o w n mouths certai n speci es o f
beetles which o n b eing li cked a fford the ants a special
pleasu rable sensation herein t reating th e m the same
a s th ey do thei r o w n comrades an d l arvae
The
mutu al soci al relationship whi ch i s here seen to exist
between the animal s o f di ff erent sp e cies and which
w e t e rm S ymphily ( c a auto.) i s by far more per
feet A lth ough a s we shall show later o n i t i s inti
mately connected with the i nstinct O f adoption which
occu rs also am o ng higher an imal s the relation exi st
ing b e tween ants on the o n e hand and thei r sl aves
and genu ine guests on the other i s nevertheless a
form o f per fect S ymbiosi s unparallele d among the
V ertebrates
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
-
,
,
,
.
,
-
.
,
,
,
,
.
2
.
T h e S oci a l B asi s
As
o
f
A n t S ta tes
.
was already indicated the ulti mate foundation
It i s organic not onl y b e
o f ant states i s org a n i c
cau se i t i s d ue to the descent from a common o vi p
arou s female but mor e especially becau se it i s con
di ti o n ed i n Its essential outl ines b y pol y morph i sm
,
.
,
,
,
,
Co mmuni ty L i f e
K i ng d o m
i n th e A n i ma l
15
.
i n othe r words by bodily di ff erence in the indivi dual s
O f a colony A n t states are organically divi ded into
“
fixed group s of di ff erent castes possessin g diff erent
corporal and psychi c qualities Thes e ca stes take th eir
origin fro m the peculiar organic development O f ants ;
they depen d o n l aw s of v eg a ti ve g ro w th no t o n th e
i ntel ligence and free wil l Of individual s as do the
classes o f human society By far the maj or i ty o f
members o f ant colonies consist o f course O f win g
“
”
less neuters which go by the name o f workers o r
“
simply ants
These workers are a secondary form
O f th e female the Ovaries being stunted whil e brain
l
and instincts are all the more highly developed
With many ants especially with th e genera P h ei d o l e
th e workers
P h ei d o l og e t o n E c i t o n C o l o b o psi s etc
are again divi d e d into two mor e or l e ss strictl y sep
diff e ring in bo dily structure namely
a ra t e d castes
workers proper an d sol diers the latter possessing a
comparatively hug e head and formi dabl e j aws The
W ingl ess workers and sol diers are entrust e d with the
colony s soc ial w el fare ; it i s th e i r duty to buil d the
nest to tend th e young to gather provi sions and to
de fend th e community against hostil e invaders whil st
the wing e d mal es and females atten d to the propaga
A fter having been fertil ized
tion o f the species
which i s generally done in the ai r du ring thei r nuptial
fl ight the femal es lose thei r wings and become
“
queens either founding new colonies or bein g taken
back by w orkers into their Old nest for oviposition
called pol itical con
T h e b asi s there fore o f the so —
,
.
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
’
,
,
,
.
,
-
,
,
.
,
,
1
t h an
t b
si mply c ll
) H c th y c
w rk rs m g b s
th
en
e
o
e
an n o
e
e
a
on
a
e
ee
.
ed
“
s tu
n te d
”
m
l
f e a es,
no
mo
r
e
C h ap te r I
16
.
ant s IS i n fact org ani c ; it consi st s i n the
descent fro m o n e fertil e female and i n the di ff eren
the descendants into castes di ff e ring in
t i a t i o n Of
bodily and psychic qualities as a result o f the verv
same specific fertility
The soci al b o n d however
which uni t e s the members Of an ant colony and sep
arates them from other colonies o f the same species
i s psych i c a n d i nsti n cti ve It i s the f eel i ng of f el l o w
sh i p the i nsti n ct of so ci a l i ty resulting from common
descent ; it i s moreover the i n sti n ct o f i mi ta ti o n
which u rges the work e rs Of the same colony to act
in concert
Thi s unity and co Op e ration i s e ff ected
by means of a certain se nsi l e f eel er l a ng uag e : by a
touch o f thei r feel e rs thou sand s Of members o f a
colony immediately r e cogni ze o n e anoth e r a s belong
i n g to the same community and e ff ect ua l l v di scover
the intru der ; by tap s of thei r antennae th ey exchange
th ei r feeli n gs and perceptions and thu s draw the
attention o f other workers Of their colony to the same
work The s a me fe e ler language i s al so the means
O f communication o f ants in m ixed col onies with th e ir
auxiliaries o f other species and o f genuine ant guests
with th e i r hosts
Thi s di stinction between members Of thei r o w n
colony and th os e o f others i s e ffect e d by ve rv del icate
2
o rg a ns o f sm e l l
situ ated i n the ant e nnae M embers
st i t uti o n o f
1
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
-
.
.
,
.
.
r i th firs t pl c t h i mpl
t s ci t i s w h ic h
mb r c
m m b rs
f d i ff r
t sp ci s
lr d y pr v i
w r k D i psyc h isc h F h i g
) W h v
Z l g ic 2 6 t h is
p 10
is
k it
d
A m is
th t th r
f
t m r ly q
sti
c h m ic l r fl x ( B t h c lls i ) b t f
r l s si t iv p rc p t i
h r h
O th
d L bb c k s xp ri m
ts
f
i m ls ! L d
d i t lli g c
( O th s s s i s i ct
p 2 33 d f ll ) h v s h w t h t
rb i t r rily c h s si g
p ss
w r d is q lly t f pl c
is vi d t f m t h f c t t h t
t
w h ich h l st i t f l rs is v r th l ss r c g iz d b y h
st m t s
1
e
) W e m ea n h e
a e
no
2
e
a
n
a
en
e
en
o
e
as
o
ua
o
e
e
o
ou
s
a
“
a,
e
on.
t n
e
o
ee e
s
o
n
a
e,
ne
“
o
e
e
e e
o
e
e
an
e
a
a
en
e o
”
o
ro
n
a
e
e
’
o
e
t
a
e
u
,
ae
a
e
an
o
en
.
as
e
en
an
an
e
,
”
e
ot
n e
e
e
su e ,
e
a
s
.
our
a
as
e
”
n
an
e
e
n
oo o
a
.
en
en
o
e
n
,
e
”
on
e
a e
e
ea
en
ue
e
an
.
a
e
n
o
e
e
er
e
ea
“
e
en
no
e
e
e
on
en
a
er ne
e
u
,
o
en
e
on ,
n
a
or
an
a e
a
an
.
Co mmuni ty L i f e i n
th e A n i mal
K i n g d om
17
.
of
the sam e colony have the same deli cat e nest
”
and by lic k ing strangers they are able to trans
o dor
fer it to other insects A beetl e o f t he genus A tem el es
having been l icked i n a friendly manner by but o n e
ant o f a F ormi ca colony w ill be acknowledge d a s a
friend by the other ants o f the same colony whil st
”
“
1
otherwi se they woul d attack i t
Th e nest odor can
be communicated t o m e mbers O f other colonies n o t
only by l icking but al so by feeding The smell o f the
2
sa l i vary g l a n d secreti o ns thu s se e m s t o se rve ants a s
“
well as bees as a means o f recognizing the citizens
”
o f the same state
3
It i s no doubt downright nonsense for Buechner
to put ant stat e s o n th e sam e lev e l w ith human
republics much more so to consi d e r them more perfect
“
than the latter A n d when modern soci ologist s t ry
to establi sh thei r re forms o f human society o n such
foundations we are j u stified in styling their endeavors
utopian scheme s T he p romoters o f such i dea s f o r
,
.
,
,
.
.
.
,
,
,
.
,
.
M r
si g ific c f th s liv ry gl d s cr t i s
th
s f r c g i ti
m
g t s will b f d i t h ss y m t i d
m
b v D i psyc h F h i gk i t d A m is
p 1 6 d 97 6 O th
l tt r p g s w h v ls s h w t h t i t is t m r l y th s m ll f t h
s liv ry gl d s cr t i s d h ri g t
b tl th t i d c s th
ts t
f th t c l
r c iv i t f t r i t h b
lic k d b y
i gl
t
y b t
i
l m ts
pl y d m s t b c si d r d
t h r psyc h ic
t h t b si d s
xpl i i g t h f c t S
ls I s t i c t d I t lli g c i t h
i
p 158
A i m l K i gd m
th
i t r s ti g li tt l ss y b y N L d wi g F tt rs f t O d r
) S
V r l g g l d B h rrsc h r d O r d r g h i m i
i h
th i
v ll r V g g i m B i
lk
p b lish d b y th L ipzi g r Bi
z i t g 1 896 Li k wis N L d wi g U b r G h mp fi d g d
R i c h r g d H i gb i
d O ff
b r g 1 899 9t h
( N t r
iss p 5 54
G is t sl b
d
T i r p 52
)
g C g tt d M t i i
pri m i t iv
ll
L
f rm
) S
v l zi
c mic
T ri 1 881
1
)
e an
a
“
a
an
a
n
e
e
,
n
2
e r sc
e
or
e
e
an
ue,
a
en
are
“
o
a
ee
a
o
”
n
an
e
e
an
o
n e
en
e
u
,
on
e
e
o
o on
u
an
n
e
a
o
an
o ne
.
u e
a
as
en
a
e
n
a
a
n
n
e
e e
e
on
e
an
.
e,
s n
e
e
n
no
e
ee
.
e e
e
n
.
n
e
un
a s
e
er
e
on
er
e
e
e n en vo
e
.
,
o
e
e
“
a u
e
e
e
un
e
ne
e
,
u
,
un
e
“
u
”
u
.
u
e,
.
en e
a
“
e r uc
en
e
n
e
a un
n ss
e
en e n
e
e
e
a
un
un
,
,
.
“
3
4
o u
an a
”
un
e
e en
.
n e
aen
n
e
en ,
e
a
n
an
a
o un
e
er
e e
,
e
e
a
a
e
”
o
ee
o
e
a
o
en
o
on
e
e
n
a
a
e
an
e
as
o
,
on
a
e
e
a n n
e
o
e
a
e
e
a
e
an
ae
.
e
a
e
on
n
o
n
e
e
e
a
e
e
o
e
a o
on
e
o
e
e
ee
e.
on e
2
en
e
e o no
er
o
.
a
”
.
ne
e e,
o
o
e
n o,
.
.
ar
.
s,
“
e
o
e
e
ne
a
C hap ter
18
I
.
get that w ith m an class di ff er ence s re st on f ar di f
f e ren t bases than di ff e rences o f caste s a mong ants
With m an they are the outcome o f change able out
ward conditions o f li fe or perhap s the result o f the
intelligent free choice o f th e individuals concerned ;
with ants however they spring directly from the
hereditary organic laws o f polymo rphi sm
Besi des
those socialistic theori sts forget th a t among ants there
exi sts perfect equal ity and fraternity betwe e n all the
membe rs of a col ony f o r the v e ry rea son that these
animal s are gu i ded by thei r social instincts o nly not
b y i ndependent reasoning and that they th ere fore
are never l iabl e a s m en unh appily o ften are egotisti
cally to p re fer thei r indivi dual wel fare to the common
weal
I f those sociali st enthu siasts coul d trans form
men into ants then they might be j ustified in pro
posing ant republ ics as the i dea l pol itical condition
1
H E Ziegler i s right th e re fore i n saying
With ants the social di ff erentiation i s conditio n ed
by organization an d instincts and i s thu s accurately
fixed and r e gulated whilst with man th e social diff e r
e n t i a ti o n i s due to education
and cu stom ;
e xerci se
only the foundation o f man s social li fe i s determined
by c e rtai n social instincts its further development
however i s regulated by the intellect by education
and cu stom
To argu e abou t man s social
institutions from the relati ons e xi sting among insects
woul d be c o mmi t ti ng a g ross err o r all the more so
‘
i f one shoul d consider the communisti c insect states
~
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
.
.
,
,
,
,
,
’
,
,
,
,
’
,
1
)
p 1 86
I d ivi d
G i ss
.
n
e
“
.
S ee
u en
en ,
N
Die
at u
a
Oder
1 851
.
ls
rwiss sc h
o
en
R
.
di e E
af t
un d
L e u ck a r t ,
rsc h i
e n un
g
en
Th ri
U b r d P lym rph is m s d
d
g i d N tu r
A r b i t s t il
di e
e
er
so c i al d e m o k rat i sc h e
e
en
e
o
e
un
eo
u
o
n
er
e,
er
a
"
,
C h ap ter I
20
.
In what does the pretended p sychological superi
o ri ty o f the associations o f higher animals over ant
st a tes consi st ? Let u s try to clear up this question
.
T h e C o mm uni ti es
3
.
o
Co m
th e H i g h er A n i mal s
f
f
1
Both Ziegler an d D arwi n point to the fact that
th e higher mammal s e specially ap es sometimes form
societies for the purpose o f receiving notice o f dange r
for p roviding mutual prot e ction an d de fense for o b
taining nouri shment sometimes even for united at
2
ta cks o n th e i r prey
S ocietie s o f ant s h ave the
very same end i n View A lthough thei r main pur
pose i s to rear thei r young i n common yet those
other secondary purposes are not only n o t excluded
but thei r pursuit and attainment by ants reach a d e
g ree of p erf ec ti o n u n eq ual ed by the above mentioned
high er animal s
H owever neither D arwin n o r E s
pinas nor Zi egler nor in fact any modern stu dent
o f animal psychology has ever succe e ded in proving
that apes are co nsci o us of th ei r purp ose and there fore
act with i n tel l ig en ce and that ants are w i th o u t co n
sci o usn ess of purp ose
and therefore acting m erel y
fr o m i nsti n ct
Let u s consi der more closely the di ff erent points
o f compari son
The higher animal s l iving in hordes
ai d thei r comrades by certain call s giving warning
o f danger
S ome o f them e g
the ch amois post
“
”
regular sentinel s for th i s purpose However ant s
do th e same and in a manner much more indicative
pared w i th
th ose
A n ts
o
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1
“
sc t
i gl r l
) De
2
) Z e
en
e
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of
Man
e
p
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,
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I Ch p
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,
1 89
.
a
.
4
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,
Co mmuni ty L i f e i n
th e A ni mal
K i ng dom
21
.
intelli g ence T h e whole di ff erence l ie s in th e fact
that instead o f calls the ants u se another means o f
sensile communication namely thei r feelers
If a
“
troop o f sanguine sl avem ak e rs a s M cCo o k call s
them ( F o rmi ca sang ui n ea ) approaches a nest o f the
negro ant ( F o rmi ca fusca ) then the first blac k ant
wh ich has noticed the foe hurries back into the nest
communicates her o w n fright to the other workers by
rapidly tapping them with her feelers and thu s gives
a general alarm The larvae and pupae are hurried
down from the higher parts o f the nest i nto the deeper
galleries and chambers an d i f the foe advances as far
a s these apartment s th e black ants ru n head ove r
heel s through the secret openings at the Opposite side
and wi th thei r precious burden climb up stalks an d
bu shes to save it fro m the foe S ometimes they re
sort to thi s final m eans o f escape at the first news
o f danger and
take to their heel s before the van
gu ard o f the foe has reach ed the interior o f the nest
In a similar way but a dopting di ff erent tacti cs the
yellow and the b rownish black mea dow ants ( L asi us
fl avi us and ni g er ) struggl e for sa fety when th ei r
nest s are attacked by some F or mi ca species A s soon
as the approach o f the foe i s di scovered the fact i s
announced with lightning li k e rapi dity throughou t
th e colony by rapi d strokes o f the feelers
The
larvae an d pupae th e winge d males and the q ueens
are carried t o the lowest recesses o f the nest and the
avenu es to it are hastily blocke d up with earth to
prevent the ene my s advance
Whilst the small
L asi us i s constantly closin g up the approaches to the
interior o f th e nest with b its o f earth such o f th e f o e
of
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C h ap ter
22
I
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as have ventured too far are seized and k illed by
crow ds of the assailed
I f with higher animals i t i s a mar k o f intell igence
“
to utilize the senses o f al l for the protection o f the
”
commonwealth the same must be s a i d o f ants and
in a more perfect d e gre e T h e p o sting o f s e ntinel s
for the protection o f th e community may be observed
with th e se social ins e cts j u st as well and e ven better
than with th e social apes In a nest o f F o r mi ca san
g ui n ea compri sing four species o f slav e s ( or auxil
f aries ) namely F f usca r n fi b a r b i s r ufa and pra
te nsi s which i s und e r my Observation f o r many years
I can veri fy thi s fact every day
We subj oin a
diagram o f thi s observati on n e st as i t w ill o ften be
referred to i n the sequel
The main nest and its annex are made o f glass
plates in wooden frames The space between the two
plates i n each nest i s partl y fill e d with earth their
vertical distance being from 1 0 to 1 2 millim e ters so
that th e a n ts have freedom o f motion to perform thei r
work withou t being abl e to scre e n themselves from
ob servation The u pper glass plate i s generally co v
ere d w ith a black cloth ; for i f light were permitted
to enter the ants woul d coat the lower sur fa ce o f th e
glass with earth i n o rder to darken th e i n te ri o r o f
the nest By means o f glas s tubes the main nest and
its anne x are put i n communication with each other
and with the oth e r parts o f the nest which are like
wi se o f glass ( S e e diagram )
I n the main nest whi ch corresponds to the interio r
o f an ord inary ant nest the m aj ority o f t h e ants are
t o be found w ith thei r queens their l arvae pupa e and
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C h ap ter
24
1
.
gu ests In the front nest we see generally a number o f
ant s basking in the sun o r engaging in diff e r e nt la b ors
In the top nest a small nu mber o f sa ng ui n ea r ufa a n d
pra t ensi s a re u sually found eith e r on guard o r wait
ing for the fl ies or other food which I occasionally
th row i n In the glass bulb of t h e feeding tub e even
i f it happens to contain no sugar o r honey there are
a l ways
o ne
or
tw o ant s mostly f usca o r r uli
b a rb i s which have a special liking for thi s d e part
m ent
Even on the dumping grounds wh ither the
ants carry thei r dead there are a s a rule a few ants
to be found remaining im movabl e and watching for
any susp iciou s circumstance i n th e n e st or in its
vicinity O n M arch 2 6 1 896 from morning till eve
n ing o n e F f usca and o n e F
prat ensi s w e re post e d in
th e re fuse nest ; o n M arch 2 7 at 7 a m two F pra
t en si s ; at 1 0 a m two F sa ng u i n ea t ook the i r pl ac
On M arch 2 8 i n th e forenoon o n e sa ng ui n ea
was o n guard which h avi n g b e en taken o ut by
m e and confi n e d was soon a fter replaced b y anoth er
O n March 2 9 th e
sa ng ui n ea for the rest o f th e day
whol e day o n e sa ng ui n ea ; on M arch 30 at
a m
t w o f usca ; when at 8 a m I ha d taken out and con
fined o n e o f th e two I found th at within the Space o f
hal f an hou r another f usca had taken its place where
upon both remained there during the whol e o f the
forenoon etc O nly durin g winter a fter I had com
l
emptied
the
re
fu
se
nest
and
l
e
ft
it
i
n
the
l
t
e
e
y
p
same condition for a long time no ant s w ere seen
there for several we e ks because thi s part o f thei r
nest was n o longer of any vital interes t to them and
b ecause the cool temperature kept them in the mai n
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Communi ty L i f e i n
K i ng d o m
th e A n i m a l
25
.
est and i n its immediate vicinity I t can hardly b e
maintained that thi s posting o f sentinel s in the di f
f e re n t parts o f th e nest wa s m erely d ue to po l y
m orph i sm ; for th e cognitive an d appetitive powers
o f the singl e indivi dual ants o f those five species in
various ways take a promin e nt part i n i t A s we
shall show herea fter th e same Obta ins i n oth er form s
o f the division o f l a b or in ant states
“
S ocial animals per form many littl e services for
each other ; horses nibble an d cows lick e ach oth e r
wherever they feel an itch ing ; monkeys hunt for
”
each other s external parasites etc
Thus Zi egler
rep roduce s the statement s o f Ch D a rw in But ant s
o f th e sam e colony are quite a s serviceable to each
oth e r Whoever has kept ants in suitably arrange d
nests o f observation where th ey fe e l com fortable and
“
”
at home can observe such acts o f charity a hundr e d
times a day
Every time I gently li ft the b lack cloth
which protects th e upper glas s plate o f the main nest
from th e rays o f the sun I witness o n e o r more o f
th e se lovely scenes Ju st now a worker o f F san
i
u
n
ea i s lying immovable stretched o n her s i de whilst
g
some of the companions are wash ing her ; a sang ui n ea
a f usca and a rufi b ar b i s per form th i s work and l ic k
her care full y whil st she continues immovabl e ; then
they turn h e r aroun d and lick her j u st a s care fully o n
the other si de A fter hal f a minute the light which
floods the nest interrupts the per formance and they
fl ee to some darker spot th e patient soon following
thei r example A l l th e wor k ers o f each o f the five
ant specie s l iving in my mi xe d col ony without d i st i n c
ti on render these services o f cleanl iness to on e another
n
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C h ap ter I
26
S ometime s one
.
of
the domi nant sometimes o ne of th e
e nslaved species i s the recipient
no di stinction being
made between masters and slaves i n performing these
o ffi ces Ju st as with cows in licking each other so with
ants th e performance o f this service generally cau s e s
no less satis faction to the active than to the passive
partner and when apes loo k for each other s parasites
we must in order to arrive at a corr e ct p sychological
“
”
appr e ciation o f such kind O f fices not overlook the
fa ct that ape s devou r with gr e at r e lish the parasites
di scovered i n the fur o f th e i r comrad e
A s rega rds these mutual cleaning services ant s
and the higher social animal s are pretty much on a
par The only di ff er e nc e i s that with ants they occur
much o ft e ner than w ith th e latter I n both they pro
c eed
in th e first place from the d esi r e f o r cl ean l i n ess
1
which i s no doubt o f an instinctive nature
I n th e
second place they are due to the instinctive m utual
a tta ch me n t between the members o f ani mal as socia
tions The fact that ants clean a dust covered com
”
panion by care fully bru shing her down w ith thei r
mandibl es and l icking her with th e i r tongues when
view ed from the point o f comparative p sychology
finds its explanation i n the same psychic motives a s
“
when apes a fter having rushed through a thorny
brake will examine each other s fu r and extract every
”
thorn o r burr
To l ick o ff the du st is by i tsel f not
more agreeable for ants ; than i t is f o r monkeys to
extract the thorns
With ants the mutual attachment o f nest m ates
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1
2d
) S e e B al l i o n
cd
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zs
Ba
a
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“
,
1 895
.
D e l m sti nc t d e l a
pr pr eté ch ez
o
l es
an
i maux
,
Ch ap ter I
28
.
recovered by the ne xt day whilst without nursin g she
woul d probably have p e ri shed as i s g enerally the case
w ith ants paralyzed by poison
I f there for e on account o f this nursing Lub
bock an d Romanes ascribe to ants a certain degree o f
“
care and tendernes s lavi shed on thei r sick and
wounded companions they are right i n so far as those
actions are due to instinctive impul ses and n o t to the
consciou s a ff ections o f rational beings Fo r comparing
the associations o f ants w ith those o f higher anim a l s
it may at a n y rate be o f particular interest to no t ice
th a t such acts occur al so among ants notwithstanding
th e i r hi ghly chol eri c t e mperament
“
Yet social animal s al so render more important
servi ces to o n e another ; thus wolv e s an d some other
beast s o f prey hunt i n packs and ai d o n e another in
attacking thei r victims The H amadryas baboons turn
ov e r stones to find insects etc and when they come
to a large o n e a s many as can stand round turn it
over together and share th e booty S oci al animals
”
mutually defend each other
Thi s quotation from
“
”
D escent o f M a n
cannot j u sti fy Ziegl er
D arwin s
any m ore than hi s former arguments in concluding
that th e community li fe o f wil d cattle baboons and
other mam mal s i s more cl osely related to the social
organi sms o f man than that o f ants O n the contrary
th e mani festations o f social li fe recorded above occur
w ith ants e ven i n f a r g reater perfecti o n
A nt s too hunt in company especially the so called
sanguine sl avem ak ers ( F sang ui n ea an d rubi cund a )
th e red A maz on ants ( P o l yerg us r uf escen s l uci d us
an d b revi ceps) an d all the spec i es b el o n gi n g to th e
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Co mmuni ty L i f e
i n th e A n i mal
K i ng d o m
.
29
and A n omma These are the
dreaded l e gionary ants and driver ants o f tropical
A merica and A frica
Th e mi li ta ry expeditions o f
F sang ui n ea are generally undertaken in small divi
sions o f from twenty to fi fty workers with the purpos e
not only of robbing the neuter pupae o f the slave
speci e s ( F fusca an d ru fi ba rb i s) but o ften al so o f
pillagi n g the nests o f smaller ants b e longing to the
genus L asi us the larvae pupae and w inged individual s
o f which a re carried o ff to be devoured
D uring the
time o f the nuptial fl ight o f L asi us n i g er many san
g ui n ea colonies are hunting i n the vicinity o f their nest
fo r the heavy L asi us females w hich drop to the
ground Then either singly o r with united fo rces th e s e
rob b ers pul l thei r victim s into th e i r stronghol ds
where they are mercilessly slaughtered O n the aft e r
noon o f A ugu st 2 4 1 888 I witnessed such a typical
hunting expedition o f several sa ngi n ea coloni e s n e ar
E xat en ( Holland ) on the outskirts o f a fir planta
tion Th e road passing the nests was covered far and
wi de with sang ui n eas rushing upon every L asi us
femal e that d ropped from the ai r as upon a welcom e
booty W ithin the space o f an hour I counted more
than one hundred females o f L asi us n i g er that fell
victi ms to th e hunters
The indivi dual initiative o f ants i s mani fested on
such occasions in the same degree a s with the higher
mammal s ; whilst concerted action and suitabl e
co operation reach even greater per fection than with
the l atter A t any tim e a troop o f o ur common re d
backed hill ants ( F rufa ) may be seen o n some forest
path w ith combined forces dra ggi n g to their home a
D oryl i de
g enera
E ci to n
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C h ap ter I
‘
30
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l arge heavy dung be etle ( G eo trupes typh o eus) ; o r a
number o f them are hauling to the n e st a large beam
to o ur eyes it i s but a broken twig— which i s more
than fi fty times the weigh t o f any single an t ! S ome
pull i n front other s pu sh from behind and even i f th e
latt e r for a few seconds pull in the w rong direction
they soon notice it and o ff it goes i n th e right direction
to the nest O n A pril 2 5 1 897 I observ e d in th e
neighborhoo d o f a pratensi s nest near E x at en two
workers dragging toge ther a beetle o f the genus
Cal a th us towards th e ir hill ; th e y w e nt at a double
quick w ithou t hindrance o n either si de both ants run
ning backwards with equal speed
The mode o f actin g in concert i s di ff erent with
di ff erent sp e cies o f ants A mong o ur F o r mi ca species
it reaches its highest de gree of development with the
hill ants ( F rufa and pra tensi s) the initiative o f the
singl e ants bearing rather a secondary part The
sangu ine sl avem ak e r ( F sang ui n ea ) however whi ch
i s able t o proceed n n i ti s vi ri ons wherever it seem s suit
abl e com bin e s with thi s power a r e markable degree
of i n d i vi d ual i n i ti a ti ve similar to that notice d in dogs
apes and other higher animal s
I t i s o f special interest to watch the co operation
and divi sion o f l abor o f di ff e rent species in mi x ed
In my above mentioned observation
c o l o n i es o f ants
nest which contains besides F sang ui n ea four other
F o rmi ca species a s auxiliaries these five species h ave
divided the work nec e s sary f o r the wel fare o f the
communi ty so as to give each speci es exactly the share
corresponding most to its instinctive preferences Thi s
divi sion of la bo r however i s neither mechani cally
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Lif e i n
Co mmuni ty
th e A n i mal K i ng d o m
31
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defined nor confined withi n the cast iron rules estab
l i sh e d by the specific character o f each ant b ut the
workers o f o n e species wi ll at least to some degr e e
take part in the work o f any other species Thus e g
the rearing o f the youn g in the m ain nest ( see p 2 3 )
i s chiefly attended to by the san g ui n eas themsel v e s
but all the four auxiliary species j oin i n the same
work I n the glas s bulb o f the feeding tube containing
the sugar the greater number o f vis itors consi st s o f
f usca or rnfi barbi s filling their crop s by l icking up
sugar or honey with wh ich they hurry to feed th e i r
comp anions in the other pa rt s o f the nest S a ng ui n e a
mi f a an d pratensi s often pre fer to carry the grains o f
”
sugar in the lump from the feeding tube s to the t o p
nest mani festing agai n various i n dividu a l di ff ere n ces
in thei r mode of action quite ind e pend e nt o f th e ir
specific character S o metimes the lump o f sugar i s
car r i e d only a s far as y ( see di agr a m o n p 2 3) to the
top o f the tube whence it i s transported by other ant s
gen e rally however it i s i mmediat e ly brought ( b e yond
x ) to the front nest where it i s carried to the bottom
in thei r mand ibles o r el se but rathe r seldom it i s
simply dropped from a considerabl e height This I
observed quite often w ith sang ui n ea mor e rarely with
pra tensi s When I introduce a large fl y o r some other
live victim into the front nest i t is mostly sangui n ea
and m fi bar bi s that dart upon it furiou sly whil st rufa
and pra ten si s mani fest o n such occasions remarkable
skill and perseverance in hol ding down the struggling
and fl uttering victim
The sangui n ea with thei r
powerful mandibles atten d chiefly to the di s memberi ng
o f thei r pre y whilst th e conve y ance o f the lar g er pieces
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C hap ter I
32
f
ru a o r sa ng ui n ea
the nest i s general ly done b y
of
i nto the inner parts
.
.
It was of special i ntere st to w atch the behavior o f
m y ants when a new indivi dual o f the beetle L o m
ech nsa st rum o sa which lives w ith F
sang ui n ea as a
genuine guest was i ntroduced into th e top nest A t
fi rst a s long a s there w ere no rufa and pra tensi s in the
nest as auxiliaries he was i f not descendi n g into the
mai n nest himsel f taken at last by a sa ng ui n ea and
carrie d dow n i n spite o f hi s obstin ate p a ssive resist
ance Later o n i t wa s gener a lly r ufa and pratensi s
th at transported the guest who attract e d thei r attention
i n a rem a rkable degree O nce a r nf a happened to be
alone i n the to p nest an d for a l o ng ti me was trying
i n vain to get hol d o f o n e o f the two L o mech n sas
happening to be th e re when all at once sh e ran down
to the front nest S carc e l y more than three seconds
had elapsed before sh e returned with four other rnf as
which sh e h ad called to her as sistance Now th e five
set to work with u nited e ff orts
r nf a s i mmediat e ly
to rai se the L o me ch n sas e a ch o f which was th e n car
1
rie d dow n to th e main nest by o n e o f the ants
I f similar scenes ha d been w itnessed in a society
form ed o f d i ff erent sp ecie s o f higher animal s w e could
not help admiring th e harmoniou s co operation and the
suitabl e but by n o m e ans mechanical divi sion o f labor
However it i s n o t the higher ani mal s but an ts th at
act in thi s w ay and in order t o save the pretende d
intelligence of the former ants are classed as i n
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wi ll
A me
) A mo
be
is
cc r
a
e
f o un d
u at e
in
o ur
e
on
th e
p w r
o
e
scrip ti
l st m
f th
ss y D i psyc h isch
S t t t g rt
26 t h iss
ts
c mmu ic t i i
de
e
on
a
“
,
o
of
o
n
a
e
a
-
u
on
a
n
an
,
.
i
en t o n e d
en
e
u e,
en
ch pt r
a
r
o
b s rv t i
e
a
on
Fae h i gk e i t en d er
63 if i n t h e
p
.
.
Co mmuni ty L i f e
sti n cti ve a ut o mat o ns,
i n th e A n i mal
K i ng d o m
33
.
even as unperceptive
or
“
r efl ex
ma chi n es
Yet neith e r in ants no r i n any other animal s are
co operation an d divi sion o f l a bor such as to b e come
m u tual i n di vi d u al assi sta n c e as i s th e case with man
The same obj ect attract s the attention of several indi
vi d ual s an d leads them to busy th e m selves about i t
each i n its o w n way Working i n company i s du e
partly to the similarity o f instinctive di spositi o n s i n t h e
singl e ants partly to th e instinct o f imi tation H v
Ih e ri n g r e fers to thi s i n the case o f the Brazili a n l e a f
cutti n g ants ( A tta ) an d has pointed out the psycho
logical importance o f thi s di ff er e nce as it exists
1
betw e en societies o f anima l s and man
Everybody knows th a t not only the higher mam
mal s but also the social insect s u n i te i n d efen di ng thei r
com munity and esp e cially thei r young To be thor
oughly convinced o f this fact you n e ed but st ep o n
a wasps nest o r sit dow n on an ant hill I nd ee d the
“
”
per fect unity an d heroi c self sac ri fi c e which social
inse ct s and in p a rti cul a r most ant s d ispl a y i n de f e nd
i ng their n e sts an d th e ir o ff spring are si mply un sur
”
Thi s un se l fi sh n e ss
p assed by any o th er a n i m al
“
”
thi s spirit o f sacrific e and motherly love i n ani
mal s will be r e ferr e d to in particular wh e n we come
t o speak o f th e bre e ding an d nursing instincts
Higher gregarious animals e g bi so n s or baboons
do not in d e fending th e community against a common
foe de fend als o the indivi dual s a s such
Wh en a
hunter lying i n ambush has kill e d one o f the herd th e
,
,
-
,
.
,
,
.
.
,
.
.
,
.
.
’
.
,
-
.
,
,
.
.
,
.
,
,
.
,
1
)
“
D i e Ame
is
l g isc h Z i t sc h ri f t
o
e
3
e
en
”
,
f
vor
Ri o G
1 894 , 3 d
iss
r
an d e
u e,
p
.
S ul ,
do
34 6
.
”
in
B rli r E
e
ne
n t o mo
C h ap ter
34
1
.
other b i sons generally take an inqui sitive sni ff at the
corpse but they m ake no assault on the foe for the
s ake o f a woun ded or dead companion Wolves are
far more uncerem o nious Instead o f d evi sing plans
for revenge they devou r their dead or wounded
“
”
brother
A nts when engaged in common def e ns e
ai m at defending the i ndivi dual o f th e colony j ust a s
l ittle as do th e higher animal s A n assailed ant 15
never de fended by her companion s for he r o w n sake
They rush upon the foe only because they see i n him
a common danger an d because thei r warl ike spirit has
been arous ed Thi s wa s n o ticed by Forel an d Lub
bock and I can only confirm i t There fore neither
high e r animal s nor ants when e ither at work or in
b attle mani fest a n yth ing l ike i ndivi dual assi stance i n
the h uman sense o f the word
“
A l l animal s livin g in a body wh ich de fend them
selves o r attack thei r enemies i n concert must indeed
be in some degree fai th ful to one anothe r and thos e
that fol low a l eader must be in some degree o b edi en t
When the baboon s i n A byssinia pl under a garden they
sil ently foll ow thei r leader and i f an i mprudent young
animal makes a noi se he receives a slap from the
others to teach him silence an d obedience
Examples p er fectly s imilar to th e o n e j ust m en
,
.
.
,
.
,
,
.
.
,
,
.
.
,
,
,
,
,
1
.
,
,
.
,
,
.
i st c s f i divi d l ssis t c i th l gi ry
N t r list i Nic r gu
h m t m r c rd d by B l t ( Th
t Ec i t
sily xpl i d b y t h f c t t h t t h s m i g t
2d d
1 88 8 p
l g t h ir s t r ggli g c m p i s
is f t
i g
t k
t s t ri d t
c s i m i gr t i s f E r p
F r mi c sp ci s T h r f r t h r
th
is r s w h y w sh l d cr d i t t h E ci t wi th h i gh r sym p t h y
th r
ts
i s th
R m s d s ( A im l
f
t h ir c m p
I t lli g c 6 th d p
T h is c s is
pr f f sym p th y b t
f t h i s t i c t f s ci b l
ss
m r ly
m i f st ti
1
pr
) T he
c
.
,
,
an
n
e
no
or
e
e
a e
o
on
a
n
o
en
a
e,
”
an
c
e
a
.
,
on
e an
e
an
o
o
o
,
n
n
o
a
e
as
o
o
a
a
an o n
e
a,
a a
e
,
on a
e
ra
e
as
o
e
oe
o
oo
.
en
e e
e e o e,
.
an e
en e
e
n
a
o
no
a e
e
n
n
a
a
o ns
an
.
a u
e
e
e
an e
e
a
e
u o
a
a ne
e
ou
an o n
e
e
a on
”
ua
n
o
e
ea
o
e
ea o n
e
n e
a re
e
a e
o
e
.
an
n
a u
a
on
an
e t e n de d
“
a
“
a
n
a
,
u
Ch ap ter
36
7
.
course no t so prom inent with ants whose q ueen
i s much l ess o f a center for the instinctive acti vi
ties o f the workers
With ants it i s j u st the
workers that by th e i r re stl e s s activity and the r e mark
abl e display o f individual initiative are most power
fully stimulating th e i n stincts o f th e i r companions to
imitation and thereby to actual co operation in a given
w ork
The only di ff erence b e tw e en the babo ons
describe d by D arwin and o ur a n ts i s that with the
form er the instinctive com munic a tion between the
singl e i ndivi du al s of a troop i s e ff ected mostly through
c a lls with the latt e r how e ver through taps o f th e
feelers
But both sometimes resort to more drastic
“
gestures to supplement th e i r means o f co mm un i ca
”
tion
I f an excited F sang ui n ea o r fusca can not
succeed by taps o f h e r feelers i n i nducing a companion
to j oi n h er work she sometimes s e izes h e r by the man
d i b l e s o r by a leg and simply drags h e r to the obj ect
which had first attr a cte d her o w n attenti o n
I n the
sam e w av an ant often protect s her com rade s from
a threaten ing danger first notic e d by h e r
I n my
observation nests I repeatedly noticed some F sa n
g ui n ea o r f usca by taps o f her feele rs o r some other
more drastic measu r e s warning th ei r companions to
“
be o n thei r guard When e g I took away th e glass
tube connecting th e feeding bulb with the to p nest
“
and cau ght a few o f the sent i
( see di agram p
”
nel s that i nstantly sallied forth from the opening o f
the top nest r e ady to fight I o ften remarked some ants
that w ere posted near the Opening o f the to p nest
approaching the others tapping them w ith their feelers
as a dan g er si gnal and even getting hol d o f o n e that
,
,
.
,
-
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
,
”
,
.
.
.
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
Co mmuni ty
37
Li f e i n th e A ni mal K i ng d om
.
about to run out and pull i ng h er back from the
dangerou s spot To interpret such p sychic mani festa
“
tions i n higher ani mal s as intel ligent actions i s evi
d en tl y incons istent w ith d enying to ants an equal or
”
“
even higher degree o f indivi dual intelligence
Cri t i
c a l psycholo g y w ill regard such occurrences i n ants
as well as i n higher animal s merely a s asso ci ati ons of
se nsi l e r epresen ta ti o n s a n d i mpul ses
which must be
classed as i nsti n cti ve sensati on an d not as i n tel l i g en t
1
Th e social instincts of animal s which in
th o ug h t
thei r actual use are variously influenced an d ruled by
i ndividual s e nse exp e ri e nce perfectly expl a i n all the
“
” “
”
” “
app e aranc e s o f fidel ity
obedi e nc e
caution etc
which occur w ith state f o rm i n g i n sec ts not i n a lower
b ut r a th e r in a higher de g ree than w ith apes an d other
mammal s To credit higher animal s w ith quasi —human
i ntellig e nce i s there fore t o humanize animal s i n a
manner e qually arbitrary an d inconsi stent
To su m up the resu l ts o f o ur comparative study on
the social li fe of ants and o f higher animal s The
associations o f apes and o f higher V e rtebrates are
b a sed on so ci al i nsti n cts which l ead them to co Operate
for mutual protection and de fense and partly too
for the procuring o f food Thi s co op e ration i s mor e
o r l ess power ful ly influ e nced an d vari e d in its m an i f e s
t at i o n s according to th e sensil e e xperi e nces an d a ff ec
tions o f di ff erent indivi dual s Exactly the same mode
but o f a still more perfect sui ta bl e
o f c o op e r ation
and vari abl e nature we observe al so in o u t sta tes
With these animals to o it i s founded o n so ci al
was
,
.
”
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
'
-
,
.
,
,
.
.
-
,
,
,
,
-
.
.
-
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
1
(
) See
H rd r
e
e
,
St
I s t i ct
L is
“
.
n
n
ou
,
an d
e
I t lli g c i
sp ci lly Ch p III
n e
e
a
en
e
a
th e
n
.
.
i l K i gd
A n ma
n
o
m
Ch ap ter
38
I
.
which corresponding to thei r or g anic poly
morphi sm are diff erent i n di ff erent classes ( castes )
o f the state
A s regards the application o f the sensile
experiences an d aff ection s o f in divi duals there exi sts
within th e range o f these cl as ses a very g reat i nd e
r
e
e
n
i ab l en ess o f i ndividual action which
n
d
c
and
a
e
v
p
w ith several ant species e g the sangu ine sl avemaker
( F sang ui n ea ) i s scarcely in ferior to that observed
a mongst higher V ertebrates Besi des the perf ec ti o n
o f so ci al c o opera ti o n o f higher mammal s i s far from
equ a ling that o f ants ; f o r w ith the l atte r it extend s
not only to protect ion de fense a nd hunti n g but al so
to construction o f thei r dwellings to the rearing o f the
“
young and t o the support o f all the m embe rs o f the
”
st ate by comparatively few indivi duals goi n g by turn s
i n quest o f foo d an d supplying the com munity with
provi sions N o th i ng o f the kind i s known o f ape s o r
oth e r higher ani mal s The pro vi di ng of fo o d in par
t i c ul a r varies greatly with t h e di ff erent kinds of ant 5
“
it embraces cattle herding ( the keeping o f aph ides )
hunting ( robbing o f insects in particular robbing o f
th e pupae o f other ants ) agriculture ( gra i n gathering
ants ) horticulture ( ants rai sing fungi ) etc N o r are
th e m ilitary expedition s o f several ant sp e cies under
tak e n merely from want o f food but al so for the sake
o f making slaves
the ravi sh ed pupae o f workers of
other ant speci es b e ing reared as m embers o f their
ow n
state
Th rough th i s suitabl e incorporation o f
outsi ders into thei r o w n colony the community li fe o f
“
ants in th e mi xed col o ni es reache s a qua s i m tel l i gen t
universality which i s vainly sough t for among highe r
ani mal s The same universal ity i s mani fested al so by
i nsti n cts,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
.
.
,
,
.
,
-
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
!
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
”
-
,
.
Co mmun i ty L i f e
i n th e A n i m a l
K i ng d o m
.
39
the fact that many ant species treat like mem bers o f
their o w n family even di ff er e nt orders o f insects
namely the beetles o f the genera A tem el es L o mech usa
“
X e n o d usa etc
which are known a s g en ui n e an t
”
and that they even tend and rear thei r young
g uests
as i f they were thei r own
I t must therefore be conceded that the co mmunity
li fe amon g ants i s mor e dev e loped and more perfect
than that am on g apes an d other higher animal s h en ce
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
f ro m
th e
po i n t
m m un i ti es
ani mal soci eti es
th e
co
.
f
of
o
vi ew
a n ts
mpara ti ve psych o l ogy
represen t th e m ost perf e ct o
f
o
f
co
,
CH A P TE R
W A RS
S LA V E R Y I N T H E
AND
1
.
II
Wars
A
.
N I M A L K I N GDO M
.
A m o ng H i g h er A n i mals
.
O D E RN evolutionists represent the social l i fe
among higher V e rtebrates with the ai m o f mak
in g i t the main support o f the bri dge spanning the
chas m between man and the brute
Thus Ziegler
concl udes hi s description by a p sychological parallel
i n which j ust as D arwin did h e tri e s to establi sh th e
gr e atest possibl e si milarity between the social li fe o f
animals an d o f man Let u s ex amine thi s evol ution
i st i c attempt i n the l ight o f scientific p sychology
“
Ther e exists th eref o re a mon g ani
S ays Ziegl e r
mal s a social community li fe sim ilar to what we m ee t
among the hordes and tribes o f uncivilized nations
Even wars w hich have taken pl ace among the hordes
and tribes o f the human race since prehi stori c t i mes
have thei r counterparts in the animal worl d a s i s
proved by the following exampl e recorded by D arwin
“ ‘
B reh m states on authority o f the well known
travel er S ch i mp er that in A byssinia when the baboons
belonging to one species descen d i n troop s from the
mountains to plunder the fiel ds they sometimes
encounter troop s o f another speci e s an d then a fight
ensues ; the g el adas roll down great stone s whi ch th e
h am adryas t ry to avoi d and then both species m aking
a great uproar ru sh furiou sly against each other
”
H ow far th e th erefore which shoul d connect
.
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
-
,
,
,
,
,
’
.
,
,
40
Wars and Sl avery
i n th e A n i mal
K i ng d o m
.
the social li fe o f animals and o f m an i s support ed by
facts has been show n i n the preceding chapter Even
i n high e r mammals i ndividual s o f social communiti e s
co operate merely as f ar as th ei r so ci al i nsti n c ts g ui d ed
In man
by i n di vi d ual sensi l e experi en ce wi ll al l ow
how ever comm unity li fe is due to social i nstincts
,
.
,
-
.
,
,
as
fo un da ti on
t o i ts
m en t
t o th e
b ut i n i ts perf ect d evel op
d eter mi n a ti o n o f i n di
i n tel l i g en t fr ee sel f—
o n ly,
,
vi d ual s
Ziegler and D arwi n are fa r from h aving
furni shed the proo f that the latter element occurs also
i n higher animal s O r do they perhap s think that
the wars which hordes o f apes wage against each other
contain thi s proo f ? Let u s see
In the above description it i s stated that the baboons
roll down stones at thei r enemies i n ten ti o n al l y and
thus a s it were us e th e sto n es a s weapons as e g
in 1 80 9 the Tyrol e se occasionally di d in their struggle
for liberty against the French and Bavarians
But
regarding apes the statement i s a myth P e ch uel
Loesche corr e cted the passage in the third edition of
“
”
”
“
“
B reh m s Ti erl eben
We are tol d he writes that
apes de fen d themselves w ith broken branches and i t
i s pr e tty general ly assum ed that they hurl down o n
thei r opponent s stones fruits pi eces o f woo d and other
obj ects
This belief i s probably due altogether to
i n accurate o bserva ti o n 1 Its ori ginato rs and abettors
have perhaps seen only what they from various
.
,
.
.
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
.
,
.
’
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
M r P h l L sc h w
ll w d
t
t
s bj c t t h 3d d f B h m Ti rl b
wh ic h h r vis d t
th r
gh psyc h l gic l r visi
A l th
gh s v r l f t h m s t ff siv
t
p ss g s w r c rr c t d
p c li r s t yl h
mi tt d y t B h m
ch g d ; h c
t p ssi b ly r f r i
lly h m i m g t h
fr m i t
ti
br t
cri t icis m f th is w rk i N t ur u d O ff b ru g
S
X XXV II 5 70
1
u
o
o
a
si c r ly r gr
) We
n
e
e
u e
o o
e
an
e e
e
.
e
e
ou
a
e e
,
a
o
.
a
e
an n o
e
ee
o
et
on
or
o
.
e
e
ou
e
e
o
s
“
.
o
ec
.
’
re
e
e
th at
,
a n
o
ue
re
e
e
a
’
s
n en
o
n
“
as n o
e
en,
e
e
oe
-
a
o
e
e
u
u
n
~
e
e
o
o
o
e
a
o
,
en
as
e
a
ona
a
e
no
an z
en
a
e
n
”
,
C hap ter II
42
.
accounts supposed to be the fact not what took place
i n reality A p e s living i n tr e es in wanton playfulness
break o ff w ithered b ranches by j umping o n th em by
snapping and shaking the m but they do n o t throw
them at a person who stands below N e ither do they
th r o w fruits o r other obj ects which th e y hold in th e ir
hands ; they rather drop them quit e naturally o n being
frightened o r put to flight M or e ov e r baboons among
which I was able to observ e especially the tsch akmas
o ft e n watch ing hundreds of them very c a r e ful ly nev e r
thi n k of throwing down ston e s from th e i r rocky eleva
tions at their pursuers It i s tru e from the place where
they happen to be stones sometime s roll o r fall down
but m er e ly by chance and also at times wh e n no enemy
i s in sight
Tog e ther with my wi fe who
derive d great pl easure from watching the b ehavior o f
th e baboons — th e y w ere often th e only living beings
and ve ry noi sy at that i n th e rocky deserts of S outh
western A frica — I have minutely stu died their doings
precisely on thi s hea d to convince mysel f whether they
actually thro w Th ey assur edly d o n o t
What l ight i s throw n by the se critical obse rv ations
“
”
of
P e ch uel Loesche o n the
indivi dual intel ligence
o f ape s so highly pri zed by modern evolution ?
Ligh t
enough indee d but extremely compromi sing f o r that
th e ory I n spite o f thei r highly developed brain which
in anatomical structu re bears the closest resembl ance
to the human brai n apes are nevertheless unable to
draw even the si mpl est co n cl usi o n s which might lea d
them to the u se o f branches an d stones as w eapo ns
The spi der w eaving its ingeniou s web to ensnare its
o r castin g o ut silk y th reads t o entan g le its vic
re
y
p
,
.
,
,
,
.
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
-
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
C h ap ter II
44
.
proved unsuccess ful
Even the most sava g e nations
employ tool s and weap o ns o f variou s kinds i n order
to catch thei r prey or to wage wa r a gainst their foes
The parallel draw n by D arwi n and Ziegler betw een
the w ars o f apes and o f savages proves to an un p rej u
diced observer the very reverse o f what D arw in and
Ziegler intend e d to prove i t proves th e essen ti al di f
.
.
f eren c e b etw e en th e m erely
o f t h e h i g h est ver teb r a t es
f acul ti es of ma n
sen si ti ve,
th e
a nd
,
psych i c fac ul ti es
spi ri tual
men tal
,
.
2
Mi l i tary E xpedi ti o ns of t h e A maz on A n t
Th e
.
an d
f th e S ang ui n e S l avemaker
The wars o f ants bear far greater resemblance to
human wars than those o f th e apes Indeed ants no
more than other animal s u se any other weapons than
those furni shed by nature namely thei r s wordlike
mandibl es thei r poison stings and poi son syringes
but they u s e th e m in a manner which o f all ani mal
combat s most r e sembles human strategy Whoever
watch e d a mil itary e xpedition o f th e re d A ma zon ants
l
‘
( P ol yerg us ruf escen s) o r o f the sangu ine sl avem ak ers
will no longer ent e rt a i n any doubts o n the subj ect
Th e A mazon ants th e European P o lyerg us r uf escen s
2
as well as th e Nort h A merican P l uci dus a dvance
o
.
.
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
.
,
issu f th b k D i z s mm g s t z t N st r
) S i c th
d g m isc h t
K l i d A m is
I h v h d cc si i
L i z r Vi
b s rv
mb r f
t h r P l y rg
xp d i t i s
t
d b si d s s v r l
xp d i t i s
r Vi
L im
d i
g i
b r g ( H ll d ) t
sh i i g l m k
wh s h bi t s h
) C ll d b y Mc c k t h
b s rv d
r t h A ll gh y m t i s T h r
s t ill t h r
th r
s b sp ci s ( r c s ) f P f
f
N A m ric P b i p
d i
E m bi c l r W m
F
d m ic
1
un
n e
e
a n
e
an
o
2
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a
.
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e
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o o
o
o
a
e c
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o
.
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.
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nu
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en
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en
o
us e
enn a
n ea
on
e
o
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e e
an
e
a
e
n
on
on
e
,
n
.
e
as
a
u n ea
oo
a e
e
er
e
sa n
e
n ea
e
e
,
e
o
o on e n
en n a
e
u
e
en
n ea
an
o
e
“
oo
ru
ex
“
s ave
n n
o un a n
e sce n s
a n us
ou n
or
.
a
e e
.
n
.
e r,
o e
a
a re
e
ee
a,
.
e
o
rev c e
e
s
Wars a nd S l ave ry
K i ng d o m
i n th e A n i m a l
45
.
the w ar —path i n large ser ried colu m ns the sanguine
sl ave m ak e rs
however t he Europ ean as well a s the
3
North A m erican i n smaller less serried detachments
b oth but especially the A mazons t ry to st o rm the
hostile nest by a fierce attack and to stun the numeri
cally superior foe and to p ut him to fl ight by the
suddenness o f the onslaught G reat success gen e ral ly
“
attends these tactics Forel in hi s F o urmi s d e l a
”
p 30 6 has s e v e r a l s imil a r instances
S ui sse
some o f which w e wi sh to bring to the notice o f the
reader When For e l brought a b a g containing a
whol e colony o f m e a dow ants ( F pra ten si s) which
i n siz e and strength surpas s th e A mazons i nt o th e
neighborhoo d o f an A maz o n nest several o f the
Am azons at first dashed fiercely into the m idst o f their
numberless enem i es ; twenty o f them were as a rule
suffi cient to rout fi fty ti m es that number o f pra ten si s
A nother time an army o f Am azons j ust returning
from th e pillage o f a slave ne st were de p o siting thei r
spoil s of ant pupae i n their nest previou s to setting
out o n a new expedition when Forel at a distance of
one m eter from thei r nest an d i n the path o f thei r
expedition emptie d a large bag o f F pra ten si s In
thr e e minutes th e whol e army o f the A mazon s had
encircl ed the h o stile camp app e aring quite un ex
They stormed it in an instant dr o ve out
p ect e d l y
the pra tensi s and ransacked the nest for i ts cocoon s — I
woul d like to hear of apes ever di splaying similar
mi litary skill
It i s characteri sti c of th e military tactics o f those
on
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,
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F rmi c r bi c d d i t g r
r c s f t h E r p F r mi c
1
c an
)
a e
u
a
o
o
e
un
u o
a an
e an
o
n e
a
Em
.
are
a san g u i n e a
.
th e
pri cip l N
n
a
.
A me
ri
Chap ter II
46
.
ant spe ci es which undertake slave huntin g e xpeditions
to kill the hostil e ants only when resis tance i s o ffered
Fl eein g F fusca o r r ufi bar bi s are pursued mer e ly to
obtain the larvae an d pupae which they are carrying
booty not slaughter i s the obj ect of the victors
o ff ;
I f apes o r other higher animal s were to act s imilarly
in thei r war s then our modern advocates o f e volution
woul d not fail to make the followin g reflections :
“
H e re w e fin d th e first t races of g en ui n e h uma n i ty
which sh rinks from unneces sary bloodshed ; what
these animal s c o ns ci o usly ai m a t i s n o t to fi g h t but
”
In ants such
to g a th er th e frui ts of vi cto ry etc
reflections are readily granted to be ridiculou s human
i z ati o n s o f the brute ; but never would i t be conceded
i n th e case o f apes not because the psychi c mani festa
ti o ns are really di ff erent but rather to sa feguard the
evolutioni stic theories
The mil itary skill o f the A m a zons ( P o lyerg us) i s
no doubt unexcelled amongst ant s but also amongst
other animal s It i s even far superior to the military
tactics o f th e sangu ine sl avemaki n g ants although the
latter mani fest in thei r w hole character a mor e p e rfect
“
”
devel opm e nt o f what i s called individual i nt e ll igence
i e the suitable application o f their sensitive exp eri
e mees But th e A mazons i n p ri vate li fe are the dull e st
”
“
and most aw kw ard i nsti n ct b ei n gs you can imagine
A lthough they are a b l e to take liqui d food by l ickin g
j ust as oth er ants they have neverthel es s almost totally
lost th e instinct o f feeding them selves an d woul d
starve unless they be fed from the mouth o f their
slaves Thi s fact makes it quit e evident that even in
the g randest mil it ar y exploits o f the A ma zons there
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Wars a nd S lavery
K i ng d o m
i n th e A ni mal
47
.
enters not the slightest trac e o f genuine intelligence
but only instinctive sensitiv e faculti es ; f o r an anim a l
that even i n a state o f ut most des titution i s unabl e to
combi ne hi s fe e ling o f hunger with the perception of
nouri shm ent and the impulse t o eat can surely not
be credit e d with even the lowest d e gree o f d el i b era
,
,
,
,
“
A b ei n g th a t i s ph ysi ca lly a bl e to ea t, b u t ha s
l ost th e h ab i t of i t i s th e g rea test l i b el o n ani mal i n tel
ti o n
.
,
l i g en ce
.
thi s conclusi on D r S mal i an has rai se d an
obj ection which we are now going to examine He
bel iev e s o ur argumentation unsoun d ; an d ask s How
does Wasmann kno w th a t the P o lyerg us are at all able
to feed ? T h e b a sis o f hi s argument is i n conclu ding
fro m th e n a ture o f the eating organs the abil ity to
eat A n d h e states that he has once seen P o ly erg us
takin g food indepen dently ; however the m atter i s
doubt ful ; for i n the case o f animal s whi ch otherwise
never fe e d themselves but are alw ays fed by others
it i s i m possibl e to know whether the food they
”
touched was actually consumed
T h a t S mal i an shoul d make such an obj ection may
be explained only by assumin g that he does not know
th e mode o f l i fe of P o l ye rg us from actual observa
tion ; otherwi se he woul d hardly have been led to attack
B esi des he has not reproduced
o u r argu mentation
i n full th e proo fs which h e controverts
Indeed it
was al so from th e anatomical structure o f the mouth
parts o f thi s ant that w e drew the conclusion that no
organi c impos sibil ity pr e v e nt e d the i ndepe n dent f e ed
A gainst
2
.
.
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
.
,
,
1
A me
)
is
2
)
“
en ,
“
z s
u am m e n
Die
p
.
l s
A te
20 4
g s t zt
e e
en
N st r
un d
Lb
de r
e
e
.
un d
N
e ue
s
au s
d em
e
en
g mi sch t K l i
p 42
A m is
en
e
e
en ,
o o n en
.
.
der
C h ap ter
48
ing o f P o ly erg us O ur chief argument however was
the bi ol og i cal fact that the A mazons do really some
ti mes lap up liqui d food i f by c h a n c e it comes in con
tact W ith the lower parts o f their mouth D r S mal
ian ha s undervalued th is fact N ot only once but
repeatedly I saw and followed it up w ith a lens h ow
some A mazon which had pierced an ant pupa with it s
m a n dibles l i cked up w ith her tongue the flui d flow ing
from th e woun d and sometimes spent a consi derabl e
time in thi s occupat ion N ow since the recept i o n o f
foo d i n ants gen e rally takes place by licking it i s hard
to understand why i t shoul d be imp o ssible to know
“
in thi s cas e whether th e food has actually been con
”
sumed
B eside s D r S m al i an has failed to notice A dl e rz
obse rv ation s m entioned in the very pas sage quoted by
him
Like mysel f A dl erz has witnessed that the
A mazons frequently l ick up the moisture condensed on
the glass wall s o f their arti ficial nest s That A mazons
a r e a b l e to feed ind e pendently i s
there fore an est ab
l i sh ed fact which can not b e done a way w ith
\Vh y
there f ore do they starve when they are confined i n
a test tube together with some honey o r some ap p eti z
ing ant pupae bu t separated from their slaves by which
they are wont to be fed ? The only possible and p sy
ch o l o gi cal l y correct answer i s
becau se their hunge r
does n o t com pe l them like oth e r animal s t o seek f o r
fo o d th emsel v es but only to b eg foo d o f other ants
by taps o f thei r feelers Th e sensitive p e rception o f
the food plac e d immediately before them in spite o f
their feeling of hunger does no longe r excite in them
the natu ral i mfiul se o f tastin g it
Wi th th ese a n ts
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’
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'
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’
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,
Wars
and
Sl avery i n
th e A n i mal
K i ng d o m
49
.
u
e
o
o
i
n
e
e
n
d
n
s
t
d
f
e
t
p
q
f od and
f
i n d ep en d en t r ec ep ti o n h as p erf e c tly d eg en era ted
th e
i nsti n c t
o
f
o
i ts
Th e y
have b e com e utterly dependent on th e ir slaves O nc e
mo re we ask D r S m al i an and other friends o f animal
intelligence : I s i t possibl e that a b eing w hich pos
sesses but a trace of intelligence shoul d no longe r b e
abl e to combine the sensitiv e perception o f its proper
foo d with the f e el ing o f hung e r ? Therefore we still
maintain : A b ei ng t h a t i s ph ysi cal ly a bl e to ea t b u t
.
.
.
,
,
,
h as
“
u n l ear n ed
o n a n i m al
”
th e
h ab i t
o
f
it
,
i s th e g r ea test l i b el
i n tel l i g en ce
.
The b rill iant m ilitary talent o f the A maz ons is
th e r e fore a mer el y i nsti n cti ve pow e r which i s assisted
by no i n divi dual int e lligence Just the most wonderful
mani festati o ns o f the p sychic l i fe o f animal s such as
to a sup erficial observer exhibit th e most striking
r e semblance to intell igence upon closer inspection tur n
o ut to be evi dent proofs o f the w ant o f indivi du a l
intelli gence i n animals
The brighter th e light the
darker the shadows
The san gui n e sl avema kers a ff ord u s far better
groun d than the A maz o ns for assuming that i n thei r
m il itary expeditions ind ivi dual int e llig e n ce comes i n
for a consi d e rable share S ome scouts o f F sang ui n ea
happenin g up o n a nest o f some slave species return
w ith the news A s soon as the favor abl e moment
for an expedition has arrived they go ahead show ing
the Way Up o n arriving at the hostile nest they gener
ally do not rush bl indly to the attack but institute a
formal blockade ; then whil st o n e detachment i m p et
others keep a
uo usl y forc e s its way to the interior
careful watch o n the outsi de an d rel ieve th e flying
’
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4
Chap ter II
50
.
inhabitants o f their larvae and pupae wh ich are the
only obj ects the robbers have i n view O n the part
o f the sang ui n eas thi s show s great cunning and looks
very much like intelligence I f a tr 0 0 p o f ap es at
war with others w ere to surround th e forest home o f
thei r f o e and i f a sel ect sq uadron o f th e assai la nts w ere
to penetrate int o the woods whilst the other part lying
i n ambu sh trie d to capture the fugitives h o w o ur
modern evolutionist s woul d be delighted w ith these
apes ! S uch an argument for animal intell igence the y
wou ld deem absolutely irrefutable an d they woul d
“
no doubt allow thi s to be an intelligent stratagem
But sad to say n o t apes but merely ants are skilled i n
“
such stratagems ; yes ants whose b rain can by no
means compare w ith the brain o f the highe r animal s I
I f the development o f the brain i s the real cau se o f
i ntelligence then o f course apes ought to be at l east
as i ntelli g ent as ants o r rather far more i ntell igent
In real ity the reverse i s the case and thu s things
loo k rather qu ee r f o r modern evolut ioni sm
L e t us return to the mil itary tactics o f th e san gu ine
sl avem ak i n g ants
O ne characteri sti c feature that o f
reconnoitering the n est they wi sh to plunder th ey have
in c o mmon with the A mazon s With th e se latter ants
according to Forel s observations and my o w n singl e
individual s are wont to set o ut to i nv e stigate the site
o f a slave n est
and thu s frequentl y enable the whol e
army o f A mazons to advance in serri ed columns over
a di stance o f thirty yards o r more almost i n a straight
li ne to the pl ace they had marked out This surpri sing
fact repeatedly observed by Forel and by mysel f can
n o t b e e xpl ained i n any other than th e above men
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-
C h ap ter II
52
.
indivi du a l s th e y woul d surely show the prudence and
precaution o f previously exploring more accur at e ly
t h e forc e s o f the foe they want to attack
Thu s they
woul d not dare an assault upon stronger s lave nests
until a greater number o f forc e s w e re collected ; then
they would like th e A mazons fall upon the hostile
nest i n compact mass e s o f ma n y hundreds or thousands
at a time and woul d take the hostil e position by storm
w ithout an y consi derabl e loss
Why d o es such a
ch a nge nev e r occu r i n the tactics of the sanguine slave
makers ? A colony o f these robbers wh ich for many
succ e ssive ye a rs ha s pillaged the slave nests of the
n eighbo rh o o d and h a s experi e nc e d t he di f f e r e nt resi st
a nce o ff er e d by di f ferent hostile colonies
coul d easily
rem e mb e r their respective strength an d coul d regul a te
the manner of future attacks according to thi s know l
edge It w oul d be all the ea sier f o r them to m ake an
intelligent use o f their former achi e vements and
rev e rs e s b e cause th e worker ants g e nerally liv e for
th e space o f at l ea st two or e v e n three ye ars A n d yet
not a trace o f all thi s c an actually be found F
sa ng ui n ea will forever cli n g to h e r wont e d tactics o f
setting out i n small scattered b a nds even i f bloody
failure shoul d eve r so o ften be the result T o an
unprej udic e d p sychologi st such facts be a r suffi cient
evi d e nce o f the fact that the warfare o f F sa ng ui n ea
a s w e ll a s o f P o l y erg us i s gu ided m er e ly by h er ed i tary
i n sti n c ts n o t by i n d i vi d ual i n tel l i g en c e Those tactic s
w e re n o t invent e d by th e i n tel li g en ce o f th e an ts ;
oth e rwi s e t h e same intell igenc e o f th e ants woul d be
abl e to perfect and to d evel op them Y e a mor e : t h e
assumption o f ant intelli gence i s contradictory to the
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Wars and S l avery
i n th e A n i m al
K i ng d o m
.
53
fact that those tactics are speci fi cal ly co nstan t and are
sp e ci fi ca l l y th e sa m e throughout the enti re territory
inhabited by F san g ui n ea
D r S mallan has trie d to invali date thi s conclu sion
“
1
al so H ere is hi s obj ection
I t was totally wrong o f
2
Wasmann to demand that th e san g ui n eas shoul d
change thei r tactics inst e ad o f continually attacking
i n sma ll tr 0 0 ps and thu s being e a sily over p owered by
large troops o f fusca or rufi bar bi s Thi s mode o f war
fare i s inborn an d there fore i nstinctive no less than
”
the pillaging habit itsel f
D r S mal i a n i s w rong in beli eving that w e had
i n real i ty d e m and e d o f F sa ng ui n ea t o change her
hereditary instinctive stratage ms O u r d e mand wa s
mer e ly the well known m ethod o f argumentation ex
a bsur d o which th e criti c s e em s to have mi sunderstood
In th e supposition assumed by S m al i an but rej ecte d
by u s th a t ant s b esi d es their inst inct pos sess al so a
certain degree of genuine intell igence i t i s perfectly
j ustifi abl e to dem an d that thi s intelligence shoul d also
be ma ni fest ed and d i spl ayed I f thei r tactics are inborn
only as to their outlin e s thi s m ani festation ought
necessarily to consi st in ch an g i ng th em i n t el l i g en tly
according to circumstances an d consequently i n thei r
g rad u al perf ec ti o n But there i s no trace of any such
advancement towards per fection and there fore we are
right in concluding : Th e se red marauding ants have
Thi s m ode o f argu
o n l y i n sti n c t
n o t i n tel l i g en c e
“
”
mentation cannot seriously be styl e d totally wrong
Wherever the sanguine sl avem akers l ive they w ill
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1
)
2
)
L
“
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e
.
Die
,
p 41
z s m m g s tzt
.
u a
.
en
e e
en
N st r
e
e
,
e tc
.
,
p
.
2 03
.
C hap ter I!
54
.
follo w th e hab it o f invading nests o f certai n smaller
speci es o f F o rmi ca and of rearing the robbed worker
pupae pa rtly at l e ast as au xi li ary ants for their own
colony It i s moreover a constant characteri stic of
F sa ng ui n ea to have rather a small numbe r o f sl aves
i f compared with those o f the Am azons With these
latter the slaves are far more numerous than the
masters with the form er it i s the revers e Likewi se
the spe cific m ilit a ry tactics are ev e rywhere equall y
constant w ith both ant species From the A lps to
Englan d an d S candinavi a from Hollan d to the
C au ca su s F san g u i n ea nowhere changes her habits
and cu stom s Even her North A merican sub sp e cies
n ct o f slave
r u b i cun d a E m
shows
the
same
insti
(
)
making and this in the same sp e cific form The only
di ff e rence i s that o n e o f the two European slave
species F f usca i s represented in th e North A meri can
r ubi cun d a col o nies by a cl osely allied variety
nam e l y
1
by F subscri cea
S ince the separation o f North
A merica from Europe was completed in the Tertiary
age th e ensl aving habits o f the sa ng ui n eas and their
m i lita ry tactics must have been essentially the same i n
the Tertia ry as they are tod a y Thi s i s the m ost natural
explanation for the specific uni formity o f that i nstinct
in the di ff erent part s o f the globe O ne thing h o w
ever i s certai n : i f th e impul s e o f sl avem aki n g and the
specific mil itary tactics o f F san g ui n ea were due to
the intelligence o f th e ant s or i f they were even i n the
slightest degree dependent on it such a specific uni
formi ty exi sting for th ousands o f y ears woul d b e
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u t ter l y
1
t
e
) S
i n co n cei va b l e
ee
rmi t p h il
o
W as
en
m an n
“
,
r rp
A th
o
.
K ri t isch s
o d en
e
”
V e rz e i ch n i ss d er myrmekop hi l en un d
1 63 E
p
.
.
Wars and S l avery
3 Th e
.
“
P r et e n d e d
A ut o mati sm
L i f e of
A nimal
K i ng d o m
i n th e A n i m a l
i n th e
0
55
P sy ch i c
A n ts
.
intelligence there fore has no p art either
i n the sl avemaki n g expeditions of ants o r in their
military tacti cs Yet the appl ication of thes e insti ncts
is not m athematically uni form Th ey are influenced
and governed by the changeabl e sensitive perceptions
and individual condition s of the s ingle ants an d thus
great variabil ity exi sts w ithi n specified limits Thos e
ani mal psychologists w h o i n contradistinction to th e
“
”
higher animal s call ants mere i nsti n ct a uto ma to ns
“
or even mere refle x machines are asked to consi der
t hat th e instincts o f ants are neither more nor l es s
”
“
than thos e o f dogs apes and oth er verte
a ut o ma ti c
b rates Instances o f intelligence i n the true sens e o f
the term can be discover e d with th e latter as littl e as
an d even much less than with ants V a riou s di ff er
o f indivi dual character
and o f indi
e n c es however
vidual action determined by di ff erent sense perceptions
an d sens e experiences occu r w ith ants as well as with
th e highe r mammal s
O n turning over the stone o r the piece o f s od
covering a m i ddlesized nest o f F sangui n ea and thus
su dd e nly exposing the interior to th e light w e perceive
all the inhabitants in tumultuous excitem ent P art o f
th e ants furiously biting and ej ectin g po i son attac k
the invader others tak e care of thei r imperill ed o ff
sprin g an d i n haste carry d o wn the eggs larvae an d
pupae t o the lower chambers of th e nest ; other indi
of th e
vi dual s o f the same colony s eem destitute
chival rou s spiri t of thei r race f or the defens e of
,
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C h ap ter
56
11
.
count ry and escape under shelterin g grass tu fts or
clods o f earth ; sometim e s even i n the mi dst of her
fightin g rescuing o r fleein g comrades a sa ng ui n ea
p res ses hersel f to the soil motionl e ss and though
mostly f o r a sh o rt time has recourse to the instinctiv e
“
trick o f feigning death i n opposition to th e se other
sa ng ui n eas
finally seem to be seized by a str ang e
mixture o f cou rage and fear by a sort o f impotent
rage : n ot v e nturing to a ttack the real f o e th e y v e nt
th e i r spite aga inst other obj ects ; w ith sprawl ing f ee t
th e y crawl along th e ground an d with th e i r h e ads bent
down they furiously bite the sand or stalks o f h e ath e r
attacking ev e rythin g i n fact but the finger of th e
great human monster that robs th e i r n e s t o f L o me
1
ch usas a n d oth er f a vorit e gu e sts
S uch sc e n e s as th e
o n e j ust describ e d I have obs e rved hundr e ds o f tim e s
a n d am so accu stomed to them
that I find them quit e
natural ; neverthel ess they are of the utmost i mport
ance for comp a ring t h e ps y chi c faculties o f ants and
th o se o f th e high e r animal s P a cks o f wolves or horde s
o f a pes on s imilar occasions coul d display n o grea ter
vari ability o f indivi du a l char a cter and o f i ndivi du a l
action th a n such a colony o f sa ng ui n eas Y e t a n ts
“
”
w e are tol d a re i nstinct automat o ns an d apes o r
wo l ves a re not !
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
.
,
,
,
,
,
c l i s f t h N r th A m ric s b sp ci s f g i
t
m
F bi c d t h E r p
L m h
is r pr s t d b y
R
f P r iri
lli d sp ci s X d c
H M k m
S
d
C h i ( W isc si ) h r c tly f d ls th c ri s ps d gy
t f rm
wh ic h is d t t h d c t i
f t h l rv
f L m h i i
by th
ts
i
th
c l i s f F r bi d S W s m
N
1
) In
un
ru
.
a
th e
a,
e
e
e
u
o on e
en o
,
en
an
o
n
,
B e sta e t i gu n g e n
sch
fig r
e ut
the
.
u e
a va
u sa
as
ue
an
2
00
o
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der
o
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on
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L o m c c h usa P se u d o gy n e n t h e o ri e
-
Ge se l l sc h
f X e n o d u sa
.
l
1 90 2 ,
at e
r
o n,
p
98 1 0 8
-
.
o
an d
pp si t p
o
e
.
Pl
1 81
.
.
”
e
an
en e
o
.
ou
a
eu
o
o
a
u ne a ,
sa n
o
e
an n ,
er
o
e
e
an n
ec
“
,
( V e r h an d l
We
o
.
e
ne
us n
e ue
de r
sh ll giv
a
e
Wars and Sl avery
i n th e A n i mal
K i ng d o m
57
.
do g bitin g the stone thr o wn at him i n hi s bl ind
“
rage acts j ust as aut omatically as a sang ui n ea which
vents her fury on the e d ges o f a glass tu b e so that you
can hear the gr ating noi se m a de by her j aws A n d i f
certai n i ndividu a ls o f an ant colony acquire through
thei r sense experience special disposi t io ns and char
act e ri st i c s w hich di stingui sh them from other indivi d
“
n a l s o f the same colony th e n th e y act
a u to mati cal l y
as littl e as dogs or apes or oth e r higher mamm al s do
S ome remarkable instances of this may find a place
h e re
In the observation nest o f F san gui n ea described
o n p a ge 2 3 some beetles c a lled D i n ard o d e n ta ta which
I introduced had at first been r e c e ived a s u sual w ithout
di ffi culty a s indi ff e rently tol e rat e d guests and h a d
ev e n p ropagat e d in the nest But s eve ral t im e s I put i n
a l ittle large r D i nard a speci es ( D M ae rkel i i ) whose
u su al host i s F r ufa and wh en fi n ally som e smal l
sa ng ui n eas and their slav e s had succee ded i n s e izing
and kill ing this b ee tl e which as a rule i s unassai labl e
owing to its w e dge shap e d body o f f e ring scarc e ly any
1
po int o f attack then a numb e r o f ants o f thi s colony
gradually took a liking to catching D i n a rd as which
liking prov e d dis a strous also to the sm a ller D i n ard o
N ot all the i ndivi du al s o f th e di ff e r e nt ant
d e n ta ta
sp e ci e s o f that colony h a ve acquired thi s strange
p a ssion A mong twelve workers o f F sa ngu i n ea
which I put from this observation nest int o a small e r
exp e r i menting nest tog e th e r with seven D i n ard a
A
,
”
,
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-
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"
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,
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,
,
,
,
,
-
,
,
.
.
1
Ztg
.
,
s
r
) S e e W a m an n
1 896 , 4t h
to p h i l e n ,
de
.
p 435
L yd
.
e
en ,
an d
r
D i n a d o A t en
0
th
( E xt r
.
-
d
iss
d
C m pt r
ue ,
u
o
an
e
“
o de
D ie
en du
r R ss
E tm
M y m k p h il
d T rm i
C gr es i t r
d
t r isi em
-
u
a
en ,
r
e
o
”
in
W ien
en
o
e
on
un
.
n
o
.
e
n
e
n.
Chap ter II
58
.
Maerkel u
there was b ut on e D i narda hunter Whilst
the rest remained perfectly passive towards the
D i nard o thi s one ant immediately began an active
hunt Had I n o t soon removed her from the small
nest she w oul d probably have aroused in her com
panions t h e i n sti n ct o f imitation for a similar p ersecu
tion a fact which I have often observed But by
removing thi s passionate hunter I preserved friendly
relations between th e other ants in th e same e xp eri
m e n t i n g nest ( 1 1 sang ui n eas 2 rufi bar bi s 2 fusca )
and th e D i n arda M aerk eli i In the greater observation
nest from which I had ta k en these indivi dual s the
D i n ard o hunt which had b egun w ith the k illing o f
D i nard o M a erkel i i i n M arch 1 896 continued against
D d en ta ta until N ovemb er o f the same year when the
ants gradually returned but only for a short time to
thei r former toleration o f thes e gu ests The resuming
o f e xperiments i n the fol lowing spring resul ted finally
i n th e complete exterm ination o f a ll the D i nard as i n
that ob servation nest D uring the following si x year s
I never succeeded i n securing the exi st e nce o f ev e n a
singl e D d en tata i n that nest although i n nature thi s
b eetl e i s indi ff erently tol erated i n all sang ui n ea nests !
The psycholo g ical i mportance o f these phenomena has
been pointed o ut already i n o ur discussion o n the
!
diff erent form s o f l earning in the animal kingdom
A nother strange fact quite i rreconcil abl e with th e
”
bl in d automati sm o f i nsti nct i s the b ehavior o f ants
regarding the n um b er o f D i nardas and other beetles
.
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I sti c t d I t lli g c
p 1 57 A ls D i psych isch
pp 84 88 93
1
.
“
)
n
n
o
.
.
,
an
“
n e
en
e
,
e n e,
.
e tc .
(
H rd r
e
Fa eh i gk e i t en
is
S t L ou
Mo ,
”
de r A me en
( t ut t
e
,
.
is
,
.
S
g rt
a
,
60
II
Cha p ter
the L omech usas
.
but merel y toward thei r
ex cessi ve n umb er which became disagreeable to them
P erhaps they were u n able t o f e ed so many b e etle s and
had the re fore e xpell e d h al f o f them A t any rat e
such phenomena prove to a certainty that ants are
n o t to be regard e d as mere
i n stinct automaton s or
”
“
refl ex machines
We mu st ascribe to th e m sensile
m ental faculties which by way o f di ff erent percep
tions an d representations cause gr eat variability in the
display o f thei r insti n cti ve impul s e s But b eyo n d th i s
n o th i ng i s required to expl ain s a tis factorily the p sychic
li fe o f the vertebrates H ence th ere i s no need o f
“
animal intelligence neither in the ca se of ant s nor
in that o f the h igh e r animal s
A b e auti ful instance o f how s e nsil e experiences o f
ants le a d them to acqu ire certain in divi dual p e culiar
iti e s o f character I w itnessed in the case o f a F r ufi
b arb i s o f the same m ixed colony
S h e was a worker
easily d ist ingu i shabl e from the others by her sm all si ze
S h e u sed t o vi sit regularly th e gl ass bulb o f the feed
ing tube ( see diagram p
where she w o uld lick
the h oney o r sugar in order to supply the other ants
in the mai n nest from the sweet j uice stored up i n
h er cr 0 p A lthou gh F r ufi bar b i s belongs to a very
irritable an d pugnaciou s species yet thi s ant had
gradual ly become so ta me that she woul d allow h er
sel f to be fed from my hand A s soo n a s I removed
the cor k o f the glas s bulb she woul d come o ut and
l ook for food o n th e outside I woul d then present
t o her a ne edle dipped in honey A t first she da rted
bac k bu t a fter a few seconds o f h e sitation she woul d
approach examine the needl e w ith her feelers and
as
such,
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Wars and Sl avery
Ki ng d o m
i n th e A ni ma l
61
.
lic k o ff the honey Later o n I pl aced the honey o n my
finger
The ant had already becom e so tame that
she was n o t in the least di sturb e d by the odor o f my
finger whereas others woul d hav e been provoked to
a fight o r would have been greatl y alarm e d
She
woul d quietly lick o ff the honey an d then withou t
resi sting or trying to flee allow hersel f to be s e ized
with a pincette by o ne o f her l egs and placed back i n
her nest T his goes to prove that an ts al so are t a ma
b l e in Sp ite o f thei r excit able nature The tamable
nes s o f ants like that o f higher an i m al s i s due to thei r
possessing the pow e rs o f sensitive perc e ption an d i m ag
i n at i o n upon which the intell i g ence o f man act s to
accompl i sh his purpose
A gainst thi s p aralleli sm an obj ection was rai sed
1
by M r Bethe
To tame an ant he says takes
weeks and month s ; but a dog m ay be tamed in a few
days ; there fore the a bove men tioned fact p resents no
proo f o f the exi stence o f psychic faculties i n ants !
Whether M r Bethe will succeed each time in taming
a vicious dog within a few days i s rather doubt ful
N o r i s i t at all t ru e that it takes several weeks o r
month s to tam e an ant e g a F f usca o r r ufi barb i s
which are especially suitable for such e xperi ments
It i s bu t requi red to mark a certai n indivi dual which
comes re g ularly to the fe e ding tube I f you ar e very
care ful not to frighten the animal it i s p ossible to
train it i n a f e w days in the manner described above
Bu t i f you wi sh to reckon th e time needed for taming
an ant by beginning wi th the day on which she was
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1
“
)
D ue r f e n
z usc h r i b
e
”
?
en
(
B
wir
on n ,
de n A me
p
.
is
en
23
.
un d
Bi
e n en
psyc h isch
e
Q ual i t aeten
Chapter
62
11
.
first deprived of her freedom and placed in the arti
fi ci al nest th en th e same method o f calculation must
be appli ed in the case of the do g M r B ethe should
not th ere fore take for hi s experiments a domesticated
do g b u t h e would have to operate upon a newly
captured animal o f the w i l d dog species
Then let
u s see which woul d take longer to tame a wil d dog
o r to ta me a wil d ant !
There are several othe r interesting analogi e s
b etween th e psychi c li fe o f ants and that o f dogs
A small dog as long a s he i s in the company o f hi s
master o r of some stronge r comrade w il l not be a fraid
to meet a rival wh om oth e rwi se he woul d try to avoi d
Th e same i s the case w ith the small blac k negro ants
( F f usca ) wh e n they are i n company with sang ui n eas
In thei r o w n coloni e s they are generally cowards
A s soon a s their n e st i s distu rbed they flee and try t o
h ide thei r young bu t when they are sl aves i n colonies
o f F sa ng u i n ea they are the bravest de fenders o f th e
m ixe d colony as I have o ften experi enced to my cost
Ju st as i n the mix ed colony o f F sang ui n ea the
instincti ve courage o f F fusca which i s otherwi se so
cowardly i s to be expl ained psychologically fro m their
perception o f th e great num b e r o f valiant companions
and thei r consequent sense of sol i darity w ithout sup
po sin g any reasonabl e deliberation o n thei r part so
al so are the di ff erent degrees o f cou rage found in
different colonies o f the sangu ine sl av emak ers to be
accounted for I f a numerou s popul ation inhabits a
rotten fir st ump o n the sur f a ce o f wh ich we find som e
o f the ants running about a gentle kick will at once
call forth a whole army ready f o r the fra y
In a
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Wars and Sl avery
K i ng d o m
i n th e A n i m a l
63
.
moment the whole sur face o f the stump i s covered
with thousands o f ants furiou sly hurrying to and f ro
But i f the colony i s weak the same ki ck whi ch at
other times call s forth an army will have th e co n
The ants which j ust before were running
t rary effect
abou t the sur face di sappear through the e ntrances o f
the nest a s i f by magic an d deathlike quiet succeeds
I f in ants thi s appropriate estimation o f the strength
o f thei r o w n colony i s characterized as i nstinctive
an d thi s i s no doubt the only correct expression
then similar occurrences among higher animal s shoul d
1
also be credited to i nstinct and not to intelligence
Y e t the courage o f individual ants in a colony i s
dep e ndent n o t o nly o n the perception o f the great
number an d cou rage o f thei r comrades In populou s
col onies al so o f warlike species such as F sang ui n ea
th ere wil l always appear considerable di ff erence s in
indivi dual cou rage as we have shown above S ome
times even single i solated individual s ma k e head
against a numerous foe S uch an example o f hero
”
i sm scarcely ever equaled by dogs lions an d tige rs
2
w as once witnessed by Ro th n ey in Bengal
A mi d
dle si z e d w orker o f a large bla c k ant spe cies ( Cam
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-
F r l ( U p r c d P syc h l gi c m p r é
p 25 ) m
s
i st c wh r
v ry s t r g c l y f C mp t Ii g i
ti
wh fi gh ti g wi th F p r t i sh w d m r w rlik spiri t
p rd
th
is t h c st m wi t h th r d i ry c l i s f th t sp ci s W f lly
g wi t h F r l i f h i f rs t h r f r m t h xis t c f pl st ici t y
i
th
ts
psych ic f c l ti s i
b s rv t i s m t i d
O
w
b v pr v th v y s m Y t i c si d ri g th is pl s tici t y f th
s si t iv p w rs f c g i ti
pp t i t t b ss t i lly i d t ic l
d
wi th h m i t lli g c h i s t ir ly wr g
w h v
sh w i
f r m r p b lic t i
I s t i c t d I t lli g c i th A i m l K i gd m
I d i A t s p 349 ( Tr n s c t E t m S L
) N t s
1
)
on
e
o
n
e
n
an
us,
an
a
en
o
e
u
o
2
do n ,
an
u
e
“
e
e
o
e
on,
on
“
n
an
e
n
on
e,
n
an
e
.
an
en
e
n
,
an
n
e
a
o e
,
o
e
on
a
e
e
n e
.
on
en
e
e
a
as
,
n
e
a
e
e
on
en
a
.
a
e
n o
one
e
o
a
n
”
a
en
e
u
e
.
a
e
n
e
o
n
o
a
e
en e
o
e
e
a
e
n
o
n
o n o us
a
o
en
.
o
o
ur
.
e
o on
o on e
e e
n
a
o
en
e
e
er
o
on
na
a
o
e
a e n s s,
o
n
e
n e
a
o e
e
a
e
a u
e
o o
.
o
e
o
e
e
o e
a r ee
e
n
u
e
n
e,
en
an
u
a e
a
en
o
a
n
.
o c.
a
n
n
o
”
.
on
Chapter II
64
.
c o m ressus
) attacke d quite alone a whol e
colony o f small red ants ( S o l en opsi s g emi n a ta )
Without m oving from her place she remained b e fore
the entrance o f th e S o l en opsi s nest fr o m
p m
until night seiz e d the ants with h e r j aws as th e y came
o ut and bit them i n two
A t l a st sh e was ove rpowered
by superior numbers and a fter h a ving kille d 1 50 o r
2 0 0 o f h e r foes she paid for h e r temerity with her
l i fe We leave it to the mod e rn worshippers o f anim a l
int e lligence to rai se a monument to the memory o f
thi s insect Leoni das
We need not however go a s far as B e ngal to find
“
”
such examples o f h eroi sm o f singl e ants
Th ere
are plenty o f them i n the he ath s o f G e rmany an d
H olland an d al so in North A merica D uring h o t
weath e r stroll ing work e rs of sa ng ui n ea will frequently
enter into a fierce battle with colonies o f L asi us n i g ar
o r T e tram o ri um c a espi tu m l iving i n the nei ghb o rhoo d
till at l ength when too m a n y o f thei r opponents h av e
clung t o th eir legs they fall victim s o f th e i r own fool
h ardiness A s cene more harmless indeed yet p sy
l e s s remarkable I observed near
ch o l o g i c al l y not
A larg e
E x at en on the afternoo n o f A ugust 1 5 1 894
worker o f F sang ui n ea amu sed h e rsel f for a qua rt e r
a colony o f the
o f an hou r by blockading all alone
small red stinging ants ( M yrmi ca scabri n o di s) S h e
lurke d about t h e entrance seized by the n e ck o n e red
ant after anoth er as they came o ut carried them quickl y
t o a di stance o f several inches and dropped them in
order to be back again at once at the entrance to seize
th e n e xt cu stomer The M yrmi cas scarcely att e mpted
any resistance although several do z ens o f them w ere
p o n o tus
p
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Wars and Sl avery
i n th e A n i mal
Ki ng do m
65
.
i n and around the entrance O nly one o r two tried to
get hol d o f the intruder by o n e o f her legs but with
out success O f cou rse thei r ho rny ( chitine ) armor
protected them suff iciently against the j aws o f the
sang ui n ea ;
all the more as th e latter di d n o t allow
h ersel f time to pay special attention to her single foes
It was e xc e edingly amusing to see the inde fatigable
zeal an d hurry o f the large ant getting hol d o f the
small ants o n e a fter another and carrying them away
a fter which they sl owly crawled home again It i s
har d indeed to say what induced the sang ui n ea to
engage i n thi s o d d kind o f ski rm ish P erhap s it was
me re love o f fighting That she released the single
M yr mi cas so soon might be e xplained by her fear
o f th e sting with which these ants are provi ded
Yet
i t i s more probabl e that the m arau der took a fancy
to the entrance of the M yrmi ca nest and o n thi s
account tried to e xprop ri ate th e inh abitants
Of
cou rse her labor was n o more succes s ful than that o f
S isyphu s becaus e sh e di d n o t car ry the ants further
than a few inches from the nest and b esides th e
nu mb e r o f ants coming o ut o f the nest had no end
but thi s di d n o t see m to a ff ect her in th e leas t
It woul d be ri diculou s arbitrarily to humanize
such instances and to suppose all pos sible k in ds o f
”
“
intelligent purp oses o n the part o f the ant as i s
cu stomary with popul ar psycholo g y Yet on the other
h and it cannot be denied that mechanical auto m
o f instinct will never e xplain them
The only
at i sm
sati s factory sol ution psych ology can give i s to
ascribe to ants sensitive powers o f cogn ition and app e
tite which under the influence o f e xteri o r sense per
.
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5
Ch ap ter II
66
.
c ep t i o n s
and indivi dual dispositions are the principle
from which these various spontan e ou s activiti e s result
with no di ff erence as to whether the actions are per
formed by ant s o r by dogs an d apes
Th e phenomena describ e d above may be class e d
“
“
”
”
1
among th e sports or games o f a n imals as G roos
terms them T h e facts record e d deserve these names
perhaps j u st a s well as the sports an d games o f th e
f
high e r animal s ; onl y it i s ge n e rally much more d i fl i
cult to ascertain the nature of given facts in the case
o f an ts
A mong the heaps o f ants that gather o n the
surface o f t h e ant hill s o f F r ufa and pratensi s as al so
in my artificial nest containing sang ui n eas when
exposed in spring to th e warm rays o f the sun I hav e
rep e atedly observed instances o f harmless w r e stling
beginning with an d acc o mpanied by liv e ly and playful
movem ents o f the feel ers Th i s be havior o f th e ants
seems to be du e t o a resuscitation o f thei r powers a n d
al so to an e xcess o f muscul ar energy a fter the winter s
rest
Forel ( Fou rmi s de l a S uisse p 36 7 ) has mad e
2
i
r
a
t
e
n
s
s
similar obse rvations w ith F p
and Huber with
F r ufa an d pra ten si s I cannot consi de r these gam e s
,
,
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-
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pp 125 d 1 35 B y th w y
d
c fi d t i t r st i g th
t
t h ri t y
Gr s h r
fr q
t ly m isr pr s
ch r w h h
f B
t
t d H b r s
d
F r l s b s rv t i s t s i t h i w p rp s s f h m izi g t h b r t
F r l i t h E t d s my mé l gi q
h
xpr ssly pr t st d g i s t
B
h
m isr pr s t t i
s f h i bs rv t i s T h b k f G r s
c t i s i g r l g r t m y s t t m t s f d b t f l v l i spi t
f t h cri ti c l s t
d p i t f r m w h ic h th
th r m i t i s t
vi w t h
f cts
R c h rc h
p 1 5 1 d s t y w h th r
) Si c H b r i hi
d d
m
s th f r mi f
r g
t d
d
ir w
t
h
d ci d w h ic h
t i t is
h r d ly b l t
1
“
)
oo
ue
o
e
o
e
’
a
u
e
en e
a
e e
e e
as
no
o
u
e
a
e
en
e
u
o
u e s,
s
o
a e
an
e
a
en
u
on
u
e
ou
o
u
an
u e
e
e
oo
oo
o
a n a n
o
no
sa
.
a n
a
a ue ,
,
o
’
e
n
o e
.
a
au
e
an
e
o
au
n
e en e
o
as e
e
o
e
e
.
u
n
uen
n
o
on
on
oo
co o
o n
an
as
s o
ea
a
an
.
un
r
e en a
e
n
e
o
e
on
a
n er s
a n
Ti r
ls wh r w
de r
o
e
n
e
,
’
u ec
on
ne
o
,
e
an
e e
o
S pi l e
Die
n
e
e
e
.
2
n
e
ean
a
a
e
u
e
n
e
e
ou
o
e
s
“
au ve
e
e
e s,
e
ou
os
an
.
.
e
or
,
h a
oe
os
no
e
,
e
e
are
C hapter II
68
.
invention o f so me colony o f sang ui n eas transmitted
b y inheritance to all the desc e ndants of the species
For e l Em e ry and S m al i an fully agree w ith o ur tren
1
chant condemnation o f B uech n e r s manner o f human
“
”
izin g the slavery o f ant s I t does not seem i mp o s
s ibl e h ow ever that for the actuation o f thi s instinct
there shoul d be needed special psychi c impulses pro
d uce d in th e young ant s by the exampl e and the fe e ler
langu age o f thei r o lder companions Yet thi s a ssump
t ion i s scarc e ly probable ; fo r th e formation o f new
col o nies i s undertaken as a general rul e by single
impregnated femal e s ; but th e females o f F sang ui n ea
a re devoi d o f th e ensl aving instinct a n d cannot there
fore i nduce others to mani f e st i t Y e t si nce it i s the
gen e ral opinion that t radi ti o n a nd i nstruc ti o n ai d th e
exercise o f the social instincts i n these insects and that
the high p e rfection o f their community li fe receives
thereb y i ts full explanation we will examine wheth e r
in vie w o f the facts thi s Opinion i s still tenable
It i s true i n ant communities the i nsti n ct o f i mi ta
t i o n plays a great part as we may gath e r from several
observation s record e d above By the example and th e
taps o f the f ee lers o f thei r ol der comrades the younger
ants are o ften induced to actions whi ch otherwi se
at l east under the same ci rcumstances they woul d not
have per formed In thi s regard as in fact in the other
salient features o f the psych ic l i fe o f animal s ants and
the higher animal s agree i n all the es sent i al s ; f o r
i n the latter al so the so called lessons gi ven to the
yo ung by thei r parents consi st only i n e xciting instinct
i vel y in the young the faculty o f imitation by the e xam
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,
-
1
)
“
D ie
z usamm
s z
en ge e t t en
N st r
e
e
,
p
.
1 82
.
Wars
and
S l avery
i n th e A n i m a l
Ki ng d om
69
.
pl e of their parents I f we interpret tradition and
”
instruction i n th i s sen se i t m ust be acknowledge d
that they ai d i n the exerci se o f the hereditary instincts
bot h in ants and in the higher animal s But on the
other hand it i s equ ally obvio us that in thi s case the
“
”
”
term s tradition and instruction mean something
very di ff erent from what modern animal psychologi sts
w ish to insinuate ; for in ou r case they do not imply
any i n telli g en t communication o f k nowledge but only
the instinctive excitation of the imi tative faculty
But i n the commun ities o f social insects no t even
th e e ncou raging exampl e o f the older compa nions i s
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,
,
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,
,
,
,
,
.
f or t h e fi rst actu ati o n of t h e y o un g w o r k ers
i n sti n cts
We have ascertained by experiments that
preci sel y th e mo st remark able an d apparently most
i ntell igent habits o f th e sangu in e sl avem ak e rs nam e l y
thei r r e aring o f slaves and the hospitable care bestowed
by them o n the be e tl e L o m ech usa st r umosa are m erel y
h er edi tary i nsti n cts for the exerci se o f which no kind
”
“
instruction o n the part o f the ol der ants i s
of
needed To prove thi s w e forme d a special col ony o f
“
”
sel f taught young workers o f F sang ui n ea by plac
ing i n a glas s fill e d with a suffi cient quantity o f earth
a number o f ants that were newly develop e d from their
cocoon s i n my artificial nest These sel f—
taugh t ant s
not o n l v perform ed al l th e works requi red for building
thei r nest j u st as the other individual s o f thei r species
b ut t h e y al so followed the very same line o f conduct
in nursing their young and even in dealing with
strange worker pupae which I introduced into thei r
n e c essary
.
,
,
,
,
1
.
-
.
,
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,
1
)
c h usa
L
,
p
an d
20 2 ,
”
i n th e
strumosa,
.
c
.
,
.
“
B
Die
i
r
i l gi sc h s
o o
i
l
n t e n at o n a e n
e
B zi
e
Ce n tral bl att,
”
’
e h un
X II
g
en
vo n
L ame
592
.
.
C hap ter II
70
.
nest T h e pupa e o f L asi us ni g er they would either
devou r o r th row away whereas those o f F rufi bar bi s
were reared by them as auxiliary ants f o r thei r colony
A L o mec h usa strum osa which I put in was i mm e di
ately received like an o ld acquaintance licked and fed
j ust as i s th e cu stom in the other colonies o f F san
In the face o f such experi ments the beauti ful
g ui n ea
theory o f tradition and instruction among ants van
i shes into thin air
That the ol der ant s lead thei r newly born com
rades abo u t th e nest and train them to a k nowl edge
e speci ally in the care of l a rvae
o f domesti c dutie s
1
i s a fabl e origi nated by Buechner and un fortunately
2
taken u p o n hi s authority even by Ro ma nes and
other modern animal p sychologi sts The t ruth i s that
th e newly developed ant s are as yet the obj ects o f spe
c i a l care and protect ion o n the pa rt o f the others
as
r em arked al ready by Hube r Being a s yet rather help
”
l ess they are stil l as it were considered as ward s
Th e sam e applies t o b ee s I n thei r case al so the
instru ction sai d to be given b y the ol d workers i s a
mere fancy ari sing in the brain o f some an th ro p o mo r
A l ready Réaum ur i n hi s classical
p h i z i n g observer
“
3
w ork H i sto i re d es In sect es remarks : S carcely have
all th e p a rts o f the body o f a young bee becom e su f
fi ci en t l y dry scarcel y is she able to move h er wings
w hen she i s al ready a cqu ainted with eve rythin g sh e
will have to do in th e whol e cou rse o f her li fe
He
goe s o n t o relate a few observat i ons show ing that
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,
1
)
2
)
ist sl b d Ti r p 6 2
A i m l I t lli g
c ( 6 th
p
T m V p t II m em X I p 2 7 8
“
Ge
“
e
n
o
e
a
.
.
en
e e,
er
n e
en
ar
,
e
.
.
”
.
,
.
.
.
59
.
s r
A m t e d am , 1 7 41
.
Wars an d Sl avery
i n th e A n i mal
K i ng do m
71
.
youn g bees from the very first day are a s wel l able t o
u se the i r instincts a s a re thei r seniors O f late some
1
experiments have been ma de by K o gevn ik o v and
2
B ut ke w i t sc h o n sel f t a ught young bee s The result s
were practically the same as i n the case o f th e sel f
taught ants I t was foun d that in th e workers the
building o f c o mbs and the nu rsing o f the young and
in the queens the love o f combat w ere hereditary
instincts utterly independent o f experience and i n struc
tion
Besi des Charles Janet s excellent observations
3
show that soci al i nsect s are ruled only by
o n hornets
h ereditary instincts e xcited to thei r natu ral m ani f e s
t at i o n by the very first experiences o f the youn g ind i
vidu a l
The impulse o f im itation with its variou s
incitements i s only a secondary factor This i s the
“
t ruth regarding th e c ap t i o n s Shibbolet h o f instruction
”
and tradition i n insect communities
N o doubt therefore i s l eft as to the fact that the
sl ave m ak i n g habits and th e military tact ics o f th e sa n
g ui n eas j ust as the soci al l i fe o f ants in gen e ral are
due to i n sti n ct o n ly n o t to i n d i vi dual i n telli g ence
Y e t thi s instinct i s not an absolutely blind impuls e
but i s suitably modified according to the wants and
purposes o f a given col ony A blind impu lse to ro b
and to rear slave pupae woul d be expected to i mpel
sang ui n ea colonies to ro b the more slaves the stronger
and more numerou s they are themselves In the most
p o pulou s nests we ought to find the greatest number
.
-
.
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,
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’
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,
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,
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,
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,
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,
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1
)
“
Fr g m I s t i c t i B i l g
1 8 pp 6 57 6 6 0
N
h tb l tt
A pril 1 896
R ssisc h s B i
K
S
M é m ir s d l S ci é t é Z l giq d Fr c
Z ur
o
2
)
“
“
a
vo
e
n
n
n
,
o o
V ol
.
.
XV I
-
,
.
u
.
.
e n e n z uc
e
o
e
e
a
o
a
,
oo o
,
ue
.
e
ee
an
e
o g e vn i k ov
”
.
l
.
c
.
T V III
.
Chap ter
72
II
.
a uxiliary ants In real i ty th e very reverse happens
The most po pulou s sang ui n ea colonies do not contain
the relatively g rea test but th e relatively small est num
“
ber o f slaves We formerly ( in D i e Z usam men ge se tz
”
ten N ester p 50 ) allu ded to this fact which shall now
be e xplained and proved at greater l ength In order
to show the connection b e tween the rearing o f L o me
ek usa stru mo sa i n the sa ng ui n ea nests and th e e duca
tion o f a strange cripple d kind of workers the
1
so ca lled p seu do females o r p se u do g yn e s
I drew up
a n accurate stati stical map o f the sa ng ui n ea colonies
i n th e neighborhoo d o f E xaten I t comprises 4 1 0
2
colonies w ith m o re than
nests Regarding th e
numbe r o f sl aves the statistics showed that in most
colonies the masters w ere from thre e to six times more
numerou s than th e sl ave s Th e most populou s colonie s
contai n scarcely 50 to 1 0 0 slaves someti mes ev e n l es s
o r none at all
I n the m iddle sized or weaker colonies
ho w ever th e ab sol ute number o f slave s amounts in
most cases to several hundre d Th e average propor
tion of masters and slaves i n th e most populou s
colonies i s fro m 1 0 0 : I to
in the mi ddle sized
and weak colonies however from
to
Nor
are these the ultim ate limits assi gne d to th e number
In M ay
o f slaves found i n the nests o f these ants
1 890
and from 1 896 to 1 898 I found n ea r E xaten
3
several stron g sang ui n ea colonies without any slaves
of
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-
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i h r E kl e
r g i Bi l g
V l XV
N
16
d 17
fr q
mb r c s s v r l
f F
t
t ly
g i
) A c l y
st s f t
m r m t r s d is t t f r m
th r
i h bit d
s m t im
l t r t ly
ll t th
f th
si m il r c l i s f F
g i
rc
i
bi c
d
) T
N rt h A m ric w m st pr b b ly r f r t h F
g i
rc
t
d ) (A
d scri b d i t l t ly f r m T r
S
f F r l wh
(C
E t B l g X L V 1 90 1 p
1
)
“
”
un
Die
“
n
,
2
ne
a
,
en
a
e
a
3
o
n
.
e
e
o
e
e
.
e
e
,
or
e
a
o on e
a
o
,
o
e
e
o
a e
e
.
en
un d
o s.
un
no
e
an
ue n
an
e
one
o
r
a
e
e a
e
.
a
an o
e
e
,
n
e
a
.
.
a
is
.
e
na e
o
u
,
u n ea
san
.
or
a
e
o
A me
den
b ei
en
o
.
one
o
o
o
o o
o on
o
F rm
e rgat o gyn en
sa n
u n ea
e
e e
o
o
o
e
.
on o
a e
sa n
ru
u n ea
an a
a
,
un
a e
a
n
as e rva
nn
.
oc .
Wars and Sl avery
i n th e A ni mal
Ki ng do m
73
.
similar colony I recently detected near Lu xembur g
1 90 4
O n May 2 3 1 889 I met with the Opposite
extreme nam e ly a very weak sa n g ui n ea colony in
which the sl aves were about twenty times mor e
numerou s tha n t hei r masters These extreme cases
are however very rare Besi des it i s p lain that th e
number o f slaves in di ff erent colonies changes every
year ; an d lastly the number of slaves in th e nests o f
the sanguine sl avem ak e rs depends al s o o n special
local circumstances
Where sl ave nests are v e ry
numerous e g i n groves o f birches and oaks there
more slaves w ill be found i n the san g u i n ea n e sts than
on the open h e ath wh e re fusca nests are very scarce
Yet ceteri s pari b a s we find the constant law that in a
given sang ui n ea nest the number of slaves and that o f
masters i s not i n di rect but in i nverse p roportion My
observations o f san g ui n ea nests in D utch Limbur g
Rhineland V orarlbe rg Bohemia and Luxembur g
everywhere confirmed thi s law
H ow is thi s remarkable di ff erence b etween the col
o n i e s o f sang u i n eus and o f A mazons to be explained ?
The latt e r p o ssess the more sl aves the more populous
th e colony ; w ith the former we meet the reverse This
di ff er e nce i s expl ained by the fact that F sangui n ea
i s no t li k e the A ma zons essentially dependent o n her
sl aves but rather regards them a s it were as a
secondary complement o f h er own comm unities The
sang ui n eas rob and rear only a s many slave pupae as
i s suitabl e for their colonies Weaker colonies thu s
feel greater need o f supplementing th eir own deficiency
by adding auxil iary forces whereas stronger colonies
do no t feel the sam e necessity ; so the y re gulate their
A
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,
Chap ter II
74
.
action accordin g to thei r perception o f thi s defici ency
I t is true the smaller number o f sl aves in more p o p u
lou s sang ui nea nests may partly b e due to another
ci rcumstance v iz that i n the l atter a greater per
centa ge o f robbe d pupae i s eaten than i n smaller nests
N evertheless thi s ci rcumstance i s far from explaining
w h y i n the weakest colonies o f this maraudi ng ant the
num b e r o f slaves ev e n exceeds that o f the masters
The only way of accounting for this fact i s to ass um e
that these coloni e s try to stren g th en their forces by
the greatest possible number o f auxi li aries
T O perceive this necessity o f increasin g their
numbers d o es not go b eyond th e l imits o f the
i nstinctive powers o f ants A very interesting case o f
thi s kind was Observe d by m e both in the summ er and
the fall o f 1 898 i n my art ificial nest O f F san g ui n ea
al ready repeatedl y re ferred to D urin g my absence
extending over several weeks of July and A ugust th e
n est had been badly cared for and had repeatedly d ried
up ; consequently many workers o f sang ui n ea and the
greater numbe r of the ol d slaves had perished M ean
whil e n e w auxil iary ants ( F rufi bar bi s) had be en
reared fro m cocoon s which I had gi ven to the
N ow I observed in th e cours e o f S ep
sa ng ui n eas
tember that new clusters of eggs lai d by the t w o
queens made their appearance i n the nest and that a
number o f larvae w ere reared some o f wh ich were
conspicuou s for thei r rapi d development Thi s i s an
e xceptional case generally not occurring in san g ui n ea
coloni es during autumn I n O ctober and the first part
O n my retu rn I
o f November I was absent a g ain
found to my great surpris e that i n place o f the t wo
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C h ap ter II
76
i
t
p ng strang ers
ad o
.
O f course they are
as auxi l i ar i es
.
,
far fro m having an intelligent knowl e dge of this pur
pose It su ffi ces that o n account of the actual need o f
workers the i nstinctiv e impul se o f the ants to bring up
fresh workers i s aroused w ith great e r intensity and
for thi s reason extends to other F o rmi ca cocoons
A n d thi s i s the only expl anation ad m i ssibl e for we
have proved above that with F sa ng ui n ea sl ave
hol ding i s not due to experience o r instruction but to
hereditary instincts
I s there anything i n the social li fe of high e r
n i m al s
which can rival thi s strange phenomenon ?
We know o f nothi ng I f there had been then D arwin
Z iegl e r and other evolutioni sts woul d not h a ve fai led
to turn it to account an d to appeal to it a s convincing
“
”
proof of the quasi human intellig e nce o f higher
animal s ; for i f a n associ ation o f animal s perceives
th e nec e ssity O f increasing its strength by adopting
auxil iary forces an d und e r the i n fluence of this per
th e n this action proc ee ds
c ep t i o n actually adopts th e m
from a motive ori ginati ng in sensitive experience and
i s there fore i n tel l i g en t at l east according to mod e rn
ani mal p sychology N everthel ess ants are sai d to be
”
“
instinct automatons
but higher ani mal s are not !
A n d this again show s how utterly untenable on the
i s the modern notion o f intelligence and
o n e hand
on the other h o w fool i sh the a ttempt to place the
“
”
intell igenc e o f the h igher animal s on a far higher
level than th at of ants
1
B eth e indeed has o f late made an attempt to
expl a in in a very si mpl e manner the proportion
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1
“
)
D u e r f en
z ch r i b
us
e
en
?
”
p
.
wir
69
.
de n A me
is
en
un d
Bi
en en
psych isch
e
Q ual i t ae ten
Wars a nd S l avery
i n th e A n i ma l
K i ng d o m
77
.
b etween
the number Of masters and of slaves found
“
”
i n colonies of F sang ui n ea
The correlation
he
“
says existing betwe e n the numbers o f masters and
slaves i s as little owing to p sychic processes as the
numerical correlation existing b etween mice and
buzzards or between certai n butterflies an d cuckoos
Yet it i s hard to see what i s proved by thi s compari
son unless i t be the v e r y contrary of wh a t Bethe
p retends to p rove ; f o r the more mi ce there are the
more buzzards will come to the spot and the more
butterflies the more cuckoos how e ver in the case o f
sa ng ui n ea colonies j ust th e r eve rse takes place namely
the more masters there are the few er slaves they have
in thei r colonies !
A s th e san g ui n eas accommodate themselves to
given circum stances regarding the n um ber o f thei r
slav e s so al so regarding thei r spe ci es Thei r favorite
slave species i s F fusca Thi s bl a ck ant i s found as
auxiliary i n th e greater num b er of the above men
In 2 5
t i o n e d 4 1 0 san g ui n ea coloni e s near E xat en
colonies the place o f F fusca i s taken by a di ff erent
species vi z F r ufi bar bi s ; 1 7 colonies have both
species Near Fel dki rch in V orarlberg ( A ustri a ) I
foun d si de by si de with colonies which ha d the above
mentioned slaves others with F ci n er ea o r w ith F
f usca and ci n er ea Th e latter species does not occur in
D utch Limburg an d for thi s reason no ci n er eas are
found there as slaves i n sang ui n ea nests Yet the fact
that th e sang ui n eas occasionally invade w eak coloni e s
r ufa and pra ten si s
o f th e large hil l ants ( F
) to rob
th e ir pupae and to rea r them as auxiliaries proves
“
”
that thei r b l ind instinct does n o t force them to rob
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,
Ch ap ter II
78
.
automatically a certain fixed species o f slaves
In
“
May 1 890 I found near E xate n such a natural
”
ab normall y mixe d
colony containing
sang ui n ea
besi des F fusca a consi derabl e numbe r o f F rufa
Thi s colony has s ince disappeared ; f o r o n my return
after a two years absence I looked for i t in vain
S ince 1 895 I found i n the same neighbo rhoo d o f
E xaten fou r other natural abnormally mixed colonies
o f sa ng ui n eas
O ne o f them ( col N O 66 ) had only
F prate nsi s a s slaves ; th e second ( col N o 1 0 5 )
F ruf o pratensi s a variety i nter m ediate b etween rufa
and pratensi s w ith F fusca ; the other two had ( co l
Nos 84 and 2 47 ) F pratensi s and fusca Three of
thes e colonies there fore possess b e si des the ordinary
specie s o f s laves an extraordinary o n e I n A ugust
1 89 1
I cam e on the A rlberg pass
m ) across a
1
sa ng ui n ea colony that ha d r ufas as sl aves
Forel has
lon g since recorde d so m e v ery interestin g instances of
nat ural abnormally m ixed coloni es of the se marauding
an ts i n S witzerland namely a sa ng ui n ea nest w ith
F pratensi s a s slaves and another w ith rufa The
sa ng ui ne as therefore di spl ay the sam e pecul iar u ni
versal i ty and the sam e gi ft o f suitable adaptation i n
thei r ensl a ving habits b oth in Holland and i n Tyrol
and S witzerlan d ; those qualities are due to that
specific nature o f thei r sensitive cognition and appetite
”
“
which we call instinct
The abo v e obs e rvations o n these natural mixed
colonies h ave m ade it pl ain enough why the so n
g ui n eas accept the w orker pupae o f di ff erent alien
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1
p
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9
)
“
E tu d e
s
m yr méc ol o gi q ues
en
1 87 5,
p
.
25
( 57 )
an d
en
1 886 ,
Wars and S l avery
i n th e A ni mal
K i ng dom
79
.
F ormi ca species
an d rear them a s slaves e ve n when
1
they are given to the m by man Forel an d mysel f
.
have made various experiments o n th is point
with artificial observation nests kept in a roo m and
w ith nests foun d in free nature It may su ffi ce to
m ention o n e o f them I n the su m mer o f 1 895 several
ti mes i n succession I took a large bag of worker
coc o ons from a huge ant hill of F r ufa and emptied i t
in the neighborhood o f a den sely populated sangui nea
2
nest wh i ch had b ut a few fuscas as slaves In a few
minute s the sanguine ant s had put to fl ight the thou sand s
o f rufas contained in the bag w ith the cocoons and part s
o f the nest had snatched the cocoons from the mouth s
o f the fl eeing rufas and began to rans ack whatever I
had brought of the hostil e nest Fo r hours after hun
“
dreds of these white ant —eggs were seen wanderin g
from the plundered nest to th e de n o f the rob b ers an d
mysteriou sly disappearing the rein By far th e greater
number o f the rufa cocoo ns were reared by the san
guineas Thi s artificially mix e d colony numbered in
r ufas
about
The
sa ng ui ne as and
1 896
latter w ere g enerally busy buil din g o n the surface o f
the ne st and had soon given i t the ap p earance o f a
tru e rufa nest A t the l east di sturbance however
thousand s o f light re d sang ui n eas woul d dart out from
the interior t o defend thei r common ho me ; and thus
the suppose d rufa nest was turned into a sang ui n ea
nest as i f by ma g ic Becau se ants kn o w no other home
than that i n which they have deve loped fro m the
cocoon these ruf as although they are in the maj ority
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1
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F r mi d
C l y N
“
,
,
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ou
o on
s
o
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e
la
39
S iss
u
of
e,
th e
p
.
258 ff
s t t ist ic l
a
a
.
m ap
.
Chapter II
80
.
will faithful ly serve their ravi shers and natural ene
”
mies w ithout reflecting o n h o w they happened to get
into thi s unusual society
I have had in my room for th e l ast twelve years
an artificial nest Of F sangui n ea ( see p
Th is
col ony adopted as slaves the workers Of al l the F o r mi ca
species to be found in Holland vi z F fusca rufi
“
”
b ar bi s rufa and pra ten si s Th e slaves hav e devel
Oped from cocoon s which I had put int o th e nest
during recent years I n free nature the same F o rmi ca
s p ecies are foun d as slaves in the sang ui n ea nests
but only o n e o r two of them at a time ; in thi s nest
however they were al l united to form one c o l ony
under th e suzerainty Of F o rmi ca sang ui n ea
”
”
“
“
Yet thi s suz erai n ty an d sl avery i n the mixed
colonies o f ants i s altogether di ff erent from what the
sam e terms imply whe n appli e d to human society
O nly authors like Lu dwig Buechner m ight be found
gu ilty o f c o n founding i de as to such a degree There
i s perfect eq ual i ty among all th e workers o f a mi xed
colony no le ss than among al l th e workers o f a
”
The very sam e constitutional l aw s
si mpl e colony
are i n force both fo r masters and sl aves ; in othe r
“
”
words the uni for m nest sm e ll which adheres to all
ants re ared in the sam e nest se rve s them to recognize
o n e another as members o f the sa m e ant community
the di ff erences in speci es being totally di sregarded
The so —called slaves l ive enti rely free in the nest o f
t h ei r ravishers that i s to say they l ive according to
the same innate instincts which woul d have formed
thei r rule o f conduct at home ; they work for th ei r
suppl y them with food and rear thei r Off
ravi shers
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Wars and Sl avery
i n th e A ni mal
K i ng dom
81
.
sprin g as i f they were in their o w n colony They are
“
called sl aves only becau se they are reared from
robbed pupae live in the nest s o f strangers and work
for t h em
O n th e other hand the sang ui n eas are
“
called masters only for the reason th at they have
robbe d the pupae o f an al ien species from which
thei r auxiliaries originate ; and besides because these
mixed colonies contai n not workers only o f F san
g ui n ea b ut al so thei r males and fem al es whereas
Thi s
the slave speci e s i s represented only by wor k ers
i s why in m ixed co lonies the p ropagation o f the
masters i s ensured but not that o f the sl aves
There fore it i s downright nonsense for Bu echner
to pl ace slavery among ants and h uman slavery on
essentially th e same level
By Virtu e o f hi s i n t ell i
gence man possesses the power o f refl ec ti ng o n his
o rigi n an d
social position ; he i s gi fted with sel f
co n sci o usn ess ; accordingly h e consi ders slavery as an
unj u stifie d deprivation o f freedom a state o f humilia
tion a degradation o f hi s human dignity With ants
i t i s diff erent They have neither intellect nor sel f
consciousnes s and are thu s incapabl e o f pondering
“
“
over the obscure question whence and whith er
A s auxiliary ants they fol lo w thei r soci al instincts
j ust as well as i n a nest o f their o w n species : they
are a s free and independent a s any other ant o n
earth
Hence among slave ants there are no run
aways no revolutioni sts no conspi rators no anarch
i sts
He who seriou sly points to the complete social
i sm and communi s m o f mix e d ant colonies as mo del s
for human sociali sm and political economy i s sadly
i n need o f a nerve specialist
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6
C h apter II
82
.
O n the other hand in oppo sition
those animal
“
”
p sychologists w h o rank the mental faculti e s o f the
highe r: vertebrates incomparably above those o f ants
i t i s necessary to emphasi ze the fact that n o associ a
t ion o f apes or other mammal s can compare as to
p sychi c faculti es with the m ixed colonies o f ants
especially with th e sang ui n ea colonies The reari n g
o f th e O ff spring Of cl osely allied species as u se ful
members o f thei r o w n society i s an arrangement never
fo und with apes The wars there fore and military
expeditions o f ants addicted to thi s practice rank
much higher than th e wars o f b aboons and other apes
Tru e sl avery among ant s i s b ased only o n instinct
not o n intelligence But anything higher than instinct
i s not found i n the soci eties o f higher anim al s eith e r
I n fact the d e velopment o f thei r soc ial instincts i s
rather far in ferior to th at o f ants
,
to
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,
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Oth er Wars
an d
A ll i an ces
f A n ts
Th e sl ave m ak i n g expeditions o f the A mazons and
sang u i n eas are indeed the most interesting ; but by no
means the onl y wars wage d by ants There are many
other feu ds and ski rm ishes both between ants o f di f
f e re n t species an d between di ff erent colonies o f the
sam e spe cies M ost o f these feuds are cau sed by di s
putes about subterranean o r Open ai r bound a ries call
”
“
ing fo r settlem ent at th e point o f th e sword
When
“
u nderneath a large stone there i s a compound ant
”
nest i e wh en t w o o r more di ff erent species have
b uilt thei r respective nests in close proximity they are
separated by wall s o f earth No o n e ventures into
the neigh b orin g realm and w oe to him i f he does ;
5
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Ch apter II
84
.
a sandy r o ad n ear E x aten It fai rly swa rmed w ith
fighti ng lawn ants The combatants numbered thou
sands and they covered a space of about 7 0 cm by
8 cm
S o dense was th e battle array that individual s
coul d scarcely be di stingui shed in the mass o f war
riors They formed i rregul ar clusters o f from 2 to 1 4
indivi dual s all clinging together w ith th e ir mandibles
and m aking liberal u se o f th ei r stings Th e summe r
he at had infl a me d the rancor o f the two tribes lon g
living to o close together The battl e probably end e d
with the expulsion or the utter extermi nation o f one
o f the co m munities
A mong m en civil wars are generally th e fiercest
and bloodiest The same may be sai d o f th e wars
waged between di ff erent ant colonies o f the same
“
spe cies However only the heat oppressed brain o f
Buechner o r Brehm coul d d e tect a closer an a logy
between these phenomena A s the mal es o f certain
bi rds fight f o r their breeding districts n o r allow
other families o f the same species to settle there ! s o
ant col onies a re wi sely compell e d by the laws o f nature
to regard the di strict about th e i r nest as e xclu sively
th ei r o w n o n which no other colonies o f the same
speci es are su ff ere d to encroach
O the rwise their
wants being equal thei r foo d supplies w oul d becom e
scarce
H e nce a ri ses an instinctive hatred betwee n
di ff erent colonies o f the same species ; whereas col
different species whose mode o f l i fe and
o n i e s of
me ans o f su stenance are di f ferent are admitted much
more easily Th e p reservation o f the speci es n ece s
fiercest struggles f o r exi stence betwe en
si tat es th e
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1
) Al tum
,
D er
V gl
o
e
un d
si Lb
e n
e e n,
”
( 6 th
p
.
128 3
.
Wars and S l avery
i n th e A nim al
Ki ng d om
85
.
t ri be s o f the same species N ot inord inate greed i n
th e individuals nor imperi ali sti c t endencie s in the trib e
but higher natu ral law s are the mainsprings Of th es e
”
civil wars am ong ants
The p o et indeed may
“
”
exclaim : There i s room o n earth for all ( S chiller )
but even i n the li fe o f ant s this beauti fu l saying i s
o ften correct only in theory
M any more accounts o f wars and battles among
ants coul d be mentioned ; but we cannot enter upon
them h ere since o u r principal pu rpose i s to call atten
“
tion to a few points of comparison b etween th e i ntel
”
ligence o i ants and that o f higher animal s and o f
man It remains only t o b e stated that the wars o f
“
”
ants s o metimes end i n an all i an ce that i s to say i n
a peace ful union o f the combat ant tribes into o n e con
st i tut i o n al body
Th ese alliances are usuall y for m ed
between F ormi cas O f the same o r di ff erent species
but are most frequent between di ff erent colonies of
”
“
From Forel s Fo urmi s d e l a S ui sse
sa n g ui n eas
and from my o w n obse rvati o ns ( see D i e zu sammen
gesetzten N ester p 1 46 1 57 ) many instances might be
selected
The chi ef condition s for such al liances
b etween hostil e ant colonies are that th e two oppo
n en t s be closely allied i n species
that they be almost
equally populou s and lastly th at they be forced to
live in close proximity and are thu s unabl e to avoi d
each other Unde r such ci rcumstances their original
skir m i shes gi ve way t o mutual toleration and finall y
to frien dly interc o urse A superficial Observe r o f
such occurrences might be led to believe that i n tell i
gent refl ection had caused the animal s t o ove rcom e
H e mi ght conclu de that
thei r instinctive aversion
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Ch ap ter
86
11
.
ants reason thu s : Why this u seless sheddin g o f
blood ? Let u s not exterminate e ach other but live in
peace ; o ur d i ff erence s are not so great that w e ca n
”
not come to term s !
Yet there i s not a shadow o f
proo f that ants entering i nto an alliance reason i n thi s
manner The phenomenon wh ich i s i nde e d singular
enough can be explained more simply and naturally
from th e l aws o f instinctive sensation with special
regard to th e feeler s e nsations Especially with the
F o rmi ca species and among these mo st o f all with
the h ighly e ndowe d F sang ui n ea the her e dita ry dis
position o f th e sensitive powers o f c ognition an d ap p e
tite i s so plastic that w ith pa rties o f almost equal
numbers fear will b e stronge r in such cases than
love o f combat Fi rst o f course by tapping o n e
an o ther with their feelers they fi n d out that they are
st rangers and ther e fo r e they try to avoi d e a ch other ;
but i f this i s impossible the perception o f mutual
si milarity wi ll gradually prevail ov e r th ei r mutual di f
ference
In the be g inning they live together from
ne ces si ty only but they gradually acqu ire a co mm o n
wh ich unite s them a s members o f o n e
n est sm el l
colony F rom th i s time by tap s o f thei r feel ers they
recogniz e o n e another as belonging to the same hou se
hol d The former opponents have u nited into o n e
”
constitutional body which i s kept together by th e
common nest smel l
S trange though thi s mode o f
communication may appear to u s who a re not pro
vi d e d w ith antennae i t alone explains the fact other
w is e wh ol l y inexplicable h o w the con fede rate colony
thu s form ed will i n future hol d together even against
1
A n example
former m e mbers o f thei r o w n col ony
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-
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1
) On
th e e
xpl
i
an at o n
of
th e
ne
st sm ll
-
e
se e
abo
v p
e
.
1 6 if
.
C hap ter II
88
.
h ad any i dea o f consan guinity then this b ehavior o f
the o l d pra ten si s of th at con federate colony during the
maltreating o f thei r sisters woul d be altogether i n ex
plicable
O n the other hand the i nstinctive n a ture
o f ant sensation will furnish a very sati s factory e x p l a
nation o f this phenomenon wh ich i s i n evi dent con
Yet it shoul d
t ra d i c ti o n with ani m al intellig e nce
not be forgotten that societi es o f apes and other
high er ani ma l s have nothin g to compare with the con
fe d eracies o f ants N o o n e has as yet Observed that
wars carrie d on between different hordes o f ap e s
ende d with a peace ful all iance between the combatants
Thi s c le arly shows how w ron g it i s to exalt the
societies o f higher animal s above those o f ants in the
matte r o f psychic endow ments
Evolutioni sts there for e such as D arwi n and Z i e g
ler are sadly mi staken wh en they point to th e battl e s
sometimes waged between hordes o f apes and adduce
these as conclusive evi dence that the societi e s o f
“
higher animal s are so closely all ied to th e primitiv e
”
“
s ocietie s o f man that a little u nimpo rtant step
bridges th e di ff e rence ; for first they i magine a
”
“
primit ive state o f hu man society whi ch i s depi cted
cou rse a s b rutal and as devoi d o f reason a s
of
possible ; then t o mat ch the pictu re they exalt the
societi e s o f higher animal s to the greatest possibl e
similari ty w ith reasonable man and finally from thi s
t wofol d hypothesis they draw th e conclu sion th at
human society has evi dently develop e d from the ani
“
mal societi es
A n d thi s i s calle d the
consi stent
sci e ntific application o f the theory o f e voluti on to
”
man !
I f ants were en do w e d w i th reason and ri si
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Wars
a nd
S l avery
i n th e A n im al
K i ng d o m
89
.
b i l i t v,
they woul d su rely burst into a hearty laugh at
“
th e se evolutionistic steps ; for a s to the d e v e lop
ment o f soci a l instincts ant colonies b ea r a far closer
resemblance to th e human societies than the hordes o f
apes ; and yet e ven the i ntelligence o f an ant woul d
be su ffi cient to understand that animal and hum a n
societies are a s far apart as heaven and earth The
di ff e rence between ant states and human societies i s
readily acknowledge d ; but the di ff e rence between
hordes o f ap e s and the p rimitive states o f man ca n n o t
b e conceded because forsooth it i s against the theory
of evoluti on !
”
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
CH A P TE R
AR
1
.
A
C H I TECTU R E I N T H E
G en era l S urvey
o
f
III
A
.
N I M A L K I N G DO M
.
B ui l d i ng A cti vi ty
th e
o
f
A n i ma ls
.
H E hou se s o f animals are exceedingly simpl e and
destined for very prosaic purposes ; th e y mer e ly
serve the wants o f daily l i fe th e preservation O f the
individual and o f th e sp ecies To their owners t h ey
are necessary help s i n the struggle f o r exi stence ; they
1
never a i m at a rt for art s sake Thi s clearly show s
that i n th e animal kingdom we can speak only meta
There
p h o ri cal l y Of archite cture properly so called
i s mere mechani cal skill bu t not art ; and i f some
t imes it s p rodu ctions bear a faint resemblance to works
o f hum an a rt the aestheti c e ff ect i s never e ither i ntende d
o r understood by the animal
A n o ther es senti al point o f
di ff erence between th e artistic skill o f animal s and o f
man i s in this that with animal s i t i s d ue to an i n n ate
h e red i tary aptitu de which has not first to be a cq ui red
a s is th e case w ith m an A t it s bi rt h the animal i s
endowed with all its artistic talents It appl ies the m
w ithout p reviou s experience o r i nstruction as soon as
demanded b y i ts o rgani c development and by e xternal
circu mstances T h e c a terpillar o f the emperor moth
S a turn i a ) b egi n s to be an a rt i st o n ly when the t ime
has arrived to trans form itsel f into a ch rysal i s an d to
weave a bo ttle shap e d case wherein it i s to u ndergo
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’
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,
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,
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,
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,
,
-
1
t o th
) T he
is r ul
b il d i g s
e.
u
n
i f we d
of
th e
iv st
e
s r li
scrip t i s
de
Au t
a
an
on
90
xc pt i
p t ic l d d i t i s
T e c t o n a rc h i n a e
of
t h em
of
al l
a re
no e
oe
a
a
e
on
on
.
92
III
C h ap ter
.
The
buil dings of animal s eith er serve to shelter
the indivi dual o r e l se they are plac e s for breeding
and r e a ring t h e young To the former clas s b e long
the tunnel s excavated in the earth by th e serpulas the
envelopes made o f variou s substances by the moth
caterpillars an d th e larv ae o f th e may fl i e s as al so
th e di ff erent casings constructed by the l arvae o f
insects particularly o f many b utte rfl y caterpillars
b e fore th e i r metam o rphosi s
To the latter class
belong th e regul ar n est c o n structi o ns o f animal s The
most primitiv e specimens are foun d with the paras iti c
1
N em er ti n e worms
I n s e v e ral ord e rs o f ins ects
2
e specially among the H ym en opt era and th e beetl e s
w e mee t wit h instances o f ingeniou s and mani fol d
devel o pment o f the sam e art Here we fin d the most
vari o u s forms o f nests and mad e o f all kinds o f
m aterial Those el e gant l ittl e domes o f mortar th e
wasp s o f the genu s E um en es have built for th ei r
Off spring
Th ose bre e ding burrow s lined with red
p oppy blossoms have be e n excavat ed by the so called
rose —
Those grace ful funn e l s and
b e e ( M eg ach i l e )
barrel s o f leav e s hav e been rolled into shape for th e i r
young by w eevil s ( Rh yn ch i tes A po d erus A ttel abus)
A n d that boat adorned with streamers has b e en spun
by th e great water beetle ( H yd roph i l us pi ceus) as a
receptacl e for its eggs A mo ng fishes nest building i s
rare We find examples o f it i n the stickleback ( Gas
ter osteus acul ea tus ) and i n other fi shes p rovi d e d wi th
spin e s O n th e other hand bi rds are unsu rp as sed i n
the art o f nest b uil ding as regards variety both o f
,
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,
,
1
N t r f rsch r 1 886
sp ci lly J H F b r
sc ri b d th s b il d i gs wi th
) S ee
2
) S ee
h as d e
“
e
e
a u
e
e
o
a
e e
.
u
”
,
,
.
n
a
y r N 50 p 494
S v irs E t m l gi q ues
s kill
adm ir b l
1 9t h
e,
ea
ou
a
,
o
,
.
en
e
n o
.
.
o o
.
,
”
wh o
K i ng d o m
A rch i te c ture i n th e A n i mal
93
.
form and o f the material u sed by d i ff erent species
Wi th the mammal s ! finally nest constructions are on
the average far les s complicated and artistic than with
birds and insects
Th e bu ildings whi ch serve to shelter an d rear the
young may l ikewise be us e d as permanent l odgings
for parents and o ff spring This i s th e case with social
insects an d many mammal s Th u s the nest develop s
into a fami ly dw el li ng
O nly in relatively rare
instances do animals employ their buil ding skill i n
providing othe r necessaries o f li fe M any spi ders spin
thei r webs not only a s a hiding pl ace for themselv e s
o r f o r breeding purpo ses but they also by means o f
thei r spinning glands manu factu re nets wherewith
to c atch thei r p rey I n like manner the neuropterou s
larva which goes by th e name o f ant lion u ses its
earth funnel both a s a dwelling place and a s a trap for
catching its prey which consists chiefly o f ants o r
oth e r insects A mong an ts however we find the most
varied and mani fol d application o f natural arch i tec
tural ski ll
.
,
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f A nts
In the first place ant s use thei r architectural talents
for b ui l di ng n ests i n the strict sense o f the word
Everybody i s more o r less familiar with ant ne sts but
f e w are aware of the immense variety o f form s impli e d
i n th a t apparently simple term A s there i s s carcely
any material unfit f o r an ant nest so i t may assum e
all possibl e sha p es and be found in the mo st unl ikely
2
T h e N ests
.
o
.
,
.
,
,
.
,
sh ll c si d r
s b s qu t p ges
1
th e
) We
u
e
on
a
en
a
e
.
mo
r
e
i n det a
il
th e
b il d i g s
u
n
of
th e
b v rs
ea
e
in
Ch apter III
94
.
l oca lities H ere it i s the size o f a thimble there the
pyramids o f the ancient E gyptians are like mole h ills
in comp arison i f we take into consi deration the rela
tive size of the buil d e rs S ome are i n the ground i n
cle fts o f rocks o r conceal e d by stones oth ers are
under the bark o r in the woo d o f trees O thers again
a re i n th e hollow stalk o f a plant o r in a gall nut or
i n a des e rted snail shell N o w they hang high in the
bough s o f a tree now in forests they rise as domes
from th e l e vel o f th e ground S uch a ne st may be
dug o r spun ; it may consi st o f masonry or o f cavities
hollowed o ut o f the earth o r o f the wood S ometimes
all these m odes o f Operation enter into the same con
struction In short th e vari ability a s to fo rm style
o r l ocal ity i s al m o st u n l i mit ed
There i s o n e charac
t e ri st i c however common t o al l ant nests viz : th e
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,
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,
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,
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-
,
-
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,
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,
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,
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'
,
,
a bse n ce
o
co
u n i o rm
f
a ny
sh elt er
a r ch i t ec to n i c
systems o
i rr eg ul ar
n ests ar e
i
g vi ng
f
,
th e
to
f
o
d g al l eri es
o ff spri ng
a nd
rs a n
th ei r
a nd
a n ts
mmuni ca ti ng by d i ff eren t
w o rl d
mbe
ch a
an t
pa ttern ;
,
,
p en i ngs w i th
t h e o utsi d e
Thi s ve ry i rregu larity o f th ei r b uil dings
enables th e ant s to su itabl y adapt thei r nests to any
locality an d to employ any kind o f materi al in thei r co n
struction The artificial and a s i t were mathematical
1
re gu larity o f th e honey combs o f bees i s enti rely
.
,
.
,
-
ig i
ss y D Z l l b d H i g bi
(i
N t r d O ff b r g 1 896 l 0t h iss p 598 if ) h
ff r d
c ll d f t h t h r
f t h h x h d r l f rm f t h b
w xpl
ti
c g ru t r h mb s f r m i g i t pyr m i d li k b s I h i pi i t h
f th
p c li r f r m f t h b c ll is d
ly t t h c st r ct i
c mb s c h c ll b i g b il t ly i c
c t i wi h t h r c lls
w
b s
c t t d b y t h i mp ls f c m b i i g r d c ll w lls
F
th
b r d ri g
i t
si gl w ll d t r d c t h ir
th r
ss b y g wi g ff b th si d s m c h
p ssi bl wi th t p ril
t h ic k
c ss ry s t r gt h H c th fl t w lls f th f r m d scri be d
t t h ir
1
“
) N
en
e u
a
ax
o
or
e
e
o
,
n
e
o
ea
ee
on
n
e
ee
a re
a
an o
n
a
u
u
o
.
en
e
o
n
one
e
as
e,
e
ee
a e
s
on
u
on
o
n n
a
a
an
as
o
o
o
o
o un
e
o
e
o
e
n on
e
o
e
e
e
u e
ou
e
ee
e
on
t
a
e
e
o
o
n
on n e
u
as
an
.
e
e
a
e
-
n
e n e,
on
,
o
n
on
n o
,
e
on
er
.
e
-
ue
e
e
o
o
e
-
o
en
a
e
s
ua e
a
on e
a
e n
e
na
ne e
o
ue,
,
e
au
en
e
er
,
,
e
o
a
”
a un
o
ne
o
on
e
an
n
,
en
an a
e
on
o
u dw
un
a u
ne
L
.
e
-
.
a
e
e
Ch ap ter
96
III
.
must confine o ur di scussion to its narrowest possible
l imits touchi n g chi e fly on such features as are of
special interes t for c o mparative p sychology
G reat as i s the vari e ty o f ant n e sts still every
spe cies has its p ecul iar a rchitecture di ff ering more o r
less from th at o f any oth er species M any ants e g
o ur small blacki sh garden ants ( L asi us n i g er) and the
‘
1
small yellow m eado w ants ( L asi us zl avus) work
al most exclusively i n eart h Thei r nests are dug in
th e ground but above the subterra n ean nest th e y rai se
small er o r larger domes o f e arth the stalks and blades
o f gra ss
that grow o n the spot serving as natu ral
pillars and beam s O ther species again e g o ur well
“
2
know n hill a n t s ( F o rmi ca ruf a ) buil d so calle d ant
”
hill s th e popular type o f ant nests in our northern
hem i sph ere These ant hill s ma y be termed mi xed
groun d earth nest bei ng combined
b ui l di ng s an under —
above gr o un d with a dome consi sting o f earth pine
needle s scraps o f dry l eaves and stalks and other part s
of plants The di ff e rent ant species whi ch buil d such
ant hill s follow system s and styl es peculi ar to each
Thu s any o n e with a littl e practice i s abl e to determine
at once th e speci es o f the buil ders F rufa bu il ds
diff erently from pratensi s pra ten si s from exsecta
The u niversal tool which
exsec ta from sa ng ui n ea
like th e human hand i s fit for and skilled in a
,
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-
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,
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i
B th
f
d ls
N A m ric ; t h m st c mm y ll w
is L p h i di l W l h ; L ig is r pr s t d b y i t v ry
t th r
Em
c m m N A m ric r c L m ri c
sp ci s f th r f g r p
v ry m r s ;
) T h N A m ric
m
g th m t h
s ts f F x t i d F
d
b
ip
F
m st l ik th
f F r f —A
E rp
i t r st i g d ip
t h ills
f N A m ric
s ts is c t i d i p p r f F th r H M c k r
ti
m
t itl d
T h s tr c t r
f th
S
st s f m N r t h A m i
sp ci s f F rmic
J
1
)
an
e e
2
a
e
on
o
on
o
an n ,
c an
an
en
.
e
u o
e
o
e
o
e an
.
e
”
a
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er
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a n us
e
o
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e
se c o
o
on a n e
“
.
.
e
a
an
ne
a
.
e
o
.
a s
e
an
ne
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.
a
e
e
e
e
an
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e
n
o
co a
e
.
a
a
.
on
o
o un
a re
o
u
u e o
e
on
o
e en e
e
ou
a
o r.
es
n
o
o
e
s
.
u
.
e
an
u a
a
a
e ne
un e ,
ar e
n
e
sc u r
o
n e e
o
so
es
e
.
a re
e sc r
.
o
ou
e
or
n
e
a
o
nu
e
u
e
er
.
A rch i tec ture i n th e A ni mal
K i ng d om
97
.
variety o f per formances i s found i n the j aw s ( mandi
bl e s ) o f the ants O f course i n diggi ng burrows in
the earth and i n constructing earth works they are al so
a ssisted by thei r fore l e gs which help p a rtly to scrape
up the sand an d pa rtly to hol d down and fasten pe lle ts
o f ea rth I n closely allied species the shape o f these
instruments an d especially that o f the all important
too thed inner edge ( cutting edge ) o f the mandible
1
i s a s a rule so similar that the specific d i ff erence s in
architectural styl e can be accounted for only by the
.
,
-
-
,
.
-
,
,
Fi g
L
ef
t
m an d
ib l
2
.
( Wo
a
o
e
.
.
F r mi c r
rk r )
e of
Fi g 3
f F
d i bl
( W rk r )
.
f
u a
R i gh t m
.
an
e o
o
.
.
e
i
sa n g u n e a
.
.
i n sti n c ti ve
p re fe rm en t o f a pa rticular styl e on the part
o f di fferent ant species I n th e case o f ants ther e fore
it will never do to re sort to the mechanical autom a tism
of animal activities an d to explai n the di ff erences Of
instincts m e r e ly by di ff e rences o f b odily organs The
d e cisive fac tor i s th e psych i c vari ety of i n sti n cti ve d i s
i
n them selves
By
them
the
bodily
organs
o
i
t
i
s
o
n
s
p
indi f ferent are di rect e d i n thei r various modes of
Operation
It i s tru e to a certain extent that the nature o f
.
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
.
,
,
See
m
icr sc p sys t
o
o
7
e,
s bj i
th e
u
.
A1,
c t s B th
A bb s C m r
o ned
an
d
u
e
’
o
.
a
e
a
a re
lu
ci d
d
a
.
rw
a
n
wi th
th e
Ze
iss
’
Ch apter
98
III
.
th e e xterior or gans of ants wi ll al so deci de th e natu re
of thei r architecture Thu s e g the l arge Ca mp o n o tus
l i g n i perd us ( horse ants ) and their allied species p o s
sess larger work e rs whose huge he ad an d str o ng
mandibl es enable th em to cut galleries i n the woo d o f
d ecaye d o r even o f sou n d tre e s A n d therefore these
spe cies are remarkabl e for w o o d n ests O th e rs again
among them the j et black L asi us f ul i gi n osus as th e
only one o f this kin d among th e emmets of northern
Eu rope buil d paper n ests by gnawing woo d fi b re and
gluing i t together with the sticky pr o duct o f thei r
salivary glands Th ey thu s p roduce a coarse brown
papierm ach é in which they e stabl ish their ne st s Far
m ore per fect are th e paper nests mad e b y several
fo rei gn ants especially i n So uth A m eri ca M adagas
car an d East India They resembl e irregular brown
su spended from o r fast
o r grey c o lor e d wasp nests
Re v A S chupp
ened between branches o f trees
se n t m e from P orto Al egre ( S outh B razil )
S J
several pap e r nests o f Cremasto g aster sul cata o n e O f
which o n arriving i n Holland still contained several
thou sands o f live inhabitant s S imi lar nests o f Cr e
m as tog aster S ch e n ki i n M adagascar are reported by
S ikora to be sometimes o f such si ze as to acco m mo date
a full grown ma n From these paper nests we mu st
di stin g ui sh nests wh ich are spun and do not consi st of
a paper like ma terial but o f a texture like cobwebs
S uch webs are constructed according to W ro ugh to n s
Observations ! by an East Indi an ant P o lyrh ach i s
O ther I ndian
spi n i g er a for lining her earth burrow s
an d A u stral ian ants of the genera Oecophyl l a an d P oly
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-
-
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,
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-
-
.
-
.
’
,
-
.
1
)
“
Our A n t
s
,
p rt I p
a
,
“
.
25 ( J o u
r l
na
of
th e
B mb y
o
a
N at
.
H ist
.
Ch ap ter III
1 00
.
species e g between ants and thei r gu ests such as
the club bearing beetles ( Cl avi g er) the tu ft e d beetles
( L o m ech usa A temel es) etc But even those cavities
of plants which are properly not meant to rec e iv e and
to lod g e ant s are O ften occupied by them es p ecially
in the luxu ri a nt vegetation o f tropi cal S outh A merica
A ug Forel in the winter o f 1 895 and 1 896 visite d
the savannas o f Columbia whe re h e found that the
nests o f by far the most of th e species belonging to
1
ei ght di ff e r e nt g e nera were built in dry stalks o f grass
This led hi m to think th at in the prairies an d forests o f
tropical A merica th e n ests i n st al ks an d in hollow parts
o f plants w e re the typical form o f ant nests correspond
ing to the climate o f that country whereas i n o u r
z ones the u su a l type i s th e earth nest o r el s e th e hill
ma de o f e arth and p a rts o f plants
2
Th i s cu rsory compari son o f the variou s form s o f
n e sts met with in di ff e rent ant speci e s shows cl e arly
enough that thei r charact e r i s conditione d by the
p e culiar shape o f the bodily orga ns o f the builders but
f a r l e ss than i s the ca se with most o f th e other a rti sti c
i nstincts i n insects an d oth e r a nimal s The form o f
the mandibles th e presence o f sal ivary glands with
gluey secretions or of r e al spinning gland s indicate
only th e g e neral outline o f the architectu ral styl e
preferred by thei r owners O nly the di ff erent i n sti n c
tive dispositions o f the bui lders d e term ine mor e
exactly the Sp e cific di ff erence s o f thei r nest forms
.
,
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'
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1
t
“
)
r pic l
“
d
a
2
)
.
Z ur
Urw l d
”
.
p rt ic l ri t é s
l b it t
f
r is d l Amé i q
d l S
E t m B lg XL
1 67
A
d L b
sw is d A m is i m l mb i h
il d
S c h w iz E t m l
I X 9th iss
N s t r d A m is
Z
i h 1 892
u a
a
( E xt r d e s
a e
o
an
Quelq ue s
F
in
F r
o e l,
'
au n a
“
Mi t t e
“
D ie
nn .
un
e
e
e
e
dc
a
e
e
er
ha
n o
e
e
.
er
e
.
de s
a
n o
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en
er
.
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en ,
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m
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en
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,
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ue r c
’
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sc
.
)
en
ue ,
A rch i tec tu re i n th e A n i mal
Ki ng dom
1 01
.
Within th e limits of these i nstinctive h ereditary dis
positions there i s plenty o f roo m for the worker ants
to gi ve full play to thei r indivi dual powers o f sensitive
cognition and appetite Thi s i s why ce rt a in an t spe
cies particularly those skilled in earth work or wood
work o ften take po ssession Of some spot so suitable
for thei r dwel ling a s to be practically hal f fi n i sh e d
Thi s they fit up i n a becoming manner as a home for
their colony S uch attractive spots are e g on th e
heath s o f north ern Eu rope rotten tree stumps in which
f o r years numb e rs o f bark beetles an d thei r larvae or
other wood boring insects were kind enough to p r e pare
com fo rtable quarters by carving ou t an extensiv e sys
tem O f gall e ries and chambers It onl y remains f o r
the ants to take possession Of the lodgings d e vou r
t h e forme r inhabitants i f there be any l eft clean t h e
apartments close up the superfluou s entranc e s with
earth o r rotten wood and with the same mater i al s
construct i f need be a f e w partitions for separate
chambers I f on occupying the r e sidence th ey shoul d
perchance di scover that part o f the stump i s al re ady
inhabit e d by another ant colony the latter are ki ll e d
o r turned out without mu ch ado
I f they shoul d fail
in thi s they make peace and live o n good term s with
the rival s especiall y i f the latter are equal to them in
fighting strength but di ff er greatly i n s iz e and means
o f defen se Th e nests are separated by partitions and
“
the stump i s hence forth inhabited by a compoun d
”
n e st
S uch stolen nest s f orm a lar g e category o f ant
n e sts particularly in places where there are ma ny
stones ; for al most all ant species that dwell in e arth
,
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Ch ap ter III
1 02
.
nests have a predilection f o r buil din g under stones
Th i s Saves them a great deal Of work and gi ves th e
whole buil ding gre a ter firmness and moreover in
such a nest the heat o f the sun more easily penetrates
to t h e i n terior I n he a th s a lso where stones are rather
rare instances o f such stolen nests m ay occur A n e st
o f F sa n g ui n ea! on which in 1 894 I h ad placed a clod
o f heath serving i t h ence forth as roo f had in 1 895
passe d into t h e posses sion o f a colony o f L asi us n i g er
i n the years 1 896 98 i t was again inhabited by F sa n
A short time ago i n th e sam e region n e a r
g ui n e a
E x aten I found a rather extensi ve earth hill supported
i n th e centre b y a bun ch o f h e ather and inh abited by
a large colony o f F r ufi b arbi s The ants had col l e ct e d
on th e su rface a sma ll heap o f dry h eather leaves a s
they generally do there Th e ea rth hill it s e l f how
ever j udging by its architecture wa s an o l d nest o f
L n ig er which subsequently ha d been occupied by
th e r ufi b ar bi s H istory i s silent as to whether the orig
inal buil d e rs o f the nest had quitted i t be fore th e time
o f t h e for e ign i nvasion
or wh ether they were com
p el l e d by force t o evacu ate i t
F sang ui n ea a re a restle s s peopl e They frequentl y
desert thei r nests wh ich are then taken possession o f
by other smaller species ( especially T etra mori u m
c a espi t um L n i g er a nd a l i en us)
I have noted a num
b e r o f such i nstanc e s i n m y records o f the last few
years ; it may su ffice to mention o n e o f the most
remarkabl e A large colony o f F san g ui n ea ( N o 7 2
of my stat map ) i n 1 895 and 1 896 had inhabited a
group o f th ree nests di stant from o n e another 3 and
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C l y
o on
No
.
1 55
of
th e
s t tis t ic l
a
a
m ap
.
Ch apter III
1 04
.
of
t ati o n
the hereditary instinctive activities
As
th e se ants i n the parl a nce o f m o d e rn animal psychol
“
indivi dual intellige nc e
o gy poss e ss a high d e gre e of
becau se under th e influence o f thei r sen se perc eptions
an d sense experiences they are abl e to adapt their
innat e instinctive di spositions and aptitud e s to any ki n d
so they mani f e st great a dap t i b i l i ty i n
o f ci rcumstances
the building o f thei r nests I have dr a wn up stati stics
o f th e sa ng ui n e a colonies i n the n e ighborhoo d o f Exa
ten which show that to my knowl e dge there are in
thi s region about
nests o f thi s ant sp e cies
embracing 4 1 0 colon i es The architectu ral style o f t h e
n e sts varies greatly By far th e maj ority o f them
are und e rground bu ilt either belo w the bare surface
beneath a loose clod
o r u nder a shrub o f h e ather
under a stone o r at the foo t o f a t ree In conn e ction
w ith thi s u n derground earth nest there i s generally
o n t he surface a greater o r smaller heap of dry l e aves
col l e cted from the h e ather shrubs Th i s heap togeth e r
with the earth carried o ut of the interior gall e ri e s an d
the twi gs o f the shrub s supporting the whol e construe
tion forms a sort o f protective dom e With large nests
thi s hill someti mes has a circum fe rence o f s e ver a l
meters and a height o f several decimeters ( e g in
colonies N OS 2 0 8 2 1 6
but o ften i t i s rather
insignificant an d sometimes it i s altogether wanting
B esi des these simple o r mixed earth ne sts F san
i
i
r trees o r oaks
u
n
e
buil
ds
al
so
n
rotten
stump
s
o
f
fi
a
g
n o w under the loos e bark now in the woo d n o w in the
roots
S ometim es the ol d stump i s su rrounded by
earth galleri es an d som e times the whol e nest i s con
fined to the stump itsel f The nest o f o n e o f our
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A rch i tecture i n th e A n i mal
Ki ngd om
1 05
.
colonies here ( N O 1 1 2 o f stat map ) i s
built i n a lo fty and sturdy oak i n the m oul d an d th e
cle fts Of a hollow i n the tree al most a y a rd above th e
ground Th ese observations Show that the sanguine
ants are able to choose the most pecul iar pl aces for
their nest and to adap t its construction to any loc a l
circumstances
This is confirm ed by the following
observat ion I n the immedi ate neighborhood o f E x a
ten the earth nests prevail while two k ilometers fu rth e r
o r nea r the vill a ge o f G rathem the gr eater number o f
nests are buil t in rotten fi r stumps becau se in that
r e gion the ground i s more tu rfy and thus renders the
construction o f earth w orks rather laborious
N ot les s variabl e than the styl e i s the n um b er o f
nest s constituting a colony Of F sangui n ea A mong
th e above mentioned 4 1 0 colonies which are known
to me in thi s region there are but a few that have only
o n e nest
Th e se are mostly weak tribe s which o n
account o f the scarcity o f m e m be rs feel no need of
oth er nests
I n some cases however even a v e ry
strong colony has onl y a single nest built in a specially
conv e nient place generally at th e foot o f a fi r
In such cases the coneen
( e g col 2 0 8 an d
trati o n of the buil ding i s o f great e r advantage than
it s division into a numbe r o f di ff erent nests
H owever by far th e m aj ority o f the sa ng ui n ea colo
nies have several nests avera gi ng from two to eight
either close t ogether o r farther Off from another some
times inhabited s imultaneously sometim e s by turn s
The distance between the nests o f one colony i s mostly
only from
to 4 m but sometimes f rom 1 0 to 2 0 m
or more The l atte r i s pa rt icul arly the case with thei r
sang ui nea
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Ch ap ter
1 06
mmer
w i n ter
a nd
r esi d en ces,
rather with th e
a b o d es f o r w i n t er a n d
f or spri ng ; for many but by
no means all sang ui n ea colonies o f thi s country have
speci al winter quarters establi shed i n thickets under
the roots o f tree s o r stumps and a ff ording deep and
warm recesses fo r th e col d season The spring res i
d e nce however which agai n o ften consists o f several
single n e sts i s generally bu ilt near the edge o f the
thicket Here o n the first warm days o f M arch and
A pri l the ant s can always be observed changi ng th e ir
quarters and movin g over w ith th e whol e family to
the spring resi dence I n S eptember or at least in the
be g inning o f O ctober they change again moving i n
the Oppo si te di rection
I f it shoul d become very h o t and dry in summ e r
the colonies move to their w inter quarters during the
dog d a ys th u s convertin g the w int e r nest i nto a m i d
1
summer nest When at the end o f A u gu st 1 898 1
ha d returned a fter several weeks o f absence I found
that during the exceptionally hot days o f A ugu st mo st
o f the sa ng ui n ea colonie s of thi s region had aban
d o n e d th e i r spring nest
What had become o f th e m ?
A s I was well acquainted with the winter nests o f m any
colonies by th e means o f the stati stical map I h ad
drawn up i n th e p receding years it occurred to me to
l oo k there i n search o f them Th e resul t was rather
striking : al l o f th e emigrated colonies possessing
winter quarters o f thei r o w n ha d al ready occupied
them ! Thi s was such a re gular occurrence that when
su
or
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c sis t s i i t pp rm s t l y r f
li gh t s d wh ich t c l s s l l i t m is t r i pl c s xp s d f
me ti m t t h sc rc h i g r ys f t h
T h is c di t i
f th s il
d
i s sur el y ess n t i l i n xpl i i g th f t s j st m t i
1
) The
an
so
c
o un t
a o ut
on
a
,
e
ry b
,
o
e
e
a
e
n
o
e
E xat en
on
o e
a
s
a
o
e
a n n
e
ac
n
u e
o
s
n
su n .
u
u
e
a
o
e
on
en
on e
a
e
on
.
e
or
o e
o
o
e
o
C h ap ter III
10 8
.
to feel uncom fortable in thei r resi dence on the south ern
edge o f a fi r plantation th e y emi gr ate bag and bag
gage to th e more shady si de on the north Toward the
end o f M ay 1 896 I observe d sev e ral colon i es chang
ing th ei r nests for thi s reason I f the weather changes
and continu e s to be chill y an d rainy they bundle up
once more an d go back to the ol d home A similar
instanc e I noticed on June 2 0 1 896 Th e re had been
heavy showers for seve ral days back and many san
g ui n ea colonies that hitherto had lived i n earth n e sts
‘
were moving into ol d oak stumps ; for these a fi o rd e d
them a better shelt e r against th e p e netrating rai n s
“
”
Those wh o d e si gnat e a s i n tel li g e n ce every sui table
change i n instinctive activiti e s caused by sense percep
tions an d sense exp e riences in a n imal s can hardly
escape from crediting a n ts with rathe r a consi d e r abl e
degree o f animal int e llige nce for even i n th e h ighest
“
mammal s we hardly find a h i gher degree o f psy ch i c
”
than i s ma n i fest e d i n the above e xampl es
pl asti ci ty
by the sanguine sl avem ak ers
However w e hav e
already shown in a form e r essay ( Instinct an d In tel l i
ge nce in the A nim a l K ingdom ) th a t it i s e n tirely
“
w rong to appl y th e t erm intellig e nce i n thi s man
ner ; for th e phenom e na i n question can b e fully
accounted for by i nstinctive sen sation and therefore
they do not supply th e l east evid e n c e i n favor of intel
l i g e n t mental activity o f the animal
M an o f course
in observing such phenomena can attribute to the ants
“
the following reasoning : Fo r th e last few da y s it ha s
been raining a great deal We and o ur children have
be com e dripping wet N o w we do not want to get
wet again ; there fore we m ust move to another dwell
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A rch i tec t ure i n t h e A ni ma l
K i ngd o m
1 09
.
ing where the rain can n o t enter ; those o l d o ak
stumps however are j ust th e thing ; th eref o re we
”
move to that place — W e however maintain : Wi th
o ut admitting animal intelligence the whol e affai r i s
explained much better from the instinctive association
o f sens e representations
Th e ants do not like th e
o l d pl ace any more on account o f the disagreeabl e
th e re fore they look for
e xperiences u ndergone the re
another That under these circumstances j u st those
dry oak stumps appear to them to be so very inviting
follows from the suitable di sposition o f the sensitive
cognition and appetite That ants in such cases are
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i
t
h
s
f
f
ch a ng e o f n ests i s an unwarranted assumption to which
we r e ply : q uad g rati s asseri tur g ra ti s n eg atur In
oth er words : we are n o t allowed arbitrarily to attrib
ute a human course o f reasoning to animal s i n the
“
”
sens e o f
popular p sychology
S uch men as L
”
“
Buechne r m a y find a proo f o f th e high intelligence
o f ants in the fact that e g in low lands L epto th o rax
but in the
a cerv orum resi des und e r barks o f trees
1
A lps under ston e s
A lthough w e co nsi der the power
o f adaptation m ani fested by the sang ui n e as in thei r
nest building insti ncts far more deserving o f admira
tion yet we are far from regarding even thi s powe r as
an instance of ani mal i ntelligence but rath er o f anim a l
instinct the variou s activities o f which depend neither
i n tel l e c tually
co nsci o us
sui ta b l en ess
th e
o
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Thi r
x
L pt th
m
rr
th
R m
i
hi
b k D i G ist i g E
p 2 68 w s r ly r f rri
( L ipzi g
B c h r b c s h s t ill m r rr
1
au
o
o
e
ue
c
r c lls
) B ue hne
n
o
s
ist sl b
,
a cerb oru m.
e
oo
au e
e
e
“
e
,
,
e
en
d er
as
e
e
e
u e
o e
p
e e,
a c e r vo r u
o ra
.
,
ne
Ge
,
e
a
an es
r
e
e
.
th
is b k
th e
oo
sly L i
m
g i m Thi i h
t wic k l
g t th s m p ss g f
sly c lls th t t L i
o n eo u
n
e
In
73
.
n
o ne o u
as us
a ce r'
vo ru
un
o
e r re c
e
a
a
e
a
a
an
a
e
.
”
o
as us
Ch ap ter III
1 10
.
mechanical automati s m no r o n indi vi dual refl ec
tion o f the animal but o n the su itable di sposition o f
i ts sensitive co gniti on an d appetite
True th e p lasticity o f the buildin g instinct i s
greater with the sa ng ui n eas than w ith their allied
species ; yet even the latter sometimes p e r form actions
that go to p rove cl ea rly that the nest buil ding i nstinct
in ants i s not blind mechani sm but i s suitabl y modified
by thei r s ensitive cognition
I obse rved a striking
instance o f thi s kin d i n th e summer o f 1 898 at Lipp
spr i nge i n Westphal ia In a growth o f young fi r trees
n e ar th e so called Fish e rman s hut th ere l ay a small
h eap o f o l d p ieces o f tar paper Thi s treasure had
be en di s cove red by some F o r mi ca trun ci c o l a N yl which
h a d their n est at a di stanc e o f 6 4 m in a fi r pl antati on
o n the other si de o f a broad san dy road
Th ei r nest
was a normal trun ci col a nest a hi ll o f fi r needles and
earth built around a fi r sapling Now the ants were
b e tter please d with the newly di scovered place under
th e ta r p aper than w ith thei r o riginal nest therefore
they moved over bag and baggage ; and the moving
lasted several wee k s The tar paper a ff orded them in
a far higher degree the advantages u sual ly derived
from thei r sur face domes cal led ant hill s f o r under
th e layer o f tar paper warmed by the rays o f th e sun
there was a u ni forml y hi gher temperature and at the
same time an e ff ectu al sh elter against the rain Th ere
fore they establ ished th ei r nest under the tar paper
w i th out surmountin g i t by a hill
When I returned
to Lippspringe at th e end o f M ay 1 899 the trun ci c ol a
nest w a s st ill under th e t ar paper no indications o f
any b uil din g be in g visibl e above ground Thei r fo rmer
on
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Ch apter III
112
.
g ui n ea
selects f or its nes t a more hi dden place than a
stronger o n e does Thi s i s esp ecially the case i f there
liable to
a re hostile ant species in the neighborhood
pay th em a visit at any time Thu s colony 1 66 o f my
stati stical map o f E xaten b eing harass e d by neigh
boring pra tensi s had at last hi dden its e l f so wel l in
th e earth that I was obliged to sp e nd a consi derabl e
time be fo re finding it I m ysel f have often e nough
b e en vexed t o se e th at coloni es o f th e s ame sa ng ui n e a
o n being di sturbed even by the hand o f man emi grate
and seek el sewhere a new pl ace o f settlement S ome
time s even a clod o f heather placed o n their n e sts will
cause wea k er coloni es to emigrate Thi s i s all th e
more strange since ou r sang ui n ea i s very fond o f
u sing su ch clods a s a roofing for her nests O ther
colonies indeed di d n o t emigrate on account o f m y
repeated vi sits but tried to retire farther into the
interi o r A striking i nstance o f thi s kind was o ff er e d
by c o lony N o 36 which was o f moderate di mensions
O riginally the exterior o f th e nest looke d l ike any
commo n earth nest o f the same numerical strength
Th e clod wh ich I h ad placed o n it was u sed as a roof
an d was covered by a h eap o f dry heath er leaves I
o ften visited the n e st an d each time I l i fted the clod
to have a view o f the interior o f the b u il ding In con
sequ ence the ants blocked up the form e r entrances ;
they dug new one s at a greater di st ance from the
nest and came to the su r face much more rarely Even
th e small h eap o f material s gathe red from plants
gradually di sappeare d from the t 0 p o f their nest
A fter a time it was blown o r wash e d away n o r di d
the ants renew it It was evidentl y instinct that led
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A r ch i tecture i n th e A ni mal
K i ng d o m
113
.
them to withdraw from these repeate d d i sturbances by
closing up and concealing thei r nest
1
P ro fessor A ug Forel relates that h e had brought
hom e from A lgeria a colony o f M yrmeco cystus al ti s
Z
u
ri ch ;
an
d
place
d
it
in
hi
s
garden
at
but
u
a
m
i
e
s
q
owing to the trouble cau sed them by the small ants
L asi us n i g er and T etram o ri um ca espi tum they grad
ual l y modified thei r u sual manne r o f nest construction
Under normal ci rcumstances thi s M yrm eco cystus
species ha s wi de open nest entrances ; in this ca se
however they were contracted to a ff ord greater p ro
t e ct i o n against the thi e vi sh vi sitors an d finally they
were almost entirely closed up T h l S instance i s sim
i l ar to the o n e recorded above o f colony 36 o f F
sang ui n ea
an d i s psychologically to be explained i n
the same way The repeated d i sagreeable experience s
cause d to the ants by the troubl esome strangers
induced the M yrm e co cysti contrary to t heir former
habits to close up and to conceal thei r nest A s
Forel point s o ut these fact s afford i rre futabl e evidence
th e great plasticity o f ant instinct
Fo r thi s
of
instinct i s not m e rely a nervous mechanism forced to
operat e along uni form lines ; it i n clu des s ensitive cog
n i ti o n an d appetite which are not only o f an organi c
bu t al so o f a p sychi c nature
Thu s animal s are
enabled by new sens e perceptions and experiences
to adapt thei r w onted m ode of a ction to the require
ments o f ci rcumstances
Th i s does not howeve r
compel us i n the least to attribute to anim al s a power
of cognit ion e ssentially the sam e a s hum a n intelligence
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1
8;
)
se e
a u th o
1
“
r
L e s Fo rm i c i d es d e l a
a
.
8
ls
o
“
A
p rc
e
u
de
,
P r vi c
o
n
e
P syc l gi c
ho
o
e
d Or a n
’
om
p ré
a
e,
(
”
L s
p 24 b y
,
au a n n e ,
.
,
th e
s
P
.
me
a
Ch ap ter III
1 14
.
in fact we cannot even do so i f we wi sh at all to
p roceed scientifically
P opu lar psychology may
“
indeed perc e ive a spiritual pow e r o f refl e ction in
those activiti es of animals in which s e nse experienc e s
enter as additional factors
A n d o f course thi s
uncritical procedure forces them in consequence to
“
ascri b e to ants at least th e sa m e degree o f i n dividual
”
intelligence as to the highest mamm al s ; for with
the latter gr e at plasticity o f instinct i s rar e r than w ith
ants These conclusions which are declared absurd
by m o d e rn evolutioni sts th e m se lves clearly p rove th e
unt e nability an d sel f contradiction o f modern ani mal
p sycholo gy
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4
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H o w d o A n ts B ui l d Th ei r N ests?
In spite o f its i rregularity e very ant nest i s always
a unit con si sting o f one o r mor e chambers g alleries
and ent rances by whi ch ants co mmunicat e with the
out si de worl d A n d now we a re con fro nted with the
question : H o w do the members o f a colony co 0 pe r
ate in buildi n g th eir nest ?
1
A lm o st a hundre d years ago P eter Huber atten
t i vel y observed
the ants buil ding th e i r n e sts and
described i n a masterly manne r th e skill and assiduity
o f these sm a ll animal s A n y one can sati sfy himsel f
o f the correctnes s of the se observations by watching
wood ants ( F r ufa ) buil ding th eir h ill s on som e
sunny day in spring or by l ooking at the small black
garden ants ( Lasi us n i g er ) const ructing their earth
nests during some w arm spring shower
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1
)
“
N v ll
ou
e
R c h rc h s
e
e
éd
e
e
iti
on ,
su r
1 86 1
.
l e s mo e u
Ch p I
a
.
.
rs
des
r is i d i ge s
f ou m
n
ne
C h apte r III
116
.
thu s interprete d by writers o n popular science and
made to serve as a beauti ful pr oo f of animal i n te l l i
gence
This kin d o f arbitrary mi srepresentation o f
th e plainest fact s can cert ainly lay n o clai m to any
scientific value
How then do ants build their n e sts ? They adapt
th e mselves to gi ven situations an d prudently t ake
into account the va ri ou s circumstances
Wh e n in
spring a gentle warm rain b e gins to r e nder the dry
soil so ft and manageabl e im m ediately the earth
worki n g ant speci es are ki ndl ed with new zeal for
buil din g These assi duou s l ittl e a n imal s wi ll th e n
sally forth from their ne sts by hund re ds and place
p e llets o f ea rth u pon pellets t o buil d new gall e ri e s and
chambers avail ing themselves o f blades o f grass
twigs o f heath e r pi e ces o f l e aves and other natural
prop s as pillars or vaults Fo r the sam e purpose su ch
auxiliary material s are al so first dragge d to the spot
In th is connection the s angu ine sl ave m ak e rs give evi
dence o f e minent skill i n combining timber work wi th
masonry
It i s especially rema rkable with earth working ants
that th ey accommodate thei r instincts to the changes
o f t e mperature an d moi sture Th i s cou ld be a scer
ta i n e d constantly i n glass nests i n which I k ept under
observation small colonies o f L asi us n i g er T et ra mo
I f the mois
ri u m c a espi tum and M yr mi ca sca bri n o di s
ture o f the nest became too great the ants would set
to work and pile up the earth in the shape o f a dome
perforate d by innu merabl e openings making it app e ar
like a sponge ; thu s th e eva p oration o f the w a ter w a s
facilitated B ut when the moistu re d e creased to o
,
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-
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e
A rc h i te c ture i n t h e A n i ma l
K i ng d o m
117
.
much and the nest threatened to dry up a change to
th e opposite was e ff ected ; the nest was constructed as
flat and as low as pos sible with very few op e nings o n
the sur face The propriety o f such p roceedings i s cer
t ai n l y striking
O ften enough th e same can be
observed also i n natu re both i n those speci es that
build only domes o f earth an d i n those that build
regula r ant h ill s It i s a fact even noticed by farmers
and ascertained by mysel f repeatedly that i n dry and
h o t summers the hills o f wood ants are lower and
fl a tt e r than i n moist and col d summers The first way
o f bui lding i s for the purpos e o f reducing evaporation
t o the low e st l imit and to offer to the h o t rays of t h e
sun bu t a smal l su r face to shine upon ; o n the other
h a nd the high er an d the more vaulted the hill s are
the easie r i s the drainage i n case o f rains and the
gr e ater are th e evaporating and h eating sur fac e s
Ind ee d ants woul d have to be very i n telli g en t i f th e i r
o w n r e flection shoul d lead them to mo di fy thei r nests
so prudentl y Yet consi dering that the d o me sh ape
for the nest i nclude s i n principl e these qu as i i nt e l l i
gent adj u stment s t o the vari ations o f temperatu re and
moisture which can b e traced in consequence to the
bu il ding p roper to the ants in
spe ci fi c manner o f
question it i s clear that i nsti n ct and not i n tel l i g en ce
i s the gui ding principle ; for the sp e ci fic plan o f th e
building i s no doubt i nsti n cti ve as i s acknowledge d
at least by scientific authors I n adj usting however
thei r instincts to cha n ging circumstances the animal s
are influenced by sensitive perceptions and e xp eri
e mees which are no thing el se th an the n atural ex er ci se
of th e sam e i n sti n c ti ve p ow er o f cog ni ti o n o n which i s
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,
C h ap te r
118
111
.
based the specific mode o f buil din g in any species o f
a nts
Why there fore introduc e a forei gn eleme n t
called i ntelligence between this hereditary disposition
and its changeabl e application ? I should think it i s
far more simpl e an d natural to acco un t f o r th e w h o l e
.
,
,
,
,
f a n a n i m al by o n e a n d th e sam e pri n ci pl e
Unles s you m ista ke instinct f o r mech a n ical automa
t i sm i t i s by no means necessary to as sume animal
i ntelligence i n order to explain the above phenome na
Let u s now compare the arch itecture o f ants with
that o f birds Th e re are several important di ff erences
1
The nests o f birds are more arti sti c and regu l a r
yet th e y are st amped w ith the unmi stakabl e marks of
monotony and uni formity within the same sp ecies
they a re p roduct s o f instinct in the strictest sense o f
the t erm M oreove r as A ltum ha s ad m irably proved
the architectu re o f birds i s a function o f th e i r
br e eding instinct
I t be g ins at a certain stage
the development o f thi s instinct ; both reach
of
thei r cl imax at the same time an d then grad
t ogeth er O n th i s account th e n e sts
u al l y vani sh
for the first h atching in spring are as a rule built
b e tter than those l a ter in the season In thi s case
practice doe s not form th e m ast e r but the bungl er
With ants however archit e ctu ral skill i s found in th e
workers throughout thei r l i fe it i s suitably carri ed in to
ac ti vi ty o
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,
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,
2
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,
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,
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3
.
,
,
,
By
B k st
J h rb ch
1
au
“
)
un
u
a
2
3
“
)
S ee
en
ou
ne
W
V gl
h as
a rt
ih r
auf
o
w hr
en
a
I
”
.
f t en
been
en
e
x gg r
a
W e rt
S
.
ee
z u ru e c k g e f u e h r t ,
1 98
( 1 885
at e d
ma n n
o
e
un d
n
-
a
u
“
,
e n
n
er
a n
o
o
e
e
t
en
e
a
ea
e
,
a
o
n
o
-
.
.
on
e et e
.
“
D ie
in
.
si Lb
p 1 63 if
(6 h
b t i s ls m g th C l pt r
h i g si m il r
s t b il d i g f t h l f r lli g b l ( R h y ch i t b
D
T ri c h t rwick l r p 7 8 ff
o met
as
V o e ge l
is
d e r N a t u r w i sse nsc h
S
)
th
w ay ,
der
D er
i g i s
n
th e
e
.
e
o eo
n
e a
es
in
th e
e tu l a e
)
.
C h ap ter III
1 20
.
”1
they d isgu i sed thei r nest
The v isu al resemblance
between the white tree li chens and the paper scraps
which impressed the sensitive power o f percepti o n o f
those ch afli n ch es explains quite naturally th eir seem
i n g l y i ntellig e nt proc e eding
2
He who concu rs with D a rwi n i n attributing intel
l i g e n ce t o birds when th e i r actions are influenc e d by
sensitive cogn ition mu st credi t ants with a still high e r
d e gre e o f i n telligence ; for i t cannot b e d e nied th a t
bi rds i n building th e i r nests show far more specific
uni formity than individual variability whereas i n ants
as a rule the contrary i s the case ; with th e m the
psy c h i c pl asti ci ty o f the nest building instinct i s no
d o ubt much gr e ater
Y e t the chi e f point o f e xcel lence whi ch distin
g ui sh e s the architectu re o f a n ts from that o f birds i s
th e n umber of uses to which it ma y b e pu t Birds
bu ild n ests t o serve as pl ace s f o r h at ching thei r young
only ; except during the pai ring s eason bi rds do not
know th e i r nests n o r doe s i t ever occu r to the m to
use them a s dw e ll ing places
With ants howev e r
nests serve as permanent abodes for the whole family
and o ften al so for strangers of di ff erent species which
are hospit ably received as guests Finally ants u se
thei r architectu ral ski ll for m an y other pu rposes But
be fore entering into particulars o n thi s head w e woul d
like to draw a comp a rison b e tween th e architecture o f
ma mma l s and that o f ants
In as far as the b uildings o f many mamm al s a re
.
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-
,
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”
-
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,
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-
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,
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,
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1
by
h ad
) Ch
.
D rwi
a
me n t
to o ,
n,
i s lr
w h ic h i s t
m pl y d ( 1
b
p
p 414
) L
H e w i t so n ,
ee n
2
.
o
e
e
in
.
,
.
n
,
e
.
.
e
.
,
.
on
e ad
a
o
f
e ad
y
lic h
st f
s s h r ds
a ne
en
,
o
e
scri b d
p p r l ik wis
a c h a fli n c h
of
a
e
de
e
e
e
A rch i te c ture i n th e A n i ma l
Ki ngdom
121
.
only nests but also p e rmanent dw e llings both for
the p arents and the young they bea r a closer re se mb
lance to the nests o f ants than t o those o f birds
Instances are pl e nti ful ; for the burrows o f badgers
fox e s and wild rabbits are well known In some cases
the sam e buil dings s e rve also for storing p rovisio n s
as i s the case with G erman marmots and moles Thes e
buil dings therefore by their gre a t e r universality o f
purpose are more similar to ant nests th an to bi rd
nests A nother poi nt o f simi larity with the former
i s i n thi s that they show with some species at least
a great e r individual variability an d less sp e cific uni
formity th a n the latter
N everthel e ss i n all th e se
respects ant nests by far excel the buildings o f mam
mal s The very highest vertebrates th e anthropoi d
apes scarcely m a ni fe st a trace o f building instinct o r
o f its intelligent appl ication unles s you wish to
mention th e sleeping pl a ces somewhat resembling
1
r e gular nests which O rang Utans are wont to buil d
on trees A lthough the brai n o f ap e s mos t resembl e s
”
“
that o f man yet th e most intelligent a rchit e cts
among m a mmal s are found not among th e apes but
am ong the rodents which i n devel o pm e nt o f brain
a re far i n f e rior B eavers a re the only h ighe r anim a l s
whose a rch itecture can b ear comparison with that o f
ants
The buildings o f beaver families consi st o f an
und e rground chamb e r and burro w resembling those
“
—
o f other ma mmal s and o f a so called lodge
Th e
manner i n which th e latt e r is bu ilt was ably describ e d
no t
-
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-
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~
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-
.
,
1
Exp d i i
i t r ti
e
n e
Z l gisch S k izz
C tr l B r
r
( C mp t
p 224
) S e e B ue t t i k o f e r
na
t
on
on a
na
l
ch
de
oo o
,
en
a
.
-
n eo
o
.
en
e
”
o
e
a us
d e r N i e d e rl a e n d i sc h e n
endu
du
3me
C g r es
on
Ch ap ter III
1 22
.
by Fri edri ch i n a recent publi cation
The beaver
lodge is noth ing but an accumulation of brushwood
above the op e ning o f the underground chamber which
i s the real center o f the whol e dwelling Wherev e r
b e avers a re living i n coloni e s and when ci rcumstances
favor the full development o f thei r instinctive skill i n
2
buil ding th ey co n struct thei r w ell known dikes t o
d am the water and sometimes th e y even buil d can a ls
f o r the tra n sport ation o f timb e r
A lthough th e se
works are the resul t o f the co operation o f s e veral
fa mi li es yet each pair works only for its own pur
poses ; th e re i s n e ve r any d ivi sion o f labor like th a t
in ant colonies O f cou rse observers like Lewi s H
3
M organ who m i st a k e for intel lig e nce every acti o n
due to s ensitiv e cognition di scover many proo fs o f
h igh intelligence i n the doings o f the A merican
”
beavers However thi s so called free int e llig e nce i s
nothing else than the power o f adapting th e i r b u il dings
to the change s o f situ ation Thi s pow e r is poss e ss e d
al so by ants in at l east an equal degree I f M organ
and Romanes ! e g regard it as an infallible p roo f
o f the intelligence o f b e avers that th e y regul ate the
level o f th ei r ponds by w i dening o r narrowing th e
”
they should
o r ific e s o f thei r dams as t h e case m ay b e
admit the same i n ants which regulate the d e gre e s o f
moi stu re an d temperature o f thei r nests by changing
1
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,
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,
i l r E l b ( D ss
p 20
cc r i
Fri ric th y ls cc r t s m pl c s
b k s f t h mi d d l E l b l t h gh i d d
s m ll r sc l
f r
d
i s t i c t c m m b th t t h E r p
th y
t
A m ric
b vr
th
Th
A m ric
B v r d h i W rk s ( Lippi c tt
)
) D i e B i oe r an d e r m tt
2
ed
h
) A o d n g to
“
1
an
o
e
o
e
4
e
ar e
e
an
“
3
)
e
“
ue
ea
o
e
e
e
i lI
n te
An ma
e,
e
e
a
ou
a
au ,
e
o
o
n
n
n
an
e
e n
o
u
ee
on
on
o
if
.
a
o
a
e
a
o
a
e
e
on
e
a e
u o
.
;
the
the
e an
r
e
an d
.
an
ea
lli g c
en
e
e
an
( 6 th
ed
s
)
,
p
.
n
o
37 7 ff
.
o
Co
.
,
C h ap ter III
1 24
.
where they visit the i r p l an t l i ce and scal e —insects to
“
”
milk them by caressing them w ith thei r feelers A
few Eu rope a n a n ts n a m e ly F o rm i ca r ufa pra tensi s
and L asi us f uli g i n o sus buil d regu lar streets cleari n g
away from thei r path al l vegetabl e growth to a di s
1
tance o f sometim e s from 2 0 to 50 m
Thes e streets
l ead from thei r nests into woods and bu shes and thence
”
branch o ff to the pastu re grounds o f their cattl e
O ther ants in parti cular L as i us n i g er an d Cre mas
tog ast er scu tel l ari s bu il d cover e d roads o r tunnel s o f
earth by wh ich their nests communicate with tr e es
an d bushes that are inhabite d by aphi d e s o r scal e
insects These they occasionally surr o und with earth
r a mp a rts i n ord e r to k e e p them toge ther and t o p ro
tect th em from other ants by who m they might b e
“
i
l
a
n
t
l
coveted
an earth con
S uch a
c e pavilion
p
struction th e size o f a hazel nut i s i n m y collection ;
i t was built by M yrm i ca scab ri n o di s at the top o f an
twi g in the n e ighborh oo d o f E xat en O ther ants
o ak —
e g the A frican D oryl us species dig subt e rran e an
tunn e l s wh e re they go for thei r prey consi sting
chi e fly o f ins e cts and worms The h a rv e sting ants o f
S outhern Europe Western A sia North e rn A frica
A merica and India establi sh granaries i n thei r nests
wh e re they st o re up th e i r provisions for w int e r o r sum
mer T h e A tta o f tropical A merica feeding o n mush
rooms u se a numb e r o f subterranean chambers as ve g e
t able gardens and hot —hou ses i n whi ch the mu shroom s
.
,
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,
,
,
sp ci lly th l r g r sp ci s f
f
A m ric
l
tt i g
cc rd i g t B l t Br t
th
t s ( A t t ) w h ic h
d F r l b il d si m il r r d s b t f r q
t ly
f
s t ill m r c si d r
b l l gt h d b r d t h T h s m t r d s w fi d i N rt h A m ric
wi t h t s f t h g p f F r f sp ci lly wi t h F r mi c
t id
1
) A mo n
e
a
an
e
an
o
e
e
fo
ea
r ig
e
~
n
cu
u
,
o
an t
n
ea
e
r ou
s
th e
r
e
are
oa
o
u
,
e
.
e
e
a
an
a
an
en
an
g
.
a
,
uen
e
e an
u a,
e
a
-
e
oa
a
a
e
a
o
e
o
n
e
o
a
e
o
n
n
o
e
o
a
e
o
e
en
,
e
on
e
e xse c o
a
es
.
A rch i tec ture i n th e A n i mal
K i ng d o m
.
are g ro wn
A nts employ thei r building skill also to
protect them selves against enem ies They raise ram
parts and barricades to keep o ff foreign invaders ; and
unwelcome visitors which cannot be got ri d o f in any
other way are simply wall e d up with earth and are
thu s kept at a di stance Th us i n one o f my obs e rva
tion nests o f F sang ui n ea a sal amander introduced
by me wa s in a short time entir e ly walled in Th e
slaves ( F f usca ) p a st m a sters in the art o f building
were most zealou s in thi s w ork A n occurrenc e f a r
more amu sin g took place i n a nest o f L asi us fl avus
to whom I h a d giv e n a L o m ec h usa stru m o sa a s guest
The small yellow ants were not at all pleas e d with
the unwi e l dy fellow and tried to ge t ri d o f h i s impor
t u n i t y in t h e f o llow ing droll manner
Fro m all qu a r
ters they brought together pellets o f earth and he ap e d
them up o n th e back o f the un fortunate b e etle unti l
nothing wa s to be seen o f hi m bu t the tip s o f hi s
2
feelers
A nts are ev e n supposed to h ave thei r cemeteries
and burial places S uperfici al observers have ci rc u
lated m a ny fables o n this subj ect In the book o f a
certai n Reverend White ( A nt s and their Ways L o n
I found a touching story by M rs Lewi s
do n
Hutton o f S i dney which i s really too characteri stic o f
thi s kind o f n a tu ral h i story to be pas se d over in silence
O ne o f her children had sat down o n an ant nest an d
ha d b e en assailed by the enrage d inhabitants A t the
1
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-
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1
J
M ll r
)
oe
e
D i e P i l z g ae rt e n
,
an d
( en a
i m C o l u m b i sc h e n
IX
,
,
2
in
iss
9t h
“
ue )
) D ie
B o
i l
.
i
,
p
n te
.
r
F r
Urw l d
o
el
“
,
a
40 6
i
Z ur
i ig r
e
e n
F
aun a
( M i tt e i l
.
su e d a
L b sw is d
S c h w iz E t m
un d
de r
me ri k an i sc h er A m e
e
e
en
.
e
e
n o
er
is
A me
en
is
en
.
.
l
B zi
n at o n a e n
1 892 ,
e
p
.
65 3
eh un
.
g
en
vo n
L o me c h usa
st r u m o sa,
Ch apter III
12 6
.
cries o f her chil d th e mother ra n to the spot and killed
a f e w score o f ants A short time after she saw the
co rp ses surrounded by a nu mber o f thei r co mpanions
The bu rial ceremonies be gan A d eputation o f ants
was d e spatch e d to the n e st to fetch the train o f
mourners They marched i n du e order t w o by two to
the sc e n e o f di saster
They took up the corps e s
m arched slowly i n procession to a san dy place i n the
n e ighborhood and bu r i e d them o n e by o n e A few o f
the gravediggers which tri e d to escape thi s dole ful
duty by fl ight wer e pursued by the other ants over
taken and summarily sent e nced to death The se n
tence was immediatel y carried o ut an d the criminal s
were all interred i n a common pit The sai d lady
maintains to have witness e d similar p roce e dings mor e
“
th an once Ge rstaeck e r in h is Repo rt o n the scienti fic
”
r e sults obtained by Entomology during the year 1 86 1
mentions thi s burial story ( p 1 56 ) with the follow
“
ing i roni ca l rema rk :
To rende r the m ysti fi cati o n
compl ete nothing m ore was lacking than a funeral
”
sermon hel d by o n e o f the ants
S trange to say
1
P erty attempts to defen d the imaginative lady against
“
Th ere seem s to be some
Gerstaeck e r by saying :
truth in it anyway for D upont al s o m a intains that
ants h ave common graveyards at some di stance fr o m
”
thei r buil dings whither they carry their dead
2
Ernest A ndr é wa s f a r more correct about those bu rial
c e remonies o f ants i n calling them phantastic m i srep
r e se n t at i o n s o f the commone st occu rr e nces
It seems
scarcely poss ible that such an anecdote should see
.
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,
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,
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,
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,
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,
,
,
,
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.
,
1
2
)
“
)
“
S l l b
Thi r
r m is ( P ri s
e e en e
Le s f o u
en
der
”
e
a
,
e
(2d
p
p
.
.
32 8
.
Ch ap ter III
1 28
of
.
.
su ch disagreeabl e obj ects It i s utterly useless to
e mbelli sh the l i fe of ant s w ith f a bulous anecd o te s l ik e
that A u stral ian burial story The col d facts are inter
esting and wonder ful enough
.
.
.
6 Is th e A rch i tec ture
f
The bu ilding instinct o f ant s proves t o be such a
universal faculty an d its application to variou s pur
poses i s i n many cases seemi ngly so intelligent that
we a re finally confronted by th e qu e stion : Wh y
sh o u l d w e n o t cal l th i s a n i n tel l ec tu al f a cu l ty ?
Th e
following discussion will probably throw some light
o n th e subj e ct
Woul d it not be a proo f o f intelligence i f ants
not
themselves provi d e d with spinning gl ands
employed th e i r larvae for manu factu ring threads by
means o f which th e y bu il d a nest o f leaves ? A ccord
ing to W D Holland s observations thi s i s done by a
large reddi sh yellow ant o f E astern A sia call ed
Oec oph yll a smarag di n a whose nests he stu died i n
With thei r m andibles the ants first bring into
Ceylon
the proper position the leaves to be conn e cted and keep
them th ere ; then others approach in large numbe rs
each carrying a larva in its mouth with which they
be g in t o move a cross the leav e s from side to s ide
Whereve r th e mouth o f the larva touches the l e a f a
thread appears sticking to th e lea f Thi s process i s
continued until the l eaves are attache d to o n e anoth e r
at thei r edge s by a firm ti ssue o f threads an d final ly
a vi scou s paper like stu ff is form e d consi sting of
innumerabl e threads crossing each other i n all d i rec
.
A n ts Gui d ed by I n tel li g en ce ?
o
,
,
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,
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,
,
’
.
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-
,
,
1
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,
,
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,
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,
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-
,
1
) E
Pr c
o
,
E
.
i gs
ee d n
G
r
of
ee n ,
th e
On
E
bi t s f O phy l l
l gic l S ci t y f L d
th e
n tomo o
ha
a
o
o
e
ec o
o
on
s ma r a g d i n a
a
on
”
,
1 896 ,
p
.
F
.
A rchi tec tur e i n th e A n i mal
Ki n g do m
1 29
.
“
ants u se th ei r larvae as spi n ni ng
”
not only for buil ding thei r paper nests bu t
w h eel s
according to Holland for protecting thei r nest s
a l so
against th e invasions o f small ants with whom they
are i n continual war fare A round the trunk o f the
tree containing their nest they sometimes pu t a belt
a foot broad formed o f threads which serves to
entangl e the small ants and prevent them from climb
in g the t ree In manu facturing thi s protective ti ssue
the ant s come forth fro m thei r nest each carrying a
white pellet i n its mouth and move to and fro on th e
trunk Upon closer inspection it was found that thos e
l ittl e white lumps w ere again thei r larvae !
These cu riou s phenomena n e eded to b e co rrob o
“
rated by further i nvestigation
For e l in hi s D i e
”
Nester d er A mei sen ( p 2 0 ) al ready called attention
to the fact that the mandibular glands o f Oeco phyl l a
are strongly developed an d posses s large and numer
o u s cells
Fro m th e analogy w ith other ant species
’
whi ch secrete
( Cremastog ast er D o l i ch o d er us
a certain glu e from th eir m an dibular glands for manu
f ac t uri n g thei r paper nest s i t might seem probable
th at the Spinnin g material o f Oecoph yl l a p roceeds
from the ants mouth But o n th e other hand P ro
f esso r Chun ha s recently shown in his spl endi d boo k
” 1
“
From th e D epth s o f the O cean
that the spinning
glands o f the Oecophyl l a larvae are far more developed
than those found in oth e r larvae o f ants We mu st
conclude there fore that M r Holland s statements
were qu ite exact an d that the spinning glands o f the
l arvae not the salivary glands o f the ants themselves
tions
Th ese
.
-
,
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1
)
“
9
A us d en
,
Ti
e f en
de s
W e l tm eere s
,
2d
cd
.
,
J e n a 1 903
,
,
p
.
1 29
.
1 80
III
Ch ap ter
.
deliver the th reads employ e d in the marvelous archi
tecture o f Oecophyl l a
In adopting this supposition that ants employ
“
”
thei r o w n children as a kind o f spinning wheel w e
are con front e d by th e extraordinary fact that a n imal s
make use o f an instrument oth e r than any bodily
o rgan for bui lding an d d e fending thei r nests an
occurrence u npar al l el ed i n the whol e ani mal kingdom
even among higher animals
But can we account
for the proceedings o f this I ndian ant o n the score
indivi dual
o f i n tell i g en ce that i s to say o f her o w n
refl ection ? Ju st a s little as in the case o f the other
specific arts and talents o f animal s ; for they are all
the hereditary property o f certain speci e s not inv e nted
A n d there fore
o r l e arnt by ind e pend e nt individual s
also the spinning t al e nt o f Oecophyl l a e v e n i f it is
done by means o f th e larvae i s du e to h ered i tary
i nsti n c t not to th e i n d i v i d u a l i n te ll i g e n ce o f t h e animal
To obtai n proofs for attributing the arch itecture
o f ants to thei r own intelligence we shoul d have to
l ook f o r in stances i n which in con sequence o f indi
vi dual experience and r e fl ection these ani mal s modi fy
th ei r innate instincts i n such a manner as to i nven t
Thi s i s
n ew m ea ns o f ac co m pl i sh i n g th ei r purp ose
the thi rd form o f independent l earning which as we
1
have shown in a fo rmer publication i s a real proo f
We must there
o f th e intelligence o f the learner
fore examine whether the buil ding activity o f ants
.
,
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,
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,
,
,
,
.
,
,
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,
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,
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.
,
,
c h pt r
d I t lli g c
( H rd r
ls b
f th is p i t will
F hi gk i t
d
A m is
pp 82 1 1 4
1
an
) In
th e
en
n e
a
e
a
the
on
e
e
o n
o
e
o
,
e
St
ae
e
-
en
.
er
e
en
r
L is
d i ff e
ou
.
(
ent
o
f l e ar n i n g i n
o
o ur
Z l gic
oo o
I s ti c t
A m r d t il d d isc ssi
Di
p b lic t i
psyc h isc h
S t t t g rt
26 t h iss
r
f o ms
,
f ou n d i n
~
.
,
a,
”
u
a
e
o n,
u e,
e
“
a
n
u
e
on
en
e
u
n
a
,
C h ap ter
1 32
111
.
“
A l l the philos
following momentou s reflections :
0 p h e rs togeth e r o f anci e nt and mod e rn times
and all
the theologians mor e ov e r will not impose upon m e
by asserti ng that we have to do here with the action
I f thi s i s instinct then
o f a n u n r e aso n a b l e cre a tu re
the invention o f the steam engine i s instinct to o ! N o
both m ean a cleve r profiting by gi ven ci rcu mstances
”
d ue to r e fl ection !
M any an unwa ry reader may possibly be over
wh elmed by thi s spirit e d appeal to th e steam engine
o n the part o f M arshall
Howeve r i f we do not allow
ou rselves to be imposed upon by the boldnes s o f hi s
oratorical fl ight w e shal l arrive at di ff e r e nt results
wi th out being exactl y philosophers o r theologians
W e can obse rve any d ay that o n the pa rt of the ant s
ill smellin g o r sticky o b j ect s are simply covered with
earth i f they cannot b e removed from the nest
Nobody w ill be incline d to maintain seriou sly that
“
ants by so doing make u se o f any i ntellige nt gi ft o f
”
invention transcending thei r pow e r o f i n stinct O ut
si de o f thei r nests al so an d governed by th e same
instinct they occasionally adopt the same procedure
Now i n the above m e ntioned cas e the ants found that
the road wh ich led them to thei r aphides o n the tree
had been covered w ith an ill sm elling sticky substanc e
W hat was more natural than to fe tch pell ets o f earth
and to cl ear a pas sage by a method so familiar to their
instinct ? Hence we a re j u stifi e d in drawing the fol
“
lowing conclusion : T h at b y th i s pret e n d ed bri dg e
”
b ui l d i n g th ese a n ts h ave g i ven i n fa l l i b l e evi d en ce of
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-
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i n ven ti ve g en i us a n d i n tel l i g e n ce i s a sta te
ment w or th y o n l y of po p ul ar u n cri ti cal psych o l ogy
r efl e c ti o n,
,
,
,
.
A rc h i te ctur e i n th e A n i ma l
K i ng d om
1 33
.
One th ing however i s made evi dent b y these
and similar observations vi z : that ant s are not mere
refl ex machines but beings endowe d with sensitive
cognition and appetit e and with the power o f employ
ing i n th e most various manner their innate i n sti n c
tive faculties and abil iti es under the i nfluence o f
di ff erent sense perceptions A n d j ust on thi s account
“
i t i s altogether superfluous to admit animal i n t el l i
”
gence ; fo r the complex representations o f sensitive
cogn ition as we h ave shown in the above example
a ff ord a simpler and better explanation o f whatever
i s not mere fiction in those supposedly intelligent
1
actions o f a nim a ls
A nother example o f bridge building wh ich by th e
way i s merely vouched for by a M r T h euerk au f i n
“
”
B uech n e r s
is
G eistesleben d e r Thiere
(p
stil l less corroborative of ant intelligence than th e
former In thi s case the ants u sed a di ff erent mean s
for bridging over a ci rcle o f tar smeared around a
tree
Th e ants were descending from th e top ; o n
arriving at the obstacl e som e stuck fast others
returned to fetch p l an tl i ce from th e twigs ; they put
them o n the tar and thu s constructed a bri dge S i r
2
Joh n Lubbock remark s in explanation o f thi s story
that h e had hi s doubts as to the interpretation o f the
“
fact
Is it not possible that as th e ants descende d
the tree carrying the aphi des the latte r natu rally
stu ck to the t ar and were there fore l e ft there ? In
the sam e way I have seen hundreds o f bits o f earth
,
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I st i c t d I t lli g c i t h A i m l K i g
t h is p i t
) Cf
p 1 09 h d 1 37 ff w h r w h v sh w t h t t v
d m
i m l s m y b cr d i t d wi t h f rm l c sci s ss f p rp s
h i gh r
d w sps
(L d )
) A ts b s
1
.
o
on
o n
”
an
2
“
a
n
,
,
n
n
a
ee
e
an
n e
an
e
e
a
.
e
“
e
a
a
o
e
”
e
on
on
.
en
a
on
e
e
n
o
e
n,
ou ne
o
n
a
a
no
u
n
e
o
e
en
.
C h ap te r III
1 34
.
d eposited o n the honey with which I fed my ants
I n fact only trivi a l ob serv e rs coul d maintain th at in
this cas e the ants had i ntenti o nally employed their
a phi des
a s bri dge building materials
The correct
exp lanation might rather b e the following : the ants
becoming u neasy about thei r preciou s aphi d e s l iving
o n the tree tried to save them by carrying them d o wn
“
By thi s attempt h o wever th e aphi des l iterally got
”
stuck i n the mu d
I t was no doubt m erel y by
c h a n ce
that the aphi des adhering to the tar fo rmed
a sort o f bri dge for the ants
These two famous stories are th ere f dre far from
furni shing any e vidence in favor o f ant intelligenc e
We have to investigate other exampl es to det e rmine
”
“
wheth e r o r not ants a re abl e by r e asonable refl ection
to invent new means for fulfill ing th ei r d e signs
1
S i r J ohn Lubbock has made a number o f e x p eri
m e nt s w ith ant s i n order to test thei r intell igenc e some
o f the more i mportant onl y can be m entioned h e re
Fo r t h e ant s o f a nest o f L asi us n i g e r he arr a nged a
bridge made o f a piec e o f straw o r a slip o f paper by
which they coul d get at thei r l arvae A fter the ants
ha d b e com e su f fici ently fa m iliar with thi s pa thw a y
“
he slightly moved the bri dge so as to leave a chasm
j u st so w ide that the ant s coul d not reach a cross They
came an d tri ed hard to do so ; but it di d not occu r to
them to pu sh the paper bri dge though the di stance
third i nch an d they might easily
w as only abo ut one —
h ave done so
A nothe r experiment h e r e lates as
“
follows :
I suspended som e honey over a nest o f
L fl avus at a h e igh t o f about hal f an inch and accessi
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1
)
“
Ant
s b s
,
ee
an d
w sps C h p I X
a
,
a
.
.
Ch ap ter III
1 36
.
n i g er
he fastened a strip o f tin with some honey
A fter the ants had for a long time been allowed t o
vi sit the h oney the strip was gradually rai sed by a
screw u ntil from thei r pathway the ants could no
longer get at th e hon ey Though it woul d have be en
easy enough to heap up a littl e e arth under the strip o f
t in i t never occu rred to the ant s to d o so ; the hon e y
remained beyond thei r reach Thi s experiment there
fore ha d the very same results as L ubbock s nam e l y
that th e ants were not capabl e o f fo rming the simplest
intelligent conclusion which woul d have led th e m to
employ thei r bu ilding skill f o r the purpose o f gettin g
1
at th e honey
I may a d d here a few observations and experiments
o f my o w n S inc e it mi ght b e obj ect e d against Lub
bock s resul ts that h e took for hi s e xperiments some
”
ant speci e s l ittl e endow e d w ith intelligence nam e ly
L as i us and M yrmi ca I chose the most intelligent ants
2
n amely F ormi ca sa ng u i n ea and he r allied slaves as
subj ect s for e xpe riments o f wh ich only a brie f e xt ract
i s h ere presented
In th e fron t nest o f my above mentioned obse rva
tion ne st ( see p 2 3) a piece o f wood formed a co m
m o d i o u s b ri dge over which the ants coul d pass to the
ri m o f the glass and thence int o the top nest By their
ea rth constructions in the front nest the ants had
gradually lowered the bridge s o that th e distance
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,
is xp ri m t th t ts d t v p ss ss
s si t iv p rc pt i
T h is i f r c is t f r ch i g
d c g iti
f
S
s si t iv c g i t i
d is wi g t h i m is t k i g i t lli g c
d
A m is
p 73
F h i gk i t
D i psyc h isc h
S iss
p 443) s t t th t F
l
( F rm is d
) F r l ls
i t lli g c
d s rv s t h p l m f
g i
1
)
en
an
“
e th e
e
e
o
n
i
nfe
rs f r
o
u n ea
a
e e
o
e
th
o
a
s
en
o e
om
an
on
e
e
3
sa n
B
ae
e
“
e
on
n
n
n
en
e
a
en
e
or
a
n e
e
u
o
e
no
oo
e
e
en
or
en ,
e
er
ou
e en
n
.
e
an
a
en
e
en
ar
-
o n
o
ea
e
n
,
ee
on .
”
e,
e n e.
.
.
.
a es
a
.
A rch i tec tur e i n th e A n i mal
K i ng d om
1 37
.
betwee n the top end o f the bridge and the cork o f the
glass wa s about 2 cm When exposed t o the sun the inside
o f the glass was generally covere d with moisture and
the ants foun d great di ffi cu lty i n passing the i ntermedi
at e space and in getting into the to p nest A lthough
this state o f a f fairs laste d for wee k s and th e ants co n
it n e ver
t i n ue d t o encounter the sam e di ffi culties
Occurre d to them t o connect th e broad upper end o f
the stick with the roo f o f th e front n e st b y a bridge
o f e arth They connected th e sides o f the stick with the
glas s by a wall of earth ; gradually they also cov e r e d
the whole g l ass wall w ith p ellets o f earth to protect
themselves against the rays o f the l igh t ; but they
n eve r built a bridge at the critical spot where o n e was
evi dently needed and o f the greatest importance T h e
pellets o f earth acci d e ntally fastened there were on
th e contrary continual ly thrown down b y th e ants
that crawled up the roa d Thu s exactly that spot
over which the ants i f th ey w ere endowed with a n y
p ow er of th o ug h t an d refl ec ti o n woul d be expected to
build a bridge wa s le ft slippe ry and smooth and was
still the sam e after hal f a ye ar
In 1 884 I repeatedly made the followin g e xp eri
ment : In a tiny vessel I su spended some honey o r
ant larvae ov e r a nes t o f F sang ui n ea contain e d in a
” 1
“
large c rysta l l i sat o r
s o that the ant s coul d touch th e
vessel with thei r antennae only b u t coul d not reach
i t exc ept by a very circu itou s route I t should have
occu rred to th em t o heap up a l ittl e earth o r some
pieces o f wood underneath the vessel in order to form
“
”
a bri dge leading di rectly to the wished f o r goal
-
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-
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1
) A lo w
,
r
o un d
gl ss b wl c v r
a
o
,
o
e
ed
by
a
gl ss pl
a
at e .
C h ap ter
1 38
111
.
But neither the sang ui n eas nor thei r slave s ( F rufa
and f usca ) l iving in the same n e st e ver hit upon this
obvious method although it woul d have su fficed to
raise the surface of their nest at the spot i n question
j u st by 1 cm !
A more wonde rful resul t was obtained in anoth e r
experi me nt o n the same nest o f sang ui n ea O n June
16
1 88 4 I filled a large watch crystal with water and
i n the center upon a kin d o f i sland I placed a l ittle
shell filled w ith ant cocoons pr e vi ously taken from the
same colony T hi s artificial p ond w ith its i sland was
then introdu ced into t h e nest The ants soon noticed
the cocoons and stretched out th eir f e el e rs towards
the i sland ; but g e tting into the wa t e r at every attempt
to approach they retreat e d again and again
I
began to think they woul d never be able to overcome
th e di f ficulty when suddenly a sang ui n ea began to
throw into the water pellets o f earth bits o f woo d
dead ants and similar sol id materials O thers followed
her exampl e and th ey so o n h ad b ui l t a ro a d over th e
I n th e space o f am hou r counting from the
w a te r !
minute I starte d th e expe riment they h ad fetched al l
“
floating
t h e cocoons from the i sland by means o f thi s
”
bri dge
The very last cocoon having been secured
by the ants o n e o f the m returned to the island and
finding i t empty she squatted on her haunches passed
th e spu r o f her fore feet th rough h er mouth and then
combed her feelers with the spur sitting there for
several minutes in a most provoking attitu de as i f she
“
were saying to m e : A h my dear who has won the
”1
?
game now
I s thi s fact not a staggering proo f
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1
)
ad d e d
T h is v ry l s t i st c
m
y th rs
b y th t h r f r m h i ri gi l t s
e
e au
a
o
n
o
an
e,
s o
as
an
na
e
o
no e
.
i n th
is t r sl t i
an
a
on ,
w as
C h ap ter III
1 40
.
th e last twenty years I coul d record here still many
an int e resting occurr e nce which like th e above e xam
pl e imp resses a superficial observer as an i n telligent
action
Yet clo se r e xamination invari ably p roves
that su ch f a ct s are accounted f o r much more ea sily
an d naturally by th e instinctive combinatio n s o f sense
“
r e p re sent at ions ; t h e re f o re n o a n t i n t e l l i g e n c e and
“
in fact n o a ni ma l i n tel li g en ce at al l is required
Ind ee d the high er mamm al s ranking next to man
i n brain developm e nt are f ar from supplying m o re con
”
“
intelligence than ants In th e m
vi n c i n g proo fs o f
a l so the whole p roces s o f cogn ition i s confined to the
m e re connecting o f s e nse representations an d sens e ex
n ctive
i
n
according
to
the
inborn
law
s
o
f
insti
er
ces
e
p
which ordinari ly regu
a ssoci ation o f representations
l ate th e i r l ives
The psychi c endowments o f dogs
and monkeys go no farther Unl ess a dog ha s been
sp e cially t rain e d i t n e ver occurs to hi m to Op e n a
doo r the k nob o f which h e i s unable to r ea ch by
fetchi ng for instance a foot stool to gain a higher
lev e l ; h e may have se e n chi ldren his play fe llows
doing th e sam e thing a hundred t im e s ; the relati o n
between m eans and e n d though so natu ral and obviou s
in thi s case will for e ver remain h i dden to th e canine
soul Hence the dog i s not a whit more intel ligent
than the ants that fai led to notice that a l ittle heap
o f eart h woul d have su f ficed to secure them an easy
passage to the honey su spended i n a saucer above their
nest
Neither do apes possess the power to invent by
th ei r o w n reflection new m e ans o f accompl ishing their
Even th ese highest mammals are confined ex
end
,
,
,
,
.
,
”
-
,
h
”
-
.
,
~
.
,
.
.
,
,
,
-
-
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
~
.
K i ng d o m
A r ch i te c tu re i n th e A n i ma l
1 41
.
elusively to the instructive association o f sense rep re
sen ta ti o n s
We have shown this in our first chapt e r
where we discusse d the wars that tak e place i n the
animal kingdom and pointed to the fact that apes are
u nable to invent the simplest weapons and implements
ev e n The s a m e hol ds good a s t o the u se o f fire I f
a troop o f a p es in th e forest hits upon the remnants
o f a fire lighted by the h ands o f man
they will cer
ta i n l y gather aroun d it and enj oy the com fortable
warmth But i t has never hitherto occurred to any
1
a p e to supply it with fuel
A n d yet it would be such
a simple and natural combination o f representations
requi rin g but a low degree o f intelligence Why do
“
ap e s in spite o f the high plasticity o f thei r quasi
human brain never h it upon such a simpl e m e ans ?
-
.
,
,
.
.
,
.
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
B e c a use t h ey p ossess n o spi ri tua l so u l a n d t h er ef or e
“
”
i n t el l i g e n c e
The pl a sti c n euro zymi c activities
.
no
of
the simian b rain are essentially di ff erent from human
intelligence ; like those o f ants and all lower animal s
they prove to be functions o f me re sensitive instinct
I t i s wron g th e re fore to describe ants as instinctive
automatons i n order to sa feguard the intell igence o f
the highe r animal s The p sychic action s o f all ani mal s
are due to automatism as f a r as they are u n able to
attain th e l evel of reasonable refl ection and free sel f
determination
Fo r the rest however there i s no
question o f automatis m either with low e r or with
higher animal s becau se i t i s sensitive cognition and not
mere reflex activity which prompt s them to act It
i s true that instinctive actions have a ce rtain auto
.
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
Tyl r ( i
Ch rl s E v B r ( i
h
pp 304
g
1
a
sc
) Cf
e
au u n
.
n
o
.
ae
.
”
,
.
,
Ran k e
n
,
M sch II
K rl E v B r
D er
S t oe l z l e ,
“
en
a
,
.
.
,
ae
l
st
un d
ed
.
s i
4 36 )
e ne
an d
W el t an
C h ap ter
1 42
III
.
matic character inasmuch as they are to a ce rtain
degree p redetermined by the natural constitution o f
th e animal However inasmuch as they are govern e d
by sensitive cogn ition and appetite and there fore
c apable o f m o re or l e ss m o di fi ca ti o n with in th e pred e
t e rm i n e d natural limits they are not o f an automati c
but o f a spontaneou s character
In conclusion l et u s sum up the results o f o ur
com p arative discu ssion o n architecture in the animal
ki n gdom They a re : A nts surpass al l a ni mal s b o th
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
h i g h er, by th e q uasi i n tel li g en t vari a b i li ty
sp o n tan e o us sel f d e termi n a ti on a n d t h e po w er o f
l o w er
th e
a nd
-
,
-
sui tab l e
ski l l
p ta ti o n
a da
,
ma n i f ested i n th ei r
as c e rt ai n o
N everth el ess i t i s
.
o t h er a n i
p
g en ce
ma l
ro
p
,
f
arch i tect ural
th e m as
a r e n o t e n d ow e d
t h a t th ey
f
o
an y
wi th i n t ell i
erl y so cal l ed
.
Thi s corroborates the views advance d in our di s
1
c ussi o n o n the d i ff er en t f o r ms of l ear n i ng
A nts are
abl e to accommodate thei r buil dings to the most vari e d
“
”
conditions ; hence they are able to l earn how to
modi fy thei r buil dings according to given circum
stances But thi s l earning takes place o nly i n so f ar as
sense e xp e ri ence gives rise to n e w combinations o f
representations ; a s soon however as the mo di fi ca
tion o f their activity woul d require i n tel l i g en t r efl ec
.
.
-
‘
,
,
draw i ng
ti o n, o r th e
d i t i o n s t o t h e presen t
f
o
co n cl usi o n s
fr o m fo rmer
co n
then both ant s and higher
animal s withou t exception are all at once i n capabl e
Thi s shows to evid e nce that the
of f ur th er l ear n i n g
“
”
doctri n e o f animal intelligenc e i s utterly u nt e nabl e
,
o n es,
,
.
,
.
1
)
st i n c t
Mo
.
,
“
psyc h isc h
I t lli g
c i
Ch p V III
D ie
an d
en
n
en
e
a
.
e
.
is
Fa e h i gk e i t e n d e r A m e e n
”
n do m
n
th e A n ma
(
i l Ki g
,
pp 82 1 1 4 ; I
H r d r S t L is
“
-
.
e
e
,
.
ou
n
,
1 44
Ch a p ter
IV
.
plants The new b ein g comes into e xi stence al ready
fully endowed with the power o f subsistence according
to the law s o f merely vegetative nature whether it be
separated from the mother organi sm o r remain united
with it as a new part o f a polyzoal colony H ere
th e re fore it would be altogether usel e ss to poss e ss
bre e ding insti n cts fo r the propagation o f th e sp e ci es
Even among such animal s as propagate through
s e xual generation we m eet w ith breeding i nstincts
onl y where they are requir e d for the preservation o f
th e speci es
and the parents care for thei r o ff
Spring only i n as far as it i s necessary for th at purpose
Withi n these limits however w e fin d a wonderful
adaptation o f mean s to the end and at times a mar
velons sagacity o f animal i nstinct which app ears
nowhere el se to such advantage
But al so nowhere else i n th e whol e animal p sy
c h o l o gy a re mani fest e d so palpably the i mpotence o f
so called animal intelligence an d the unsoundness o f
th e m odern t enden cy o f humani zing animal li fe How
”
shoul d the ephemera know b y her o w n intelligence
that sh e may without any appr e hension drop her eggs
into th e water ? D oes she perh aps still remember that
”
“
h er mother once upon a tim e dropped h er al so into
the water as an egg ? O r has she perhap s by the
stu dy o f zoology gained the k nowledge that ephemeras
need no hatching ? A ccording to B reh m s p sychology
w e ought to give the eph e mera a thorough s colding
for showing so l ittle motherly love towards her dear
o ff spring and for no t caring for thei r wel fare But
scientifically spea k ing such a scol ding i s as n o n sen
si c al as i f we were to blame an oak tree for bearing
.
,
-
,
.
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
-
.
,
,
’
.
,
Ca r e
o
f th e
Yo ung
i n t h e A n i ma l
K i ng d o m
.
1 45
aco rns instead o f pumpkins o r a hen for laying eggs
instead o f begetting l ive chicks
Ephemeras fli t
about over stagnant pool s and drop thei r clu sters o f
eggs into the water ; pearl fl i es carefully attach thei r
eggs to a flimsy peduncle consi stin g o f a sap hardened
by exposure to the air ; ichneumon —fl i e s deposit thei r
eggs i n the b ody o f a caterpil l a r by means of th e i r
ovipositor ; gall fl i es intro duce thei rs under th e rib o f
an o ak lea f fro m which later o n the gall nut i s to
grow serving both as dwelling and a s provision store
o f th e young larva ;
the blue bottles place thei r eggs
o n putre fying flesh whereas a certain species o f wasps
i
o
m
l
u
i
t
i
P
s
v
a
cus ) glue
theirs to the bodies o f
p
(
spi ders which they paralyz e by skil ful thrusts o f their
sting without killing them so a s to enable the grow ing
l arva e to feed upo n live flesh ; the common cabbage
butt e rfly dep osit s h er eggs o n cabbages th e h aw k
moth on poisonou s spu rges the large clavicorn water
b e etl e ( H yd r oph i l us pi ce us) weaves fo r its eggs an
ingeniou s boat with a littl e streame r on top to float
about on th e sur fa ce o f the water wh il st a small e r
allied speci es ( S per ch eus emarg i n a tus) carries its eggs
as many spiders d o in a bag attached to it s abdomen ;
the lea f rolling b eetle ( Rhyn chi tes b e tul ae ) cuts a
bi rch lea f in a manner implying a di fficu lt probl e m in
applied mathematics and roll s it up into the shape o f
an ingeniou s funnel in which it d e posits i ts eggs ;
whil st Rhyn chi tes pu b escens saws a cradle f o r its eggs
in the wood o f an o ak tw i g th e e ar wi g hatch es it s
eggs like a hen wh il st L o m ech usa strum osa j u st l ike
cuckoos confides its brood to the care Of ants ; they
all do their duty with equal pru dence but all to o are
,
.
-
-
-
,
,
-
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
-
-
,
,
-
-
,
,
,
,
,
10
C h a p te r I V
1 46
.
i gnorant o f the p rudence o f their actions and unco n
scious o f duty Under th e gu idance o f sensitive cog
n i ti o n and perception they fol low the mysterious i n
st i n c t i v e i m pul se arising from thei r organi c develop
m ent which suggests to them the means necessary for
preserving thei r species But th ey do not understand
t h e appropriatenes s o f the se mean s and need not reflect
1
how to u se the m to a dvantage
Wherever i n the animal kingdom the care o f th e
“
young requir e s family li fe i e a regu lar co habita
tion o f the parents and o f the young thi s task
takes place only as far a s the preservation of th e
speci es renders it necessary
The same organico
i nstinctive laws t o which breeding i s subj ected in
general al so determine the existence and fi rmness o f
family ties as well a s the extension o f the family circl e
with di ff erent speci e s o f animal s There i s no room
fo r indivi dual reason and libe rty ; and to postulate
them i s not only wholly superfl uou s but al so contra
dicted by innu me rabl e facts A s bi rds associ ate in
pai rs only durin g the mating season for the preserva
t ion o f th e species so in build in g thei r ne st and in
hatching their young the two mates c o Operate l ike
wis e only as far as i s necessary for preserving their
species ; and the pai rs remain together and in com
pany with thei r young no longer than the same pu rpose
“
requi res A ltum in h i s excellent bo o k D er V ogel
”
und sein Lebe n h a s suppl ied u s w ith a number of
striking instances proving how ridi culou s and unten
,
.
,
.
.
-
.
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
.
,
-
,
.
,
,
,
ly pr v d th is f ct i th c s f i s c t s th t
t rwiss
liv si gl i
b k D Trich t rwic k l r i
sc h f t
lic h S tu d i b r d T h i i t i t ( C h p I V ff ) t h t t h r is
d f r
pr f h r
ti g h
1
) We ha
n
e
e
n ee
n
e,
e
o
v
e so
o ur
ue e
e p ea
m
n
i
n ut e
oo
“
,
e
oo
e
e
e
e
.
nc
”
a
e
a e o
e ne
na u
.
,
n
a
e
er
er n s
en
t
o
.
,
a
n e
a
en
e
e
a
no
C h a p te r I V
1 48
.
they h ad never belonged together Thi s is a g en enal
l aw of na t ure ascertained by science th r o ug h o ut th e
setting at naught all the fine
w h ol e a
n i mal ki ng d o m
phrases and sentimental talk o f Brehm o n marital and
par e ntal love amon g animals A n d th is gu sh the
outcome o f erroneou s not ions and m i spl a ced sentime n t
i s dubbed by thousands o f its vota ries mo d ern a ni mal
.
,
,
.
,
psych o l ogy !
of the young in its most primitive for m i s
found among th e E ch i n o d erms namely in a few spe
cies o f sta r fi sh e s ( A steri as M u el l eri r ug i spi n a Cri
‘
1
A ccording to P e rrier th e femal e ani
b rel l a o c ul a ta )
ma l by bringi ng her arms near to the body forms
a kin d o f breeding cavity in wh ich th e young hu d
d l i n g together are enclosed
I n the di ff erent classes
b e tween the E ch i n o d erms and th e vertebrates car e o f
the young assumes ve ry di ff erent forms which We a re
unabl e to di scu ss here
O f pecul iar p sychological
inter e st however are those animal s am o ng wh o m the
m al es and n o t the f e mal es are entru sted with the car e
o f bui lding nests an d rearin g the young The be st
know n exampl e o f thi s kind among fishes is th e
2
stickle back ( Gastero steus a cul eatus )
In thi s speci e s
“
”
the fem al es are regular
ca nnibal stepmoth e rs
“
wherea s the males are m od el s o f a ff ectionate fath
ers
H ow ri diculou s such facts are wh en couched
Care
,
-
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
-
.
,
.
,
1
) S ee
N at u r k
(
.
.
.
2
ta i n e
vo n
“
)
e
9
e
an d
p
,
u dwi g ,
1 89 6 , l
.
21 7
on
a
r
ee
.
en ,
.
on n
534 ,
o
B ru
N OS
.
S i t zun g sb e r
st
o
h al f ,
p
.
.
d er N i e de rr h
b si d s
1 04 ;
e
e
in
“
.
Ge se l l sc h
Z oo l o g
.
An
e
.
,
10 )
n e
No
.
535 ,
a
a
”
e
an d
ne
“
n
s
ue ,
e en
r
an
e re n
a
er
.
.
.
e
a e
o
er
f ue
e
e
r
"
,
.
.
a e
.
z ig r
p 237
m g m ph i b i s c s s f m l h t c h i g h v b
) A ls
d
F
V h
dl
Z
l g b t
S
W r r i
d
G
1 898
l t iss
p 1 1 ff S
ls R Wi d
Wi
h i
i d r W i b l th i
tp fl g
( B i l g C t l b l XX
No
.
B
H L
n
oo o
ee
o o
a
.
o
a
-
.
e en
e
o an
e
.
e n ra
,
.
asc e r
e se l l sc
h
e r sh e i
m
,
.
.
1 900 ,
Care
o
Y o u ng
f th e
i n th e A ni ma l
K i ng do m
.
anthrop omorphi c language goe s w ithout sayin g
S ome instances o f taking care o f the young occu r also
amon g amphibias The f e mal e o f the S urinam toa d
( P i pa d orsi g era ) carrie s her young in the cavities o f
her dorsal skin ; whereas in a frog spe ci es ( A rth ro
l ep ti s seych ell en si s ) inhabiting C entral A merica the
2
young hold o n to the back o f the m ale
But quite
universal and commonly known i s the care bestowed
by bi rds an d m amm als upon thei r young Yet its
highest per fection connected with the most per fect
form o f community li fe i n the animal kingdom does
not occu r w ith the higher ma mmals bu t w ith the
Here thi s degree
so ci al i nsec ts i n particular with a n ts
o f pe r fection i s made possibl e by the organic division
o f th e female sex into females proper an d i nto nurses
( wo rkers ) incapabl e o f generation A n d although
these are not th e mothers o f the children they nurse
the psychi c d evel opmen t o f thei r b reeding instinct
reaches th e greatest perfection in the whol e animal
kingdom Be fore discussing however this asp e ct o f
the breeding instinct o f ants we mu st first explai n it s
connecti on wi th th e laws o f their organic develop
ment
The bodily diff erentiation o f th e members o f an
insect state int o clas ses and castes thei r co—
habitation
i n a common abode thei r nest c o nstruction acqui sition
in
1
.
,
.
.
.
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
.
-
,
-
,
,
ll wi g msi g q t t i will d f th p rp s T h
g r t s t d g r th r t s h i m ( Mr S t ic k l b c k ) f r m t h m t h rs f
hi
w
ch il dr
E g r t d v r th ir w ff spri g t h y
l l y d sh i g i
ti
is
g i st t h
s t i wh ic h t h y g
g r d d b y t h ir w tc h f l f t h r d b t t f t th l tt r p ys t h
p l t y f h i p ly g m y ( T h il U mb il d g
d
G li d m ss
d
Fisch i B i l g
1 89 7 l t iss
p
X II
89 ff
) Z l g J h b Ab t h f r S ys t m t i k
1
) T he f o
an
ea e
s
o
en.
n ua
ua
a
n
e
o
e,
2
a
"
“
s
n
“
oo o
o o
.
a
e ou
o
on
a
a n
a
e
”
a
o
o,
.
,
e
e
.
e
a
o
n
.
ue
ne
u
an
“
e
o
n
oo
o
a
u
e
o e :
o
e
n
e
,
e
en
e n an
ue ,
s
or
o
,
un
,
r
o
’
u
a
on
.
e
un
n
e
en a
uo a
n
e a en
e
n
u
a
n
o
e
en
a
e
e
e
ar e
c on
o un
ar e
a
e
e
a
en
.
”
,
o
.
'
er
1 50
IV
Ch a p te r
of
.
food thei r whole li fe and activity have for their
obj ect th e care o f the off spring and thereby the pres
e rvat i o n o f the species
The animal colonies o f bum
1
ble bee s w asps and hornet s repr e sent a lower st a ge
of
community li fe th an the perennial colonies of
h oney bees ant s and termi tes
I n the case o f the
former t he insect famil ies and the e n tire community
l i fe have to be establi shed anew every year by some
hibernating female ; but w ith the l att e r t h e original
f a mili es l ast several ye ars and o ften much l onge r thus
giving thei r community l i fe a character o f stability
and al so o f great e r vari ety and perfe ction
Th e organi c foundation o f i nsect states a s already
shown above ( p
i s p o l ym orph i sm o r the s e p a ra
“
tion o f the individual s int o sexual animal s and n e u
2
ters o r work e rs T he prim e duty o f the fo rmer i s
generation th i s being the direct means for preserving
the sp e cies wh il st the l att e r perform all th e wo rk
requi r e d for the wel fa re o f the family thu s in their
turn indirectl y contributing to th e sam e end Without
thi s appropriate divi sion o f labor insect stat e s woul d
be impossibl e ; and as a rul e the more per fect thi s
divi sion the more pe rfectl y developed i s the i nsect
3
community
I n be es with whom the workers are
V ol X I X 1 896
) A cc r di g t H v I h i g ( Z l g A
,
,
.
-
,
-
,
-
.
,
-
'
,
-
.
-
,
.
,
”
.
,
,
,
.
-
,
,
,
.
1
n
o
p
,
o
.
.
oo o
nz
.
.
,
.
,
b r f t h Br zili s ci l V p i d
i l c l i es f s v r l y rs
t ) f rm p r
Ch t g
t iv
l s
w sps
t
lr d y i C h p I N 2 r f rr d t t h f c t th t i
) W h v
r li t y t h y
k i g s xl ss
t pr p rly sp
th
tt c h d i
t h is pl c
t
) T h gr t s t i m p r t c m s t b
b t w s x l i d ivi d ls d w rk rs T h s g i
d if r ti ti
th
l c l i s f b mb l b s th r is di m rp h ism f w rk rs
m r
i
c
pr il
d h
m r k d d ivisi
f l b r th
th
E H fi
c i s f
h
yb
( O th b m bl b s
p
xc ll t b s rv t i s
th
b m bl b
N v r th l ss t h
f S t yri )
st t s
m r p r f ct th
cc t
b
f t h b mbl b s
th s
g r t r d i ff r c b t w th ir w r k rs d g i f m l s
th
516
No
( P o l y b i a,
,
.
2
ea
8
an
ol
e
en
on e
e
ee
e
en
-
en
o on e
e
o
ea e
o
our
o
a e
a
e
e
ar e
a
on e
a
o
on
e
e en
on
e
e
e
e
-
o
,
n
e
e
e
n
e
u
e
e
es
a
or
e e a
ae
ea
,
n
a
,
e
e
-
se e
ee
a
u
u
.
es
e
-
ee
en u n e
.
e
on
e
e e
a
a e
o un
.
e
,
en n a
o
.
n
.
.
o
e
e
o
e
e
n
.
e
e
o
an
o
an
a
o
o
e
e
a
n
a
a
o
o
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ee
-
a
a
u
e
o
e
.
an
o
o e
e
e e
,
e
ee
an
ee n
.
,
on
.
o
an
o on
,
.
ua
e
ee
-
en n a
n
e
a
e
u
e
ua
u
o
.
ea
e
e
a
a
an
o
e
e
n
e en
e
o
o
e
n um
na
o
,
e
.
ea
a
e
on
a
e c
ea e
e
an n u a
e
a
ar e n o
e
e
u s,
as o ur
on e
e
a
a
a r er
a n n ua
no
4 49 )
.
l rg
“
er n
’
’
er s
e
of
C h a p te r I V
1 52
.
mammy
that a young rooster becam e a rooster
and not a j ackdaw so no intelligence of t h e a n t i s
respon sible for th e fact t h at from the eg g and th e
l a rva which she nurses there emerges not a bee but an
ant A l l thi s i s sel f evi dent Yet th e p e culiar organic
law s o f dev e lopment not only form the ma teri al
o f the breeding instincts but al so th e i r d i re c ti n g
The breeding instincts of the di ff erent
pri n ci pl e
sp e cies are so well adapted to th e hidden laws o f
organic growth that no reflection or i nt e lligence o n
the p a rt o f the animal nay not even the ke e n e st hum an
reason coul d ever succeed in inventing them M ore
over they are exerci sed by the work e rs completely and
p e r fectly without previou s e xperi e nce or instruction ;
they are innate in the animal and grow with it
and w h e n the young ant h a s r e ached the p erfection o f
it s orga nic development they likewi se are j u st as
perfectly developed Hence they must spring from
the same source as th e organic growth that i s to say
th e y spring fro m the o rga ni co psy ch i c l aw s of d evel
and have nothing to do
o p m en t o f a gi ven species
with indivi dual reason and free dete rmination
As
it i s by organi c development that the male o f an
ant —species receives also the p sychic endowment o f a
male thus i t i s with the females and the workers T h e
di stribution o f psychi c endowments i n the di ffer e nt
caste s o f an ant —
state i s regulated by the same laws
a s thei r bodily polymorphi sm A n d thi s alone accounts
fo r the fact that with in one and the sa me species the
males are the most stupi d me mbers o f the whol e state
possessing th e smallest b rains whil st the workers a re
endowed with many marvelou s instinctive talents and
,
,
,
,
-
.
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
-
,
.
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
Care
o
Yo ung
f th e
i n th e A n i ma l
K i ng d o m
.
ven su rp a s s the female s proper i n per fect ion o f
1
instincts and b r ai n d eve l Op m e n t
Those females
which are destined for gen e ration are provided b v
their organic development with perfect ovaries whilst
thei r brain an d instincts are far les s perfect The
work e rs o n th e other hand which o n account o f their
small ovaries may b e called undevelop e d females are
compensated by a more p er fe ct devel opment o f the
brain and the instinctive endowments
H ence the
astonishing p ru dence displayed by the work e r ants
and thei r con sequent social leadership are merely a
f un cti o n o f th ei r org ani c d evel opmen t Thi s i s the
”
“
”
“
intelligence and intellectual li fe o f ants
so c al led
viewed in the light o f genuine scienc e !
We have thu s far b ee n considering the breeding
instinct s o f ants from th e i r o rg an i c si de ; let u s i n
t h e subsequent discus sion turn o ur attention to their
psych i c aspect
e
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
'
.
-
,
,
,
.
t h e Y o ung a m on g A nts
f
The h ereditary disposition o f the sensitive co gn i
tion and ap petite o f animals called i nsti n ct has in the
cas e o f ants a wi d e range an d gr e at variet y o f actions
an d especially so with regard to the breeding instincts
wherein ant s su rpass even the h ighest mammal s T h e
instinct ive di sposition i s no mechanical automati sm
2
Care
.
o
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
p d cl s f t h
si g ific c f wh ic h
t br i
th
wi th r g r d t psyc h ic li f w h v lr d y p i t d t i
f rm r
ss y F r l s ys L c rps p é d c l s s t r m s c h z l
vri er s
g r F r mi c q i r f r m l f r m is l pl s i t lli g t s ; t
d
c h s t é r em rq b l ils s t pl s p t i t s ch z l f m ll s t
b c p pl s p t i t s ch z l mél d m em g r ( F r mis d l
S iss p
M y w b s rv t i s c fi rm F r l s s t t m t s ;
I s t i c t d I t lli g c i t h A i m l K i g d m p 1 30 ff
1
e
a
e
u
a
o
,
en
o
t o th e
) As
r
“
n
e,
n
a
e
o
s
e au o u
u
un
e
o
e
e
e
:
a,
a
u
en
u
ua
e
n e
en e
es
n
n
o
a
ou
u
e
a
n
eno
on
on
a
e
es
e
u
es
e
ou
o n e
ea
an e
n
e
n
'
es
on
e,
o
.
e
e
e
u e
on
o
e
”
an
es
a
e
e
a n,
an
e
o
e
en
on
n
o
o
u
n e
e
es
e
e
’
.
o
e
e
en e
e
e
ou
a e
”
,
a
es ou
e
“
o
.
e
e
e
e
en
,
a
se e
Ch ap ter I V
1 54
.
but i s g u ided and influenced by variou s sensitive
a ff ections an d perceptions In bee hives the eggs are
simply deposit e d by the que e ns i n the cell s previou sly
pr epar e d b y th e worke rs and the young bee larva
goes through the successive stages o f developm ent i n
o n e and the same cell
With ants br e edi ng shows far
greater variety and i ndependence The eggs lai d by
the queen are received by the wo rkers and gathered in
clusters o f va riou s dimension s Then from all sides
they are l icked a gai n and again w ith the utmost care
and begin to incre a se by the endosmosis o f th e nour
1
i sh i n g j uice
Thi s i s th e first stage in the reari ng of
the young in ant communities A s soon a s the e gg
h a s d e veloped into a larva there follows the second
t h e fe e ding and nu rsing o f the larvae When the time
for e ntering t h e state o f a pupa has arrived the ant
larvae are carri e d by th e i r nu rs e s to a spot cov e red
with damp earth whereupon e ach larva i s surround e d
by a ca se o r little dome o f e arth within whi ch it spi ns
its cocoon enwrapping the whole body From ti m e to
time some worker comes to see wheth e r the cocoon i s
finished A s soon as i t i s i t i s care fully cleansed o f
adhering earth and i s then stored up i n a neat little
heap in company w ith oth ers that have reached th e
same maturity
With tho se ant species whose larvae
do n o t spi n cocoons the larvae are not encas e d i n earth
be fore thei r pupation
O n th at account the e x
t rem e l y tender ski n o f the pupa unprote cted by a
cocoon requi res all t h e mo re care and caution lest
grains o f sand or moul d shoul d enter between th e
-
.
-
,
.
.
.
,
.
-
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
-
.
,
,
.
'
,
1
p
o
.
f
g r w t h f t gg s
F r l F r m is d l S iss
r i m p r t c wh t h r
i cr s i v l m
i t is f m i
t th
gg s b c ll d g r w t h i t h pr p r s s f th t r m
) On
388 ;
an t e
-
th e
o
no
o
e
o
a
e
an
o
o
-
e
an
n
o
se e
e,
e
e
e
o
e
e
ou
,
or no
en
e
e
o
n
e
ea e
e
u
a
e
.
n
e,
o u
e
Ch ap te I V
156
r
.
cl ean the larvae entru sted to them Therefore we are
right i n exp e cting that the same perfection o f the
breeding instinct s of ant s will be mani fested al so in the
other branches which are not l ess im p ortant for the
preservation o f the speci es namel y in the su itabl e
re g ulation o f the temperature and in th e p roper nour
i sh m en t and de fense o f the brood
In the care o f the young it i s o f th e utmost impo rt
ance t o regulate the conditions of temperature in a
manner mo st advan tageou s t o this development In
bee h ives th e position o f the brood i s d e termin e d b y
the shape o f the comb Throughout its developm ent
th e young bee remai ns in the same cell in which it
wa s placed a s egg and i t i s therefore constantly sub
j e ct to the same conditions o f temperature It i s quite
diff e r e nt with ants H ere the temperature has to be
altered an d regu l ated by the workers according to
the di ff erent stages o f development The eggs an d
th e la rv a e in thei r earl iest stage are generally stored up
i n the lowest chambers o f the nest where the air i s
cool and damp Further above the hal f grown larv ae
are lodged whilst th e uppermost stories are occupi e d
by th e full grown larvae and the pupae ; for these
l atte r requi re f o r th eir development great e r heat which
i s foun d i mmediately beneath the su rface o f the nest
st ruck by th e rays o f the sun
I f o ut o f doors it
grows chilly and rainy th e pupae and el der larvae
are immediately carried into th e lower chambers where
they are b ett er protected from col d and moi sture Thi s
regulation o f the conditions o f temperature alone
according to the necessiti e s o f di ff e rent stages o f
dev e lopment implies astoni shing sa gacity such as even
.
,
,
,
.
.
-
.
,
,
.
.
.
,
-
.
,
-
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
Ca re
o
f th e
Y o un g
K i ng d o m
i n th e A n i m a l
1 57
.
men woul d be abl e to acqui re only after year s o f
ob servation an d study Yet i n ants every single wo rker
i s endowed with it as soon as she i s drawn from her
coc oo n and has become d rv Th i s i s because thei r
s a gacity i s i nsti n cti ve essentially di ff erent from int e l
A nts are i n thei r every action
l i g e n ce an d reflection
guided directly by sensitive perceptions n o t by int e l
lectual ideas The e ni gma there fore i s satis fact o rily
e xplained by the innate adaptation o f thei r sensitive
cognition an d appetite whereas the hypoth e sis o f ani
mal intelligence i s unable to o ff er any solution
But n o w we com e to the most pu zzling an d mys
t e ri o us qu estion i n the nursing o f ants namely the
,
.
.
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
i n fl u e n ce
o
f
d evel o p me n t
th e
e d uca ti o n
o
f
,
th e yo u ng l arva e
on
th e
S cienc e
f
has but j ust now begun to divine the mysteri es hi dd e n
h e re ; bu t it i s still far fro m having fatho m ed th e ir
d epths We shall very briefly place be fore ou r readers
what i s certain o r at l east probable concerning thi s
matt e r It will ful ly su ffice to prove that the nu rsing
instincts o f ants bees an d t e rmites are fa r superior
to th ose o f birds and mamm al s
A ccording t o the ol der Opinion thu s far commonl y
hel d an d based chi e fly o n D z i e rz o n s classical ob se r
va t i o n s o n be es the sex o f their posterity i s determined
by the i nstinctive choice o f the oviparou s que e n and
not by the workers that rear the b rood Be cause it
h as be e n observed that w ith ant s bees and w asps
un fe rtilized eggs produce males only it i s assumed
th at al so th e normal males o f these social insects are
al ways h atched from un fertili zed eggs
The qu ee n
when depositing h er eggs i s suppo sed by either open
d i ff er en t
o
in
c as tes
a n t sta tes
-
.
.
.
,
,
.
,
’
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
C h ap te r I V
1 58
ing or closing the connecti o n between the ovi duct and
the semi nal vessel to control under the influ ence of
h e r oviparous insti nct the f e rtilization o f the egg and
there fore to deci de whether it woul d develop into a
m a le o r a female Th i s instinct o f the queen i s arou sed
to suitabl e activity by the peculiar nature o f the cel l
i nto w hich she puts h e r head be fore ovipositi on ; i n
d ron e —cel ls sh e put s an un fe rt ilized e g g i n those o f
a future queen o r worker a fertiliz ed o n e P robabl y
she i s l e d to m ak e thi s diffe r e nce not so much by the
touch perception o f the di ff erent shapes o f the cell s
but ra ther by the smell o f th e s alivary gl a nd secretions
1
e mployed by the workers i n th e i r constru ction
Th e
peculiar odor o f th e cell s however as wel l as th e i r
si ze an d form i s due to the architecture o f the workers ;
thu s i n b ees the sex o f th e o ff spring i s i n d i r e ctly
at least controlled by the instincts o f the workers
With ants i t i s different becau se thei r queens do not
d e posit the eggs i n cell s but simply su ff e r th em to
be received and carri ed away by the workers The
instinctive sel f determination o f th e oviparou s femal e
seem s therefore to be greate r w ith ants O f cou rse
it i s very probable that the nouri shment an d treat
ment o f th e qu een o n t h e part o f the workers indi rectly
al so influences the oviposition ; but in what manner
i s a s yet entirely unknown
To pass from the queen to the workers i t was asce r
f ain e d long ago that with social wasp s bees and ants
al so workers which have small ovaries with a reduced
numb e r o f ovarial tubes and are besi des unabl e t o
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
-
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
-
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
1
) Cf
l g g p
bl w
a
un
e o
,
.
on
.
.
th
32 ;
is p i
d p
an
o nt
.
N
57
.
of
L
i F tt rs f t d r t h i i
p b lic t i
f F rd D i c k l
ud w g ,
the
,
,
,
u
u
a
e
on
a
o
o
e
e r sch e
e
.
e
V r
ment
e an
i
on e d
Ch ap te r I V
1 60
.
males
Th i s phenomenon mani fests the marvelous
sagacity and quasi intell igent plasticity of animal
“
”
instinct which can h ardly be styled automati sm
N either ca n i t b e id e ntified w ith i ntelligence properly
so cal led
for this woul d suppose rational knowledg e
o f the inte rnal l a ws governing the growth of the ant
o rgani sm a knowl e dge f ar surpassing even the i n tell i
gence o f man an d entirely beyond the reflections and
experi e nce o f ants Only the ap propriate dispo sition
o f thei r sensitive cognition and ap p e tite can account
for the fact that the perception o f a given want is
followe d by a co rresponding modification in thei r
nursing instinct by which the defect i n q uestion i s
remedied
A ccording to D z i e rz o n s vi ews wh ich we men
t i o n ed above it i s th e oviparous instinct of the qu e ens
that control s the sex o f the be e developed from a
given egg ; in thi s suppo sition the worker be e s a re
assigned a mer e l y indirect influence O f late how
ev e r an o th er theory o n the di ff erentia tion o f caste s
i n bees has been advanc e d which assign s to the nurs
ing instinct s o f th e wo rkers a far more extensive
sphere o f action The ori gi nator was an Italian p riest
Lan franch i by name who publi sh e d it in 1 894 in the
“
I n G e rm any i t was develop e d an d
A picoltore
confirmed by ne w experiments princi pa lly by Ferd
“
2
D ickel the editor o f the N o e rd l i n ge r Bi enenzeitung
pub l i s h d s m b s rv ti s
) M r r c t ly H R i c h b c h h
l
.
-
,
.
-
,
,
‘
.
,
,
.
’
,
,
,
-
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
‘
.
.
,
.
,
1
o
en
e
e
en
e
.
a
e
as
Bi l C t l b l 1 892 p 46 1 if ) wh ic h s m t
L i
p rt h g t ic gg s l i d b y w rk rs
i g r th
l t w r k rs B t f rt h r c fi rm t i will b
cc p t i g th is s t t m t I N r th A m ric P r f W
l t ly p b lish d s m i t r st i g r p r t s p r t h g
D
P ri cip d G h l h t b i l d g b i T h i
)
f Gr
dl g
m i
r Bi
F tpfl
t wic k l t
g
N
1 898 ; f
sp ci lly p 20
dl i g
“
( in
o
as us
a so
a
n
en ra
.
e
o
o
u
a e
2
or
oer
“
e
as
a n z un
n
u
.
en ,
o
n
,
er
en
n
e sc
au
e
c
.
e
e
a
o
a
e
on
o
un
s
ec
un
.
a
.
e
e
e
on
e
o
n
e
a
on
e
.
n e
e
e
en e
u
en
a e
n
e
en o
o
ee
.
.
,
,
a
e
e
.
o
a
o
a
e
e ne
.
.
eno
e
o
o
e,
pr v t h t wi t h
m y gi v
ri g i
r q ir d b f r
M Wh l r h
ts
si s i
g sc h l ch t lich r
f rsc h
g
a
a
e
u
e
n
e
e
an
as
.
e
e
o
e
o
ee e
n
en e n
o
e
.
ene
e re n
on
a
e
un
en
”
.
Care
o
Y o ung
f th e
K i ngdo m
i n t h e A n i ma l
161
.
D ic k el
says : Under no rmal circumstances the fer
t i l i z e d mother b ee lays only fert ilized eggs ; it is the
workers that influence and control the f a te o f th e se
”
homogeneou s eggs
A ccording to thi s new opinion
also those eggs which i n normal bee hives produce
d ro nes are f e rt il ized ; and not only the di ff e rentiati o n
between queen and worker b u t between queen and
d rone and between w orker and drone i s due to
the influence o f the sal ivary gland secretions o f the
workers on the eggs previously deposited in the cell s
H ence D ickel regard s both qu eens an d drones only
as the f o u n da ti o n for the development o f th e sexes the
workers however as the really d etermi ni ng factors
A ccording to D ickel certain salivary glands o f the
workers contain the secretion s determining the sex
a n d th e di ff erentiation o f all the castes i n bee hives
d e pends on the instinctive appl i c ation o f these secre
tions when the wor kers are l icking the eggs
A lth o ugh several biol o gi cal ex p eriments o f other
authors seeme d to co nfirm the theory that under nor
1
mal conditions all the eggs in a bee hive are fertiliz e d
we must add nevertheless that the very exact micro
sc0 p i cal stu dies o f P a ulk e and P e t run k e w i t sc h on the
existence o r non existence o f spermatozoids in th e
eggs o f bees rath e r corroborat e the o l d theory o f
D z i erzo n according to which the eggs giving origi n
to drones develop w ithout containing any spermato
-
,
.
,
-
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
-
.
,
-
,
,
,
’
-
’
,
1
Cf N
)
.
.
L
u d wi
g N
,
s b rE h
H i gb i
d
e ue
Fo rt p fl an z u n g sve rh a e l t n i sse
X LI V
ue e
on
er
e
e
1 898 , 1 2 th
“
-
en e
”
e
a u
11
e
.
un
e
e
“
ue ,
e
un
e
n
en
e n en
er
e
ue
a un
e
“
”
e
e e
n
a u
,
br
er e ue e
e on
un
z u r n e ue n
.
,
e
e ue
ue ,
br
pp
e
.
Fo r t p fl an z u n g sv e r h a e l t n i sse d e r
e
”
,
r un g s u n d
e ne
iss pp 7 05
g d Bi
d i G sc h l c h t s b s t i mm
b r di
W i t r Er g b iss
1 40 1 48 ;
Bi
N t r d O ff b r g 1 90 1
,
i sb s d
d
( N t r
W it r s
L hr
( i b i d X L V 1 89 9 3d iss
r n ae
,
7 th
iss
u e,
pp
.
42 6
Ch ap te r I V
162
.
It i s best there fore t o su spend o ur j ud gment
on thi s p roblem until it i s definitely solved
I f the new theory o f the fe rtil ization o f al l the eggs
i n a bee hive under normal conditions should prove
true i t ought to be extended al so to the ants H e nce
i n ant colonies t oo it would be the workers who by
thei r nursing i nstincts determ ine whether a given ant
egg i s to p roduce a worker a winged female a soldier
o r a male
We int end here however to consider only th e
wonderful i nfluence exerci sed by nursing on the di f
f e re n t i ati o n between females an d workers Thi s i s an
e stabl ish e d fact quite independent o f the new theory
Why i s i t that o n e and th e same kin d o f egg now
produces a queen w ith complete power o f generation
no w a worker devoi d of generating powers but co m
p en sate d as it were for thi s loss by psychi c endow
ments all the more per fect ? H ere w e ente r a mys
t e ri o us re g ion where the breeding instincts o f social
in sect s rei gn suprem e an i nstinct which for its creativ e
pow er i s unparalleled in the entire animal kingdom
It i s a well known fact tha t with hone y bees a
worker larva can be devel oped into a queen by i n creas
zo
i ds
1
.
,
,
.
,
-
,
,
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,
,
-
,
,
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,
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,
,
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,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
-
-
,
1
P
) W
.
isc h r
An
D i e Ri ch t un gsk ii rp e r
un d
P a ul k e
e t r u n ke wi tsc h ,
“
in
A n at o m
e
z ig r
e
e
V ol
,
.
S ch ic k s l
i hr
XV I
,
im
e
a
1 899 ;
A
.
b f r cht t
r
A h ti
f
u
e en
Z l Jhb h
A g
A
t mi
V l
XIV
W i m
U b r d i P th
g s d Bi
( A t m A z i g r V l XV II I 1 90 1 N
H
B tt l R p
U b r di D i
h
T h ri ( Bi
wi t h f tl
1 90 1 N
Fr i b r g r
C t l bl
D
A b sc h l ss d
Ei
t
u h
1 90 1
Di
P rt h g sis b i
N
( Ib i d
g
d
H i gb i
N t r d S ch ul V LI 1 902 4th i ssu ) ; P
B h m ti w
Ei
V rs c h di Fr g
b r d i P rt h g s d
l
Dr h
f
1 903 N
2
( A l l g m Z it h
un d
un
na o
.
.
o
e
.
-
un
en e
on
e
n en zu
“
,
”
”
ee
“
na o
“
en
en
.
e
o
,
a u
n
”
e
“
e
e
.
z e rz o n sc
“
e
o
a
sc
r.
ue e
e
.
,
e
.
“
”
u
en e
en o
en o
a
,
en e
os
.
e
e
e
,
e
en en
e
er
a
en o
ar
os
,
eo
ue
.
e
u
.
”
e
e
e
“
o
er,
,
’
e,
e
“
a n n,
o
ue c
r
er
e
.
,
.
,
,
”
a
.
e s
un
u
oo
e
”
.
“
.
n e
e
,
”
ce sen
(
u
,
e n ra
.
e
B i e n en e i ,
et e n
e n en
u
un e rs c
ac
o
er
r sc
er
u
e
c,
en e e
v
b f r cht
,
.
e
er
Ch ap te r I V
1 64
.
i s no possibility of developing into certain fo rm s there
i s o f course no basis no material for the exercis e o f
the nursin g instincts o f th e workers From thi s it
becom e s clear why fix ed intermediate form s betwe e n
fe mal es and workers occur with certain sp ecies di f
f e re n t fo rm s with oth e r species whilst with others
a g a in there are non e at all
But within the l imits o f
thi s natural disposition f o r further devel o pment there
r e mains t o the ant s a w ide range f o r exercisin g their
nursing i nstincts
These int ermediate form s between females and
w ork e r ant s I h ave grouped into six clas ses but h e r e
we are concern e d with but o n e or two o f them In
“
”
som e o f these eirg a togyn e f o rms it appears almost
a t a glance
how they came into exist e nce namely
whether the larva rear e d up to a certa in stage to be
a worker was later on cared f o r so as to become a
female o r whether th e Opposite took place
In th e
first case th e intermediate form m akes the impression
that the worker charact e r ha d been developed to
excess ; i n the second ca se th at the female character
had be en stunted ; in the forme r th e so called worker
like ( e rgatoi d ) queen s are th e result i n the latter a
kind o f female —like workers which I have named
pseu do females ( p seudo gyn es) Th e former combin e
the vaulted thorax o f females with the small and
abdominal development o f queens ; the latt er unite
the vaulted thorax o f females with the smal l and
stunted abdomens o f workers Especially the latter
form the pseud ogyn es are apparently best account e d
for on the score o f education rathe r than by a peculiar
disposition inherent in the egg from wh ich they are
,
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,
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-
,
-
,
,
-
.
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,
,
,
Ca re
o
Y o u ng
f th e
i n t h e A ni ma l K i ng d o m
.
I know some colonies o f F ormi ca san
g ui n ea near E x at e n in which these p se u do gyn e s su d
d en l y made thei r appearance bec ame more numerou s
in the course o f the next few years and gradually
decr eased later o n or di sapp e are d enti rel y O ne
co lo ny ( No 2 1 ) i n 1 895 reared eve ry po ssible p seu
d o gyn e intermediate form between normal workers
and normal qu e ens ! S ince the queens which lay the
eggs in these nests are unable to change at will the
n atu re of th eir ovaries fro m year to yea r but are
always compelled to lay fertilized eggs capab l e of
e q u al d eve l o p me nt
the origi n o f those i nterm e diate
forms i s probably due to changes in the m an n er of
and to modifications in the very nu rsing
n ursi ng
i n sti n cts o f th e workers
Thi s supposition is con
fi rm e d by the fact th at i n F san g ui n ea th er e i s a
hatched
1
.
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
ce rtai n
re l a ti o n
ca usal
e d u ca ti o n o
th e
an d
d og yn es
o ri g i n
b e tw e en th e
f
l arvae
th e
g u est, t h e b ee tl e L o m ech usa
o
f pseu
o
f
a
i
e
n
u
ne
g
m osa
I have
ascertained thi s mysteriou s conn e ction by means o f
my stat isti cs embr a cing 4 1 0 san g u i n ea col onie s w ithin
a radiu s o f several kilometers aro und E xate n ; these
stati stics will be publi shed later o n i n some scientific
2
p e riodi cal
Here it may su f fice to mention that the
centres o f propagation o f the pseu dogyne forms and
o f the L o m ec h usas are al ways together i n the same
an t
-
str u
.
.
,
r c t p b lic t i
N B t ti gu g d L m h
T h ri ( V h dl d D t sc h 2 1
P
d gy
1 90
pp 98 1 0 8 d P 1 I I ) w h r t h is th ry is x t d d ls t N r t h
A m ric
ts
b l w ( th f ll wi g s c t i p 1 79 f ll d th
S
pl t pp si t p
b gi i g f th s st t ist ics d t s b c k t 1 89 5 D i
) Th
d ih r
F r m b i d A m is
E kl
Bi l
g t gy
g
1
) S e e my
se u
n en
o
a e
o
2
er
an
an
a o
o
e
n en
u
en
eo
an
-
.
e
e
“
e
.
on ,
er
an
e
e ue
e s ae
eu
er
.
e
eo
e
e o
ee
.
e
,
a
o
o
n
n
.
00
e
en
e
on,
en
er
ec
o
usa
"
.
e
a
o
o
.
o
o
an
.
e
.
nn n
e
o
o
en
e
1 895 , N os
.
16
a
o e
en
an d
e
a e
en
un
a
e
o
r
ae r u n
e
”
,
“
o
.
Ch ap ter IV
166
.
or at least in neighbo ring nests
The number o f
colonies i n whi ch I found L o m ech usas
i s mor e
than three times as great as th at o f nests containing
th
se
are
the
centers
from
which
s
e
e
u
d
o
n
es
p
gy
( 33)
the L o mech usas gra dually spread to the nei ghboring
nests where by and by they cau se the bi rth o f p seu
d o gyn e s
It i s scarc e ly possible that the presence o f
thes e beetles an d o f th ei r larvae which are fed by the
workers shoul d have a modi fying influence on the
ovaries o f the q u eens but probably they do so o n
the nu rsin g instincts o f the w orkers My re cent
observations and experiments until 1 90 4 have con
firmed thi s solution o f the interesting p roblem
S ome o f the above m e ntioned intermediate ant
form s are u se ful for the pr e servation o f the colony
an d th e species whil st others are mor e or less i n d i f
f eren t and still others positively h urt ful being p rob
ably pathologi cal deform iti e s The r e a ring o f worker
l ike W ingless queens among the A mazon ant s ( P o l yer
u
e
n
s
for
instance
i
s
very
approp
ri
ate
s
r
u
e
s
c
f
)
g
b e cau se thei r colonies are rathe r ra re and far di stant
from o n e another T here fore the probab il ity i s very
slight that o n thei r nupt ial fl ight the winged sexes
w ill m eet w ith those o f other col oni es ; an d besides
thi s specie s h as t o encount er exceptional diff i culties in
founding new settlements by means o f singl e fertili zed
fe mal es since the A mazons are enti rely depen dent o n
the help o f their slaves T h e wingles s queens o n the
other hand cannot go far from thei r nests ; and a fter
th e y have been impr e gnated by the w inged mal es
some strolling slaves can easi ly find them in the
neighborhood and brin g them home a g a in ; hence it
.
,
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,
,
Ch ap ter I V
1 68
i f they had but a Spark o f intel ligence sa d experi ence s
woul d have enlightened them long ago on the fol ly
of this mistake Nay more i f the p seudo g yn e s ow e d
th e ir origin to the n o rmal nursing instincts o f ants
w e shoul d have to d esp a i r o f the fitnes s o f anim a l
i nstinct and even o f the wi sd o m o f the Creator What
i s the key to thi s myst e ry ? It i s the b e etle L om ech usa
str u m o sa
A ccording to ou r h ypothesi s the rearing
o f the p seud o gyn e s i s an ab errati o n o f the breeding
instinct o f ants cau sed by the continuou s educati o n
of L o m ec h usa larvae I n th e econo m y o f nature it
i s the duty o f thi s beetle to check the excessiv e
increase o f the ant —sp e ci es whose hospi tal ity i t enj oys
Fo r thi s reason its larvae not onl y consume co untles s
ant eggs and ant larvae — the ants cal ml y looking o n
th e whil e — bu t by destroying the o ff spri n g o f th e
ants and by th e care which the ants bestow o n th e m
they ca u se th e d eg en er ati o n of th e n o rmal n ursi ng
i n sti n c ts of th e w orkers resultin g in the education o f
1
crippled p seu do gyn e s
To account for these facts on
“
the score o f indivi dual animal intell igence woul d
,
.
,
,
.
.
,
"
-
.
,
.
,
‘
-
-
,
,
,
,
,
.
Th s xp si t i s will pr b b ly s ff ic ls t r f t
bj c t i
m is
r is d b y D G A dl
wh
d rs t
d i g m y psyc h l g ic l
pl t i
r ri g f p d gy
s ys i t h th ir d p r t f h i
f th
v l b l M y m l g i k t di r ( S t c kh l m
p 5 1 W i th
r g r d t t h is W sm
s ms i cli d t cr d i t t s wi th
g
g r t d p w r f r fl c t i w h ic h h t h rwis is willi g t d
f th
B si d s t h p th l gic l d g r t i
b r di g i s t i c t xpl i s
r ri g f p d gy is s till c t i d v wh c l i s
wh y t h
h v
b
f th ir L m h
By th w y l t m r p t
d priv d
r m rk f rm rly m d t h t th c l c
c ti f p d g y wi th
ti
f t h is
is t t b c f d d wi t h t h
L m h
th
pl
c
cti
fi rmly s t b lis h d b y d ir c t b s rv
T h f rm r s m s t b
h yp t h sis b t
h yp t h sis s t r
l t t r is s t ill
gly
ti
th
fi rm d b y r c t xp ri m t s f m ys l f d f V i h m y
N
S
L m h
d gy
th
i
g
d
B t tig
P
( V rh d l
g
L)
D t ch 2 1
1 90 2 p 9 8 F
d
1
a
)
on
a ua
e
a
e
a e
a
e
e
a
o o
e
ea
n
o
on
a
e
on ,
e s ae
un
eu s
o
en
.
o
e
o
er
00
.
o
o
o
ec
ec
e
oun
o
e
u sa
n ue
an
e
se u
,
o
.
ex
e
e
c
o
n en
eor e
.
”
er
“
.
e
,
ea
e
nes
o
on
o
e
o
ee
an
a
c on
on
,
.
o on e
e
e
o
a n
e
a na
s
e xa
e
e
se u
o
ex
“
en
,
on
o
n
en
a
o
an
o
n
n
e
,
e
u
a
an
n
on
a
a
:
un
e
e
,
o
-
ee
e
e
o
e
e
o o
an
e
on n e
o
.
e
.
on
u e an
e
e
u sa s
a usa
e
,
o
on
e
ee
en
e
on
a
o
a
e,
e
ne
o
n
o
n es
an
en
en e
e
e
e
e
e
a
o
e
o
n
an
e
”
n
ee
a
no
e
.
e
e a
n e s,
o
on ,
e
a
u sa s
ec
s u
an n
o
e
se u
a
se u
e
o
o
onn e
e
un
o,
o
s
e
o
,
a
e
e
ee n
e
er
eco o
r
o
e
e
n
ea
o
e
a
e
u
a
o
e rz,
.
o
“
on
o
r.
e
an a
a
e e
e
“
un
e ue
en
Ca re
Y o u ng
th e
of
Ki ngd o m
i n th e A ni mal
.
involve u s in endless and hopeless contradictions
They are explainable only from the standpoint o f a
higher teleological consideration o f nature whic h
does not p resum e to replace the wisdom o f the Cre ator
”
by the intellige nce o f animal s
The ph enomena i n the nursi ng o f ants m e ntioned
above can be ascertained o nly by close sci e ntific
observation But some oth e r features are known to
every amateur in the study o f ants and do not escap e
even the most casual observer Th e first thing that
strik e s o ur attention i s the great attachm e nt di splayed
by the workers for thei r charges
They carefully
gu a rd them against eve ry disturbance and at the ri sk
o f th e ir o w n lives th e y exert all thei r stren gt h in ward
ing o ff hostile invaders The whol e colony i s seiz e d
with frenzy i f an attempt i s ma de to ro b the m o f
1
thei r larvae an d pupae
M erely thru st your stick
into a hilloc k o f w ood ants ! A t once there ensues a
tumultuou s uproa r and masses of workers ru sh forth
to rout the enemy But i f you happen upon a chamb e r
filled with pupae an d attempt to take awa y th e coc o ons
th e fury o f the ants reaches its cl imax Like an army
o f raging furies they fall upon the assailant viciously
biting and ej ecting thei r poison Hundreds and thou
sands are crushed by the enemy but other hundreds
and thou sands are eager t o face the carnage No
lioness no sh e monkey ever de fends her young w ith
the heroi s m displayed by ant s
Workers will rath e r
.
,
,
.
,
.
,
.
.
.
,
.
,
.
-
.
,
.
,
.
,
.
-
,
.
T h is is th c s wi th sp ci s th rwis v ry p c l vi g
g
wi th th l r g A m ric l f c t t i g t s f t h g s A tt O p
i g
s t f A tt
F rl v h d
r t ry f h i
d
i
Ri Fri
li tt l fi g r pi rc d b y l r g h d d w rk r S F r l Z F
d L b
sw is d A m is i m C l mb i h Urw l d ( M i tt h i l d
S c h w iz E t m
p
V l I X 9th iss
1
)
e
e
n
a ne
e
e
e
en
.
e
o
a
e
n
e
un
a
e
e
n o
.
an
se x
e
e
e
a e
ea
ens
a
er
e
-
u
n
a
o
e
n
o
e
ea
-
an
o
o,
o
e
o
o u
en
o
.
e
e
,
e
sc
e
en
.
en
ue ,
a
o
a
.
”
e
“
,
“
n
,
n
.
a
an
a
ee
o
-
en u
e
e
ea e
e
e
o
o
e
.
.
,
en
s
a un a
ur
e
.
er
C h a p te r I V
1 70
.
su ff er thei r heads to be torn o ff than yiel d to the
A nd yet
e nemy th e pupae they carry i n their j aws
“
it i s n o t even for thei r o w n children that they sacri
”
fi ce themselves so un se lfi sh l y ;
their cha rges are but
th e i r foster chil dren
But th at higher natural law
which has made preservation o f the species th e fore
most instinctive commandm e nt implant e d i n the ani
mal soul thi s natural law I say al so constrain s the
worker ants to risk l i fe and limb i n behal f o f beings
begotten by others Thi s commandment they observe
faith fully not led by any sense o f duty o r by noble
forge t fulness o f sel f but by an i rresistible instinct iv e
impulse impl anted i n them by A nother and t o whi ch
they yi el d o b edience not intelligently or voluntarily
bu t u rged o n by a blin d necessity o f natu re !
To cr e dit animal s with intelligence to ascribe to
the m ever so faint a trace o f intellectual knowledge o f
the pu rpose o f thei r actions will nece ssarily l ead to
extolling the sel f sac ri fi ce o f the single wor k ers for
the wel fare o f the colon y and especi ally f o r the young
a s a high degree o f quasi human nay o f superhuman
vi rtu e A n d i n fact L B uechner E Haeckel Th
Eimer O Z acharias an d other modern animal psychol
1
o g i st s have actually ventured
such assertions
Of
course thei r only commen dation i s thei r bol dness but
it i s a boldnes s leading to the greatest absu rdities
What i s it then that impels th e ants to such heroic
devotedness and sel f sacri fi ce for th e offspring o f
”
?
thei r colony
I s it perhap s motherly l ove ? No ;
for the workers are but the si sters o r aunts o f thei r
,
.
,
,
-
,
.
,
,
,
-
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
-
,
-
,
.
,
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,
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,
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,
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.
,
,
.
,
-
1
) Wa sma n n
K l i
o o n en
“
,
de r A m e
is
Die
en ,
”
z s mm g s t z t
pp 1 90 d 1 91
u a
.
en
an
e e
.
en
N st r
e
e
un d
g misch t
e
en
1 72
Ch ap ter I V
‘
inte lligence
and
animal ethics
is hopelessly
i nvolv e d
The nu rsing instinct o f ants with all its devoted
”
ness an d un sel fi sh n ess i s therefo re nothing el se than
a p ur e ly insti nctive impuls e guided and determined
in its operations only by sensitive impressions and not
by i ntellectual concepts Under normal ci rcumstances
this instinctive impulse i s appropriat e ly r e gul ated and
mani fests it sel f a s th e product o f sel f sacrifi ci n g
”
sisterly love
But i f the abnormal i rritation o f the
nervou s system o f the ants cau sed by parthenogenesi s
has di sturbed the normal sphere o f sensitive impres
sions then si ste rly love i s not changed into moth e rly
”
“
l ove but into barbarou s unfeelin g cannibali sm !
M odern anim al psychology evidently toys in a
“
rather frivolou s manner with the term moth e rly
”
love b y applying it to th e nursing i n stincts fo und
among ani mal s N o r can the pl e a be advanc e d that
with higher animals matters are quite di ff erent than
with ants ; f o r w e have prove d abov e that the nurs
ing instincts o f ants far surpass in perfection those o f
birds and mammal s no t only by thei r quasi intelligent
sel f determination in the method o f educati o n but
al so by the great un sel fi sh n ess mani fested in nouri sh
ing an d de fendin g the ir young
I f th e re shoul d be
any di ff erence at all it i s in thi s that in the ca re o f
th ei r o ff spring the higher animal s betray f or l ess
“
”
“
”
intelligence and f o r l ess individu al l iberty than
i s found in ants M oreover it is a well known fact
that domesti c pigs not sel dom devou r some o f their
“
”
litter ; yet pigs are high e r a ni m
al s
In such cases
however the sow sins as little a gainst goo d moral s
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Ca re
o
f
th e
Yo ung
K i ng d o m
i n th e A n i ma l
.
as worker ants do by devou ring thei r o wn eggs ; for
morality presuppo ses reason and free will ; reflection
and consciousne s s o f duty all o f which are wanting
t h r o ug h o u t th e a ni mal ki ng d om b eing the e xclusive
privil e ge of man
That animals in caring for thei r youn g are no t led
by r e ason but only by sensitiv e emotions and rep re
se n t a t i o n s be comes evi d e nt especially from the ph e
Th er e
n a m en a of a d o pti o n in the animal kingdom
fore these shall fo rm the subj ect of the following
section
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3 A d opti on I nsti n cts i n th e A ni mal K i ng d om
.
.
Th e
tendency to adopt the o ff spring o f strangers
i s shown by al l those animal s which to preserve thei r
species are forced to b e stow great care on their o w n
progeny Thi s tendency i s foun d among ants n o t
only with regard to th e eggs larva e and pupae o f
other colonies o f thei r o wn species o r o f all ied species
but also with regar d to members o f altogether di f
f e ren t orders o f insects living in thei r com munities
These ado p tion instincts are responsibl e for the mixed
colonies o f slave making ant s the robbe d pupae o f the
slave species being nursed a s care fully a s others either
b y the m asters o r by the sl aves al ready present in the
nest To the sa me instinct o f adoption mu st be
re ferred the care bestowed by th e ants o n thei r gen
nine g uests o r other n est m ates belongin g t o di ff erent
orders o f insects but above all th e sol icitu de
with which they rear the larvae o f ce rtain b eetles
( L o mech usa A tem el es X en o d usa ) and th e eggs o f
several kinds o f p l an tl i ce Th e adj oining il lustration
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Ch ap ter I V
1 74
.
shows th e beetle L o m ech usa st rum osa so often re ferred
to and o n e o f its l arvae magnified to four times their
natural siz e
,
,
.
Fi g
L o m e c h u sa
(
.
4
a
n
5
.
st r u
M g ifi
Fi g
l rv
.
F
m o sa
ed
F ll g r
u
.
)
o
wn
a
.
st r u
mo sa
a
(
.
.
of
L o mec h usa
M g ifi
n
a
ed
)
Th e same adoption instinct occurs also with bi rds
although n o t so s eemingly intelligent a s w ith ants
The best k nown example i s the hen that rea dily
hatches eggs o f oth e r hens ducks geese turkeys
etc and extends to all her a dopted children the sam e
“
”
motherly care she woul d show to h er o w n chicks
1
G Romanes succeeded e ven in making a hen the
foster m other o f some young ferrets which he had
substituted f o r the artificial eggs o n which she was
hatching The numerou s speci es o f birds wh i ch
tend the youn g cuck o o s follow the same l ine o f con
duct the onl y di ff erence being that they lavi sh still
gr eater care o n these changelings b ecau se they Open
thei r mouths w ider in cryi ng f o r fo o d than thei r o w n
nestlings The adoption instinct finally i s m et with
among mammal s the most bloo d —
thi rsty carnivores not
excepted Though i t i s a fable that ancient Rome
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1
)
“
M
enta
,
l D v l pm
e
e o
en t
i l
i n t h e An ma
K
i gd
n
om
.
Ch apte r I V
1 76
animals i s a sensual impul s e not g ui ded by rea son
and reflection
Thi s organico sensitive nature o f the nursing
i nstinct also expl ains why it o ft e n extends to th e
helpless o ff spring o f other speci e s whose instinctive
b e havior i s somewhat simil ar t o that o f the animal s
Th e sen s e perception o f these helpless
o w n progeny
beings stimul ates th e nursing instinct o f the o l d ones
”
“
and there fore th e y
adopt
the young ones o f
strangers
The sm e ll o f th e l arvae o f L o mech usa
strum o sa i s especially attractive to the sanguine slave
1
makers ; besi des these l a rvae in stinctively mimic the
attitu des and behavior o f the ant l arvae and although
they pos ses s six fe e t th e y do not mak e u se o f them
but conduct them selves l ik e h e lples s a n t la rvae Fo r
these rea s on s they enj oy th e most care ful attention on
A n d as these be e tl e larvae
th e part o f th ei r hosts
wh en f ed by the ants grow much faster than th e ant
l a rva e they impress the instinctive nursing impul se o f
the ants far more favorably than the l atter an d h e nce
“
”
are the obj ects o f gr e ater tenderness
A t any di s
t u rb an ce o f the nest the workers first care fo r th e i r
“
”
adopted ch il dren and b ring th em to a place o f sa fety
b e fore they attend to th e i r o w n o ff spring ; yea they
even neglect the rearing o f the l atter thei r only care
,
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,
,
,
s c l p t r s l rv wi th
w
d c l r I
cc t f t h ir s h p
sc rt i d i M y
th ir
xp ri m t s wi th l rv f A th m p m m m w h ic h
1 89 7 b y
t l rv
f
m r
si m il r t
th
th s
f L m h
Th
A th
m
l rv w r i st t ly s iz d
pr y d t r t pi c s b y t h
b s rv t i
s t O t h wh l i t m s t t b
f my
g i
i m g i d t h t t h L m h l rv m k t h m i mp r i
t h ir
w
s si t iv p rc p t i
f th
t s ; th
i m pr ssi is t m st
th
si m il r b t m r gr b l w h ic h pr b b ly xpl i s w h y th t s pr f r
t h ir
w
th
d p t d l rv
t
1
Th
)
e
n
o
ar
o
sa n
u n e as
a
ne
n
on
a
,
o
a
ae
e
e
an
e
n
e
e
o e
a
ae
-
a
o
a
ae
ec
e
e
on
usa
-
e
ne
a
on
e
e,
as
a
o
n
.
e
e
a
ec
o
sa
a n
ae
n
,
e
o
e
u
e ss o n
e
n
e
o
.
a re
u sa.
e
a
,
o e,
e
e
o
a
a ne
e
o n
e
an
e
o
an
n
ae
us
o
e
.
a
,
on o
o e
e ou
o eo
e
o o
n
o
o
an
an
e
a
e
o
ae
an
eea
a
f o un d t h o
on
e
e
o
en
c
n ot
o
o
a
u
do
a
o
o
e
s
en
e
a
us
-
an t
o un
a
e
na
e a
on
e
,
o
th e
at
on
e an
e
no
as
a
e
e
o
e e
Care
b ein g thei r
o
f th e
Y oung
i n th e A n i ma l K i ng do m
1 77
.
L omech usa
la rvae so dear to them o n
account o f their quicker growth and thei r better
appetite It does not a ff ect the ants i n the least that
the L o m ec h usa la rv ae a g ain and aga in devour the
e ggs and young larv ae o f the ant colony by the whole
sale ; o n th e contrary they even carry these change
l ings t o th e clumps o f eggs and la rvae t o facilitate
thei r wor k o f dest ruction Unl ess a superior Wi sdom
had provi ded that th e ants themselves by thei r stupi d
a ff ection p revent the excessive increase o f th e L o me
the numb e r o f these gu ests woul d
ch usa population
become so large a s to destroy all the sang ui n ea
colonies But there i s no danger o f any such calamity ;
for the ants deal with the L o mech usa larvae during
th e i r pupation j u st as they do with thei r o w n imbed
ding them ca re fully i n a vault o f earth
A fter a
sho rt time the ant l arvae having meanwh il e spun
th e i r cocoons are agai n remov e d from the earth
Thi s latter measure applied to the L om ech usa larvae
proves fatal to them The larva e o f these beetles do
n o t Spi n a soli d cocoon but only an extremely flimsy
silken w eb whi ch tears as soon a s they are unea rthed ;
soon a fter th e L o m ech usa l arvae are again care fully
im b edde d at som e other pl ace then they a re taken
o ut
a gain carried about aga i n im b edded until at
l ength they become dry an d perish In thi s manner
the folly o f the ants cau ses most o f the L o mech usa
larvae to di e before they are change d into pupae ; an d
even those which have fortunately entered th e state o f
a pupa are o ften unea rthed by the ants and devoured
— perhap s from an excess o f a ff ection ? A ccording
to my lon g continued observations on the de velopment
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12
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Ch ap ter IV
1 78
.
o f L o mech usa strum osa in norm al sang ui nea colonies
only those larvae escape destruction which a fter hav
ing bee n imb e dded i n thei r littl e cave are f o rg o tten
by the a nts ; a ll the rest are h o pele ssly doomed ; o f
1 0 0 larvae th e re fore at most about 1 0 reach the stage
o f imago
sometimes scarcely o n e Fo r instance in
the obs e rvation nest illu strated o n p 2 3 in M a y 1 896
a b out 1 50 L omech usa la rvae the o ff spring o f I O
L o m ec h usas were reared und e r the m o st favorable
conditions both o f nutrition and t e mperatu r e ; from
these 1 50 larvae I obtained— o n e si ng l e L o mec h usa !
Fo r thou sands o f years and i n thou s a nds o f nor m al
colonies F sang u i n ea y e ar a fter year repeat the s a me
senseless per form ance :
first
with the greatest
devotedness they nurse the L om ech usa l arvae ev e n
allowing their o w n o ff spring to be d e vou red by them ;
then th e ir stupi d a ff e ction does n o t allow them to
l e a ve the l a rvae i n pe a ce du ring th e tim e o f pupation
and finally they devou r the pupae Th e y cannot se e
that du ri n g thei r pup a t ion L o m ec h usa—la rvae a re to
be t reated d i ff er en tly fr o m those o f ant s ; but th i s i s
thei r salvation ; for otherwi se their care o f the L o me
c h usas woul d lon g ago have brought about the ruin
o f thei r o w n race
O ne and the same superior Wi s
dom has desi gned th a t o n the o n e h and the increase
o f the ants be checked by th e i r inconsi derate love for
L o m ec h usa str u m o sa and for thei r l arvae and th at o n
the other h and the spread o f thi s beetle be kept w ithin
limits by the very same unreasonable a ff ection o f the
ants By these means so gentle and yet so e ff ective
D i vi n e Wi sd o m i s able to m a intain the equilibriu m in
nature In the face of such phenomena the defenders
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1 80
Ch ap ter
q uarters
IV
Th e rapi d increase
.
of
p seudo gyn es
in that
colony therefore was i n proportion to the number o f
beetle larvae which had success fully developed in the
same nest that year
It i s there fore necessary to assume that in san
g ui n ea col onies the frequent rearin g o f L omech usa
larvae gradually m o di fi es th e n ormal n ursi ng i n sti n ct
Thi s modification i s mani fested partly by
o f th e a n ts
the production o f th e crippled p seudo gyn e s partly by
the m o re appropriate treatment o f the L o m ech usa
larvae which a fter having b een imbedded in th e i r
cradles remain undi sturbed A nts ther e fore grad
I s not
uall y learn t o modi fy thei r nursing instinct
thi s a proo f o f intelligence ? Tru e thei r sensitive co g
n i ti o n guidin g thei r instinctive activities m ay furnish
the immediate occasion for that tw o fol d modification
But w e have p roved in a former essay in discussing
1
th e diff erent form s o f learning that not every modi
fi cati o n o f the hereditary instinct occasioned by sense
experiences i s due to i ntelligence but only that which
mani fests a k no wledge o f the app rOp ri at en ess o f a
given action I f ants were gi fted with intelligence
they coul d not help understanding that b y improvin g
thei r treatm ent o f th e L o mech usaA arvae they cause
thei r colony but to peri sh th e sooner j u st as they co n
demn i t t o utter destruction by rearing p seudo gyn es
Th e latter modificati on o f the nursing i nstinct which
leads to th e rearing o f cripples can only b e a
patholo gi cal symptom pointin g to a morbi d dis
t urb an c e o f the no rmal organic condition o f that
.
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1
)
“
p ych isch e
I t lli g c i
Di e
sti nct an d
n
s
n e
en e
n
Fae h i gke i t en
l
th e A n i ma
d er
A me
g
”
Ki n d om,
is
p
en ,
C h ap
.
8
.
,
1 11 ;
“
In
Fi g
.
Fi g
1
.
Fi g
.
3
.
(A l l
fig r s
u e
ma
g ifi
n
ed
to
sv
e
en
t
im s
e
th e
ir
r l siz
n a tu a
e
.
)
.
2
.
Ch apter IV
182
.
made e g b y William M arshall i n hi s L eben und
”
Treiben der A meisen ( p
where he speaks o f
the care given by ants to th e eggs o f p l an t l i ce S ev
eral ant species o f the genu s L asi us collect the eggs
o f ce r tai n A phides i n th ei r nests
Being care fully
protected du rin g winter the young aphi des in spring
are carried to the plants o n which they find th e i r food
Thence M arshall infers that the ants tend the eggs
with th e i n tel l i g en t purp ose o f enj oying later o n the
“
sweet secr e tions o f the aphides
Thi s i s surely a
“
very strange phenomenon
he says
which proves
perh ap s better than anythin g else the h i g h d egree of
i nt el l i g en ce attained by ants
We mu st credit them
with a c o nsi d erab l e p ow er o f o bserva ti o n and we mu st
th e
o w n that they have stud i e d to a certa i n degree
”
habits o f their domesticated animal s etc Yet thi s
bol d conclu sion is entirely unfounded H o w does
Marshall know that th e ants gather the eggs o f th e
aphi des with th e intelligent purpose o f rearing
aphides ? That there i s some connection betwe e n the
eggs o f the aphides an d the aphides themselves is
indeed for many ants a subj ect o f sensitive knowl
edge an d experience ; but it i s unwarrantable to mi s
take this proces s o f instinctive association for i n tel l i
gence pr o per Even i f ants i n r e ality tended the eggs
o f aphi des only on account o f a combination o f their
sensitive experiences this woul d be as yet no proo f
o f the ir intel ligence but merely o f thei r memo ry
I n real ity however th e case i s di ff erent Take a few
newly developed workers o f a L asi us nest and unite
them to form an autodi dacti c colony restricted to it s
innate instin ct s w ithout a shadow o f experimenta l
“
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Care
o
Y o un g
f th e
i n th e A n i ma l
k nowledge as to the development
K i ng d o m
.
of
aphi des Entrust
them with eggs o f those aphi s species which their
congen e rs are wont to r e ar and to nurse They will
treat them as though they had previou sly studied
the habits o f th e s e aphi des ! Hence the fondnes s o f
certain ant species for the eggs o f aphi d e s i s a m erely
i nsti n cti ve i mp ul se which o f course can be strength
ened by s e nsitive e xp e rience It was rather rash for
“
M r Marshall to proclaim it boldly as a facul ty o f
”
ta ki ng th e f u tur e i n to acc o u n t
A l fred Espinas wa s
f a r more correct in call ing the aphis nursing o f an t s
“
”
an intelli gence non réfl éch i e i e merely analogou s
to human reason h aving but a fa int similarity to
i ntel ligence p roper th e diff erence b e ing not merely o f
1
degree but o f kind
Thi s a n a l og um r a ti o n i s is simply
an insti n ctiv e association o f representations assist e d
b y se n si ti ve experi e nce
In Sp ite o f the pe rfe ction attained in thei r nu rsing
of p l an tli ce th e L asi us species are far in ferior to the
Fo rmi ca spec i es i n what modern animal p sychology
erroneou sly styles intelligence viz : in the ability to
profit for the futu re by past experiences It will be
i nteresting there fore to examine i n how far the latter
“
ant species in taking care of thei r o ff spring co n
”
sc i o u sl y fore see th e future
Wh enever care i s taken o f the young then also the
future is i nsti n cti vely taken into account above al l
i n the rearing o f the fem al e ant l arvae ; f o r it
depends e ntir e ly on modification s in the nursing
whether th e fertilized e gg will pr o duce a f e mal e
proper or a worker
But only uncritical popular
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)
“
S ci é té s
o
an
im l s
a e
”
( 2d
pp
.
1 57 , 1 88 ,
et c .
Chap ter I V
1 84
.
psychology i s able to confuse i nsti n cti ve i n ten ti o n and
i nsti n c ti v e f o resi g h t with i n tel l i g en t i n t en ti o n and
i n tel li g en t f o r esig h t
Thi s i s made evi dent by the
following facts The beetles o f the genus A temel es
have thei r larvae reared by cert ai n F o rmi ca sp e cies
A t e me l es e ma rg i n at us by F f usc a A t e m e l es par ad o x us
b y F rufib arbi s A tem el es pub i col l i s by F r uf a A te
m el es pra tenso i d es by F pr a te nsi s The young A te
m el es having success fully reached thei r full d e velop
m ent either quit th e F o rmi ca n e sts o r are driven out o f
1
them They then move over to M yrmi ca r ubra a n d
spend the greater part o f thei r l ives in the nest s o f
these ants by whom they are licked and f e d O nly in
sp ring i n the m ating season they r e turn to th e i r
respective F o rmi ca speci es where they allow th e i r
o ff sp rin g to be reare d at the expense o f the ant —l a rvae
Fo r whom then are these F o rmi ca species nursing
the young A tem el es ? Not for themselves but f o r
the M yrmi ca species Th e only consequence o f th e i r
adopting the A t emel es larv ae i s the immense damage
inflicted on thei r o w n eggs and l arvae by thes e vora
“
cions changel ings Where now i s the faculty o f
”
int e lli gently taking the future i nto account
w ith
wh ich M arshall credits hi s ants ? Fo r thou sands o f
years th e F o rmi ca again and again have had the sad
experience that the pains bestowed o n these beetle
” 2
larvae are but love s labor lost
I believe that i f
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1
)
T h is l d r c ll ct iv
o
o
e
e
n am e
c mpris s
r ug i n o d is ,
,
2
a
e
Am er
en o
an
oun
e
as
Ca mp o n o t us
.
u
su l c i n o d i s a n d
e
a
u sa
ro
n
n
o
e
ee
e
ne
e
e
o
u
u
u osa
a
on
o
o
My r mi ca
e
o
r g l
ppli s t t h d c ti
) Th s m
ic X d i th
st s f F r mi c
b t l s wi th th r
f
d
f ll g w
Iaevi n o d i s
ar e
e
e
.
of
a
sca r b ri n o dis,
l rv f th N rth
ci s ; f t h X d
sp c i lly f t h g us
the
Sp e
a n ts,
a
e
a
e
o
o r,
e
e
ae
e
o
en o
e
o
us a
en
Ch apter I V
1 86
.
more and more in the toil s o f their treach erou s gu ests
In the face o f such facts animal intelligence i s alto
gether untenable
O n the other ha n d th e s e f a cts
furnish a new ar gu ment proving t h e correctness o f
o ur explanation o f the psychic activities o f animal s
Bi rds which nu rse th e un fl e dg e d cuckoos do not
behave a whi t more reasonabl y than th e ants with
regard to thei r L o m ech usa—larvae Because t h e young
cuckoo opens its bil l wi der makes more noise and
wiggles its stumpy wings more energetically its
“
”
foster pa r ents feed it with sp eci a l devot e d n e ss and
rather su ff er thei r o w n young to starve M or e ove r
they calmly look o n whil st the young cuckoo push e s
thei r o w n o ff spring over th e edge o f the nest t o m ak e
them fa ll to the ground ; ind e ed it has been observed
1
A mong
that the foster par e nts assi st in thi s work
birds too the nursing an d adopting instincts are due
to the very same laws o f sensitiv e li f e as in ants
There is no di scrimination b e twee n their own o ff
”
spring and that o f others no i d e a o f consanguinity
”
“
parents or chil dren but everywhere w e wit
of
ness the same unreasoning d e pendence o n instinctive
sense imp ressions the appropriat e ness o f wh ich for
the wel fare o f thei r own or o f strange sp eci es e scapes
the sensitive knowledge of the animal
Thi s i s mani f e st al so i n th e care bestowed o n their
young by th e highest mammal s the apes Just as
within th e same species of ants eggs larvae and
pupae are a kind o f international p roperty and are
there fore received an d nurse d al so by other colonies ;
a s th e eggs o f e ider ducks o f hens and other birds
”
,
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,
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,
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,
,
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,
1
)
“
Wes tf al en s
Thi erl eben ,
II
,
22
Ca re
o
f
th e
Y o u ng
i n th e A ni ma l
K i n g d om
1 87
.
hav e the same international character e xtendin g even
to the rearing o f the young d e v e loped therefrom ; as
in many ants and birds the instinct o f adoption which
i s founded o n the external resembl ance be tween the
nu rslings o f stranger s and their o w n i s now and th e n
extended to entirely di ff erent species ( L o mech usa
cuckoo ) : so there i s in apes a similar instinct owing
to the same psychological cau ses which proves to
“
evi dence the lack o f intel ligence i n animals
It i s a
well known fact a s t h e thi rd ed o f B r e h m s T i erleben
( p 52 ) has it that apes withou t much ado adopt
the ch ildren o f any other species protect them w ith
th e utmost tendern e ss and can scarc ely be separated
fro m thei r d e ad bodies When ou r shepherd —dog
Trina woul d p resent u s again with young puppies
swa rm ing with fleas we u sed to put them i nto a cage
o f marmoset s There they were hea rt ily welcomed
cl e aned an d fondled with care and tendernes s whi lst
from without the ol d dog was watch ing with a know
in g loo k ( si c )
But a s soon as we deprived them
o f th e i r nurslings the monkeys woul d set up a pitiable
scream ing : they ha d distributed the pup s among
their number and evi dently intended ( si c ) to keep
”
th e m
The a n th rOp o m o rp h i sm w ith which modern
fanatics in the matter o f animal intelligence t ry to
varni sh ove r the t rue character o f these adoption phe
n o m en a mu st be mercilessly exposed by genuine crit
i cal psychology We wi sh to picture the p sychic li fe
o f the animal s such a s it i s in itsel f and not as it
e xi sts in the ima gination o f woul d b e p sychologists
That the incl ination o f apes t o adopt th e o ff sprin g
o f other apes
o f do g s
cats rabbits Guinea pi g s an d
,
,
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’
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,
188
Ch ap ter I V
.
even of man i s an enti r el y i nsti n cti ve impul se devoi d
o f intelligent reflection
i s so evi dent to logical minds
and s o plainly expressed in the facts that further
proof seems superfluou s S ince with apes th e two
sexes di ff er far l ess i n p sychic endowments th an w ith
ants it can hardly be surprising that not only the
females but also the males have an i nstinctive nursing
incl ination and try to g rati fy it by nursing any young
But how do the y do i t especially i f the youn g
a nimal
1
ones belong to another species ? Al fred Breh m says
“
H er e th e ape o ft e n appears t o be an i n expl i ca bl e
He nurses h i s adopte d favorite to the ful l
puzz l e
extent o f hi s power hugs him cleans h im continuall y
keeps an eye on h i m but g en era l ly d o es n o t supply
hi m wi th any fo o d
Without pangs o f conscience
( si c ) h e k eep s fo r him sel f the foo d destined for hi s
nursling an d even ca re fully k eep s hi m away from t he
pot wh il st he himsel f i s eating Thi s I have obs e rved
w ith baboons who had picked up young dogs o r cats
as thei r fost e r ch i ldren
“
I s this really an i n expl i ca bl e puzz l e ? O nl y for
those who are unwi l l i ng to understand the corr e ct
solution becau se they a re blinded by thei r monomania
Th e solution o f the puzzle i s
o n animal i ntelligence
a s cl ear as day l ight The instinct s both o f nursing
and o f eating are purel y sensi ti ve i n cl i n ati o ns u nat
tended by reason and reflection The faculties o f
sensitive cognition and appetite a re so appropriately
di sposed in animal s that w i th regard to their o w n
o ffspring th e nursing instinct i s stronger than hunger
b ut only so lon g as the young o f that species u nder
,
,
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-
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”
,
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-
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,
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,
,
,
1
)
Ib i d
m
e
,
p
.
51
.
Ch a p te r I V
1 90
u s b ri efly sum up the re sult s o f o ur discu s
sion o n th e nursin g instinct o f animals In th is respect
all anim als obey the s ame p sycholo g i cal l aws Every
where th e i nclination o i nursing and rea rin g the youn g
proves to be a sensi ti ve i nsti n ct enti r e ly di ff erent from
and ev e n ex cl udi ng indivi dual reflection and consciou s
ness o f duty This is the case both in the high est
m ammal s and i n ants ; for the l atter even far surpass
the highest mammal s by thei r qu asi intell ige nt fr e edom
and by an
o f choice i n re a ring the different castes
attachment to their charges verging on heroi c un sel
fi sh n e ss With all animal s the care o f the young is
dir ec ted e xclusively by sensitive i mpul ses and p erc e p
tions which under normal circumstanc e s are suitably
regulate d both for preserving thei r o w n species and
for maintaining the equil ibrium between d i ff e r e n t
species Yet thi s app ropriate correlation i s far beyond
the k en o f the animal ; hence in the nursing o f an i
“
ma l s there is no que stion o f any consciou sn e ss o f
duty
M an alone by virtue o f h i s intell e ct perceives
th e relations of consangu inity and the connections
r esultin g the re from ; he alone h a s an i n te l l e ctua l
“
“
”
”
n o ti o n o f
parents and chil dren ; only with hi m
can there be question o f the m oral d uti es o f parents
towa rd thei r children True al so in man motherly
love is founded o n a sensi ti ve i nsti n ct ; but at th e
sam e t im e it i s spi ri tual becau se th e mother knows
that sh e i s th e mother o f this chil d and because thi s
knowledge with the resultant consciousness o f th e
duty o f attending to the wel far e o f the chil d l asts for
l i fe In man the love o f parents toward thei r chil
dren an d the care they bestow o n them rises far above
L et
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,
.
C are
o
f th e
Yo ung
i n th e A n i m al
K i ng d o m
1 91
.
the spher e o f sensitive instinct int o the province o f
sp irituality and morality : an d becaus e the love o f a
moth e r is a ra ti o n al love co nsci o us of d uty there
fore i t is the highest and noblest love e xisting in
nature To ascribe such motherly love to animal s
as do mo dern psychologi sts i s nonsens e scientifically
Speaking and morally speaking it i s a degradation o f
human di gnity
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
CO N CLU S I O N
OT to e xceed the limits o f thi s publication we
must refrain from pointing out other parallel s
e xi sting between t h e p sychi c li fe o f a nt s and that o f
the other animal s In part icular the extremely vari
ous ways o f gaining a livi n g prevalent i n ant com
m un i t i e s woul d furni sh plenty o f material
But in
thi s essay we h ad to confine ourselves to a few stray
remarks on that subj ect ( p
W hat w e have
dilated upon may su ffice h o wever t o furnish a posi
tive and reliable answer to the question with which
we i ntroduced o ur essay namely : A r e an i mal s en
,
.
,
-
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
,
d ow ed wi th i nsti n c t
o n l y,
or
a l so
w i th i nt el l i g en c e ?
We have already proved in a former publication
A
n imal K ingdom )
Instinct
and
Intelligence
in
the
(
th a t
o f which the present stu dy i s a co n firmation
modern animal psychology influenced by so called
popular p sychology has inverted and con fused th e
notions o f sensitive cognition and o f intelligence
That which i s popularly styled animal intelligence
i n as far as it i s b a sed on real facts and not on fables
and anecdotes i s nothing but the faculty o f the ani
mal s o f fo rming complex representations o f th e i r
sensitive exp e riences and o f actin g appropriately in
accordance with them But thi s power as well as th e
immediate insti nctive cognition i s due to the innate
laws o f a ssociations o f sensitive representations an d
a ff ections ; hence it belongs to the sphere o f sensi ti ve
,
,
-
,
.
,
,
.
192
Co ncl usi on
1 94
.
fo rm certain actions which are independent of in di
vidual experience and a re more o r less the same in
all individu al s o f a given species It i s pl asti c inas
much as within thi s limited sphere the pow ers o f
cognition and appetite in the animal are given more
o r less play fo r variously m odi fying their activiti e s
The narrower the l imits within which they are con
fined the more automatically thei r instinct wi ll cau se
them to act ; the wi der those limits the more plasti c
their i nstinct
Both elements automatism and pla s
t i c i ty
are foun d in di ff erent p roportions with all
animal s from the highest to the lowest In the l o wer
orders automati sm as a g eneral rule largely prevail s
whereas in the higher ve rtebrates plasticity i s o n the
average more pre domi nant
A nts too more than
dogs and apes are boun d by heredi tary l aws to the
per form ance o f certai n activities
The varying
i nfluence which indivi dual sensation b ri ngs to bear
upon th e p er fo rm ance o f hereditary i nstincts i s great e r
an d more variable in the latt e r than in the former
and in thi s respect the psychi c l i fe o f ants is more like
”
“
automati sm than that o f mammal s
But on the
other hand th e plasticity o f the instinct i s al so in
ants o ften highly developed and not rarely i t i s
mani fe sted i n a more quasi intelligent form than even
i n the highest vertebrates
In the present essay w e have reviewed a number
o f the most prominent phenomena o f th e psychi c l i fe
and everywhere we found that what
o f animal s
modern an i mal p sychology styl es animal i ntelligence
i s met with al so in ants and in many cases in fa ct in
In
a hi gher de gree than w ith th e h i ghest mammals
,
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.
Concl usi on
1 95
.
ommunity li fe o f ants which w ith suitabl e
co operation f o r the wel fare o f the co lony combines
a mani fol d independence o f action o n the part o f the
single workers in their mutual communications and
mutual servi ces in thei r wars i n thei r slave making
expeditions and thei r con federations i n thei r nest
construction an d i n the mani fol d appl ication o f their
building skill to variou s changes o f ci rcumstances
finally i n their breeding and nursing embracin g
variou s meth ods o f education le ft to the choice o f the
workers and mani fest ing at the same time the highest
“
”
degree o f sel f sacri fi ci n g attach m ent to their help
les s young ones : in all these points combined we must
rightly conside r the li fe o f ant s a s th e cl i max of
the
c
-
,
-
,
-
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
-
d evel opmen t i n i nsti n cti ve l i f e thr o ug h o u t th e
ki n g d o m
a n i mal
As
regards the perfection o f the nervou s
system and o f the sense organs the higher mammal s
a re indeed far closer to man than the ants ; but a s
regards the quas i intelligent actuation o f animal
instinct under th e influence o f sense perceptions an d
e xperien ces for the variou s pu rposes o f community
l i fe ants no doubt approach nearer to man than even
the anth ropoi d apes
In deed neither o f them pos
sesses i n telli g en ce pr oper that i s to say the power
o f actin g with de l iberation and sel f consciousness
of
inventing new means for attaining variou s purposes
and thu s ma k ing progress in civilization S till the
chas m between the p sychic l i fe o f animal s and that
o f man
i s in many respects wi der between ape an d
man than b etween ant and man
O f cou rse the results o f ou r stu dy are very di f
f e ren t from and indeed alto g ether contrary to the
.
-
,
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,
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,
,
Concl usi on
1 96
.
aprioristi c postulate s o f modern evolutionism accord
ing to whi ch man i s n o thing but the highest b rute
1
,
1
g r l q st i
f t h e d vel p
m t
f
Cf f
m y f r m r p b lic t i
s “Di e
t h is p rp s
ti
t
E t st h
c h D rwi ( S t i m m
M ri L c h
Di
XXV I I I
E tw ic k l g d I t i t i d Urw l t ( i b i d
XXV III 481 ; XX I X 24 8
E t wic k l gs g sch ich t d
Z
ll h f t
Am i
N st r d g misc h t
( D i z s m m g s tz t
g
K l i d A m is
III s c t i 2 C h p )
A
xpl ti
f th g
i g st rel t i s h ip ( sym p h ily )
t
th
f
Zu
b y t h D rwi i th ry f v l t i
E t wic k l g d I
l g B t
Z
ti
t
d
Wi
1 897 3d
( V h dlg
K
E ch i c h h
iss e pp 1 68
s lv t h
Of l t D
t ri d t
c t r d ict i
w h ic h w pr v d t xist b tw
th
f c ts
f
d
y mp h ily d t h pri cipl s f t r l s l c ti ( Z A t m i
P
i
Bi l g i
t
Z gl ich i B i t r g
K t is d
h
i
Z l g J h b
r S ys t m t i k X II
My m k p h i l i
A b th f
1 898
27
i sist s th t sym ph ily is t
s p r t i st i ct
H
b r d i g i st i c t f t s b t t h t t h t w
t t lly d i ff r
t f r m th
c s l r l t i t ch t h r W f rm rly ( th fi r t G rm d
i
ss y p 1 0 7 b l w d p 1 08 b v ) p i t d t th s m
f pr s
t
g i b li vi g t h t t r l s l ct i h b
Y t Esc h ric h is wr
b l t pr v t t h d v l pm t f sym ph ily i pi t f th d m g
b y i t t th
ts
b c s sym ph ily is
cl s ly c
c t d wi th
d
b r d i g i sti n t N tu r l s l c t i m s t c t r c t t ly th
th
w i s t i c t w h ic h pr v s i j ri
f
s t th
d v l pm t
t ir ly
p ss ss r b t ls t h x t si t i j ri s b j ct s f
lr d y
x i s t i g s f l i st i c t ; h c s l c ti w j st li tt l ll w d t l t
At m l
b r d i g i s t i c t f ts x t d i t c ti vi t y t L m h
th
it w
x i s b j ct s
ll w d t l t t h f d i g
d th r
P
i s t i ct f i m l s x t d i t ct ivi t y t p l t b l b t p is us h rb s
pl ts c v r d wi t h p r si t s ( Cf D i psyc h isc h
t
t ri ti
1 899
p
T
gi
F eh i g k i t
d
A m is
t h is E c h ric h
y sh p
th t m
b j c t d ( i 2 1 C t l b l 1 899 N 1 p
i
k ill d b y f di g
pl t s c v r d b y
th
(i
c ps l t f r m f d ev l p d t r m t d s ) B t w h t w l d Mr
Esch rich y t t h f ll wi g i f wi th i th w h l sp ci s f sh p
wi t h i
c r t i r c f t h m t h r s h l d d v l p p ci l l i ki g
f
pl t s c v r d b y t h p r si t s W l d t s ch
f
di g
t r d ic t t h
ph m
t ly c
th
ry f t r l s l ct i ? B t
e vi d
x c tly th c s wi t h t h r ri g f L m h
by th
t h is is
s g i sl v m k rs T h er f r e Esch rich s bj c ti s b t c firm
f
ss rt i
Th f ct t h t
by
r i g th i r g t
t
th
t r th
r t h i g r t t mi i q l l y i c mp ti b l wi th t h p i ci p l
l c ti
t r l
d wi t h t h p r i c i p l
i m l p y c h l gy
f
f m d r
1
t
c
i sti c ts
gd I
) We
en
n
n
un
e
e n te
an n o
n
o
ns
“
th e
on
e
nc e
o e
un
n
“
ns
er
“
,
,
e se n
e se
o
nc e
s
u
er
a
e,
”
n
e
au a
en
e en
e
a
e
e o
o
e
e
en
o
u
u e u
n
or
a
e
n
e
o
n
or
n
ee
e
e
ear
on
u ne
u
e r
na u a
a
our
a
e a es
se e
on
,
n
o
e
e
e
a
e
a e
e
en e
an
e
e o
.
e
e
on :
e s,
o
e
s
e
e
e
a o
e e
ou
o se
a a
eo
ea
a
a
ua
n
u
e
e
e
?
n
an
o
o
e
e
a
s e
e
u
e
on
ues s
e
r n
e
a
a
u
on
u
,
n
a
usas
on
n an
ee
no
e
o
.
o
nu s n
an s
e
ou
e e
ec
ee
e
.
ou
o
’
es o
a
na u a
o
o
e
a n
a
a
e o
e
n
ee
en
a
o e
e
e e s,
ono
s
e
o
e
.
.
ea
e
cerca r e s
e
e
o
e
e
o
.
e e
e
a
”
e
n
o
u
e
.
,
.
n
,
usa,
o
,
e
e
o
ec
e
a
on
an
a
“
.
,
e
o
o
a a a
a a
o
e
e.
e
ou
o
.
e en
a
e
u
e
a
as
no
n
as
as a
as
e
o
e
o
o
an
on
e
-
e
u
as
an
e
o nn e
e
o
s a
,
o
o
en
a e
o
a
an
a
on
ou
”
e o
o
e
a n
e n on
en o
an
o
e
a
e
n u
e
n
o are
on
ou n e a
o
o
en
u
n
ou
o e
n
n
e
on
un
o
sa
e
or
n
ee
e
n s
,
,
e
s
e e
er
a
a
o n e
e
un
c
a a e
e
e
na u a
on
e n ra
.
o
a
e e
en ,
e
a
e e
e e
o
o
se e
o
en n n
u
,
e
e
a
e
a
an
o
o
na o
ue
.
,
e
z ur
n
er
o
ur
a
”
e
s a
an
00
e
e
“
so
e
en
er
“
ou
e
ous
u a e
a
a
en
e
a re
o
an
o
o
on
an
no
en
en
en
o
n
ne
e
n
e
e n
.
e
a
e
e
n
o
nu
o
n
on
au e
a
.
o
n
n
ee
a ussus a n
n
a
an
,
e
e
,
en
an
o
,
n
e
c
e e
o
en
e
ee n
e
n
e
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e
an
n
n
ee
er
n
.
n
e
e
o
n
e
e o
.
e en
on e
e
o
on
o
e
as
no
ee
ea
e
u ec
r
er
e
en ,
e
e
.
un
.
a
e
o
,
a
.
n
on
u
on
n
er
na u a
o
oo o
o
e a
o
e
a
,
e
un
e
”
aa
a
e
e
r
.
s
.
.
:
-
er
n
-
“
o an
.
u r c cus,
“
e
o a
e
a u ssus
,
e
r
o
n
e
o
e
oo o
e
von
e
r
un a
er
.
on
a
un
ue
c
a
.
en u n e
on
a us
en
e
a
o u
e
o
on,
o o
o
n
an
an
o
eo
en
n
e
,
e
a e
s
n
o
.
,
on
n an
“
”
on
en
on
e
an a
e
e
u a
e
en ,
e
a
e
en
a
er
o o n en
s
sc
“
”
u
o
e
o
e
nc e
ur
,
on
o
”
n
a
na
ue
en e a
u
or
e
,
r
he
.
.
er
r
,
s
o o
es
.
Co ncl usi o n
1 98
.
of
thi s theo ry to the results of biologi cal research
must i n th e fi rst pl a ce be brand e d as unsci en ti fi c ;
for it m i stakes sens a tion for spi ritual li fe and
instinct for intelligenc e thu s being diametrically at
variance with the principles o f critical p sychology
S eco n d l y its assertion that the brute i s gi fted with
reason an d consci o usness o f duty as well as man
although i n a di ff e rent degree i s an evi d en t fal seh o o d
wh ich i s given the lie by the actual biological facts
But this p o pular psychology i s not only unscientifi c
an d untruth ful ; it i s far worse To be candid i t i s
d em o ral i z i n g and fraught with moral danger to the
human social order Hence w e must do m ore than
merely shrug o ur shoul ders i n contemptuou s pity we
mu st take a deci ded stand ag ai nst i t and co mb at it
w ith al l o ur might
By denying the existence o f the essential di ff er
ence between animal and human psychi c faculties thi s
psychology not only raises the brute to the level o f
m an but degrades man to the l e vel o f the brute
Woul d to Go d that thi s were done in theory only ;
but alas the practical consequenc e o f th is fal se theory
i s th e d em oraliz at i on an d b ru tal i z ati o n of man Th i s
i s th e goal aimed at by th o se books and pamphlets
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
.
,
.
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
r pr t st I h v lr d y d i C h p I f
I st i c t d I lli g c i th A i m l K i gd m t h t t h r is
wish my p r t t i d t i f y t h sci t i fi c r pr s t t iv s f
m d r
z l gic l psyc h l g y wi th t h ch mpi s f i m l i t lli g c li k
Br h m B c h r t T h is w l d b
i j s t ic t v ry m y
s b r mi d d t r list s w h c d m j st w d th h m iz t i
im l N d w i
r i t d t p ss j d gm t
f th
y m
p rs l m t iv s f Br h m B ch r d t h r d f d rs f
th
i m l i t lli g c
i m l m r li t y b t w
ly j d g f t h ir
d
T h is r m r k is d d d h r xpr ssly t v i d m i d
w ri t i gs
st d i gs
1
) L e t me
an
n
n
o
e
o
n
e
e
n
an
n e
en
a
.
e c
,
e
o e
,
n
e
en
e
a
en
e
a
on
o
e
o
an
n
n
o
,
a
an
a
n
ue
o a
e
u
e
e
as
e
e
e
an
o
e
a
e
u
on
o
a
o
o
.
no
e
o ur
o
en
u
e
an
an
u
en
e en
e
e
n
e
e
e
o
o
o
e
o
e
e
e
a
n e
a
n en
u
n
a
,
n u
ne
,
o
an
o
an
e
on e
e en a
e
on
e
ea
a
n
an n e
an
e
e
a
ou
,
e
o
a
as
e
.
a
or
.
e
.
n
o
na u
on a
a
e
en
ne
e
an
e
an
ue
,
-
mo
e
o o
a
e
c
nte
a
on
oo o
on
a
o
sun
on
on
o
e
er
C oncl usi on
1 99
.
which descri b e the sexual impulse o f the b rute as
es sentially th e same as human conj u g al love and the
care o f the young among animals as e ssentially i den
tical with par e ntal love i n man S uch men as A l f
Brehm and L Buechner were not ashamed to come
“
”
forward as apostles o f free love and to decry a s
antiquated and ridiculou s the moral bounds estab
l i sh e d for man by reaso n and d ivine law With them
the humani zation o f the b rute consciously or un cb n
sci o usl y
aim s at degrading man so far as to make
him cast o ff hi s reasonabl e nature and to follow with
o ut reserve the sensual inclinations
which he h as in
common with the unreasonabl e brute O n thi s account
they deny the di f ference between sensitive and spirit
ual faculties between the anim al soul and the human
spi rit Hence we do not consi der it too harsh a j u dg
ment to say : Th ose w h o h uma ni z e th e a ni mal n o t
,
.
.
.
.
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
o nl y
tri fl e w i th
sci en ti fi c
dr ag i n to th e mi re th e
psych o l ogy b ut th ey a l so
Ev e ry well
di g n i ty o f man
,
.
meaning naturalist there fore ought resolutel y to
Oppose th e se unprincipled d o i r g s o f so —
called popular
psychology
Now a —days th ere i s and rightly so a wi desp read
agitation against the use o f alcohol and other drugs
inj u ri ou s to the ne rvous system becau se th e bo dily
and spiritual wel fare o f hum anity i s endangered But
to counteract the ravages o f spi ritual venoms which
under the gl ittering name o f modern science are spread
through all classes o f society little o r nothing is don e
I f the moral principles of Breh m an d Buechner shoul d
l ater on become th e common property o f humanity
then the society o f th e future from the highest to th e
,
,
.
~
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
Co ncl usi o n
2 00
.
lowest woul d resemble a herd of unreason ab l e ani
“
mals whose spiritual li fe woul d consi st in the
unbri dled gratification o f the meanest lusts and pas
sions Hence o ur concluding appeal : D o aw ay w i th
,
”
,
.
l b oo ks, pa mphl ets an d peri o di cal s w h o se o n ly p ur
l
v
el o
an !
u
t
t
t
h
e
e
m
o
a
i
se
t
h
e
b
r
e
os
i
s
t
o
r
e
p
f
al
,
U N I V E R S IT Y O F C A L I FO R N I A L IB R A R Y
L o s A n ge l e s
Thi
P S D 2 34 3
sb k
oo
i s D UE
o n th e
l a st d a t e sta m p e d b e l o
w
.