Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
Language Intervention for Late
Elementary through High School
Students
Cynthia J. Johnson, Ph.D.
University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign
Seminar at the American SpeechLanguage-Hearing Association
Convention
November 22, 2008
Language intervention in later years is
important for college readiness, which
increasingly is a personal goal for
individuals with LLD (Eberhardt, Foster,
and Wiczer, 2008).
„ At the University of Illinois, the largest
population of individuals with disabilities
on campus currently is individuals with
“cognitive disabilities (Disability Resources
and Educational Services, 2008-09).
„
Introduction
Children with early identified language
impairments often face life-long problems
in language processing (Tomblin, Freese, &
Records, 1992; Catts, Fey, Tomblin, &
Zhang, 2002).
„ SLPs typically see children through 3rd
grade, yet persistent language problems
may warrant intervention into late
elementary, middle, and high school
(Larson & McKinley, 2003).
„
The purpose of today’s seminar is to
propose theoretically and empirically based
goals and activities to provide language
intervention from late elementary school on.
„ This should better prepare students with
language impairments (LI) or LLD for the
transition to college (or the work force, for
that matter).
„
– Both increasingly require good communication
and literacy skills.
Time-Ordered Agenda
Tomblin, Freese, & Records (1992)
35 adults with well-documented histories of
language impairment
„ 35 normal language users (controls)
„ 17-25 years old
„
– M age = 21 years
„
1:00
„
1:10
„
1:30
„
Adults with a history of LI performed more
poorly than controls on all tasks given
– face-to-face battery
– telephone interview
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association Convention, Nov. 21, 2008,
Chicago, IL
1:50
Introduction: The Nature of
Persistent Language Problems
Seven Goals and Activities for
Addressing the Structure of Language
Ten Goals and Activities for
Addressing School Functions of
Language
– Questions
1
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
2:00
„
Ten Goals and Activities for
School Functions (cont.)
2:30
„
Conclusions: School Language
Structures and
2:40
„
Case (7th grader with Notetaking challenges)
– Questions
VOCABULARY
Vocabulary
Seven Goals and Activities for
Addressing the Structure of
Language
1.
Tier 3 Words
–
2.
Instructional Words for Specific Academic
Subjects
–
3.
For academic subjects (including abstract nouns and
specific adjectives, verbs, and adverbs)
Words that are common in instructions for various
academic subjects (including relational words)
Figurative Language
Structure of Language
Vocabulary
„ Syntax
„ Discourse
„
Tier 3 Words
„
Source
– Beck, McKeown,
McKeown, & Kucan (2002)
Tier 2 words make discussion and writing
interesting, and generalize across the
curriculum (including adjectives).
„ Tier 3 words are contentcontent-specific words and
proper names.
„
– Science: Sublimation, sublime (verb) – “to
move directly from a solid to a gas, without
becoming a liquid in between”
between”
American Speech-Language-Hearing
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Chicago, IL
2
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
Academic Instructional Words
„
„
Confusing for a 4th grader
– Math:
Confusing to a 4th grader
» president (“present”
present”)
– Math:
» Natalia (/n
(/næt ə laɪ
laɪ1 ə/)
» equation
„
Confusing for a 4th grader
– Math:
„
» congruent
„
Confusing to a 6th grader
– Science: A Scavenger Hunt Through Your
Book…
Book…8. Why do you think it is call the
Source Book? 9. The Source book is divided
into 8 parts to correspond with the 8 ______
[science units].
– Math: Order the numbers from least to
greatest. Then describe how each number in
your ordered list can be obtained from the
previous numbers.
Figurative Language
Confusing for a 4th grader
– Math
„
Idioms
– Water under the bridge (Cambridge Dictionaries
Online – Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
International Dictionary of Idioms, at
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/default.asp?dict
=I)
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/default.asp?dict=I)
– Meet your Waterloo (Hendrickson, R., 1987, The
Henry Holt Encyclopedia of Word and Phrase
Origins)
Origins)
» reasonable (“responsible”
responsible”)
„
Similes
– “Her legs looked like Popsicle sticks.”
sticks.” (Giff,
Giff, P.
Reilly, 1984, The Beast in Ms. Rooney’
Rooney’s Room)
Room)
American Speech-Language-Hearing
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Chicago, IL
3
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
„
Syntax
Metaphors
– “Pressure like that is found in nature only
where coal turns into diamonds.”
diamonds.” (Art Thiel,
Thiel,
1994, Seattle PostPost-Intelligencer newspaper)
– Sommer & Weiss (Eds.). (2001), Metaphors
Dictionary,
Dictionary, Visible Ink Press, available at
Amazon.com
„
4.
5.
Adverbial Conjunctions (and leftleftbranching adverbial clauses)
Mental State Verbs
Proverbs
– Rumors travel faster than horses. (Haugaard,
Haugaard,
E.C., 1984, The Samurai’
Samurai’s Tale)
Tale)
– Lobel,
Lobel, A., Fables, 1983, Harper Trophy
Metaphors
„
Metaphors
– To be vivid
– To explain
„
Metaphor Activity
Adverbial Conjunctions
Common and more advanced conjunctions
„ Double from 1st to 6th grade
„ Double again from 6th to 12th grade
„
– After, if, since, until, while (Leadholm
(Leadholm,, B., &
Miller, J., 1992)
– Therefore, however, in addition, furthermore,
for example (Scott & Stokes, 1995)
– Think of something in your life that was
intensely emotional: a sad, angry, scary, or
painful story
– Tell the story.
– Tell it again, only sadder, angrier, scarier, or
more painful.
Left-Branching clauses
Often are adverbial clauses
„ Written by an adolescent (13 year; 3 months)
„
SYNTAX
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– “But when it does rain,
rain, it rains very heavily.
– In order for the animals and insects to keep cool,
cool,
they have to dig holes or burrows or just make
their home in the shade.
– Holes that are dug are usually 20% cooler if
you’
you’re under there than if you’
you’re not.”
not.” (Scott &
Stokes, 1995, p. 317)
4
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
Mental State Verbs
„
Head complement clauses about thoughts,
beliefs, opinions, and emotions (I feel sad
that…
that…)
Compare and Contrast
„
– “The Double Bubble Map is used for comparing and
contrasting two things, such as characters in a story,
two historical figures, or two social systems. It is also
used for prioritizing which information is most
important within a comparison”
comparison” (Hyerle,
Hyerle, 2004, p. 6)
– I think that her name is Melinda.
– I feel sad that my best friend is moving.
„
Graphic Organizers
Also called cognitive verbs
– Nippold,
Nippold, M. (2007)
Storytellers’ or Characters’
Emotions, Plans, and Codas
„
See Ukrainetz, Justice, Kaderavek,
Eisenberg, Gillam, & Harm (2005)
DISCOURSE
Discourse
6.
7.
Compare and Contrast
Storytellers’
Storytellers’ or Characters’
Characters’ Emotions,
Plans, and Codas
American Speech-Language-Hearing
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TOO COLD TO THINK: JUST RUN!
- by Michael
…Good friend that I am, I followed them. We walked
out by the lake. The snow was really deep. I was walking
and then my boots fell in. One came off. The other one,
snow poured into. I picked up the one that fell in. Snow was
poured into it all the way to the top. Now both of my boots
were full of snow. My feet were freezing. I could barely
think because my feet were so cold. Then I took off my
boots and ran. I heard David and Evan screaming behind me,
“What are you doing!”
doing!” David’
David’s house had to be eight houses
away. Each house had a big yard. I ran crazily. My feet felt
like iceice-cubes, like frozen feet. I was scared. One word went
through my head, “Frostbite.”
Frostbite.” It seemed like forever but I
finally reached David’
David’s house. (Meanwhile, David and Evan
were half a block behind me.)
5
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
After a moment of thankfulness, I noticed there was a
huge hill of snow standing smack in front of me. “What the
heck am I doing? I won’
won’t be able to run Cross Country
without feet.”
feet.” I jumped down onto my stomach and army
crawled up the hill. David’
David’s parents saw me coming, so
they opened the door immediately. I ran in. Then David’
David’s
mom said, “Are you okay? Why aren’
aren’t you wearing
shoes?”
shoes?” Then this was worse: At that next second, my
feet were in so much stinging pain I couldn’
couldn’t believe it.
“Oh my gosh! Is this how Arctic explorers feel?”
feel?” David’
David’s
mom rushed me into the bathroom, put my feet in the
bathtub, and turned on the warm water. My feet had snow
stuck to the bottom of them. It was freaky. David’
David’s mom
said, “Don’
Don’t worry. It won’
won’t kill you!”
you!”
That was one of the scariest days I have ever had, but
in the end it turned out okay. I hope this tells you to never
run on snow barefoot because it’
it’s stupid and you will hurt
yourself. Once again, never try this at home!
Ten Goals and Activities for
Addressing School Functions of
Language
„
Nelson (1998) has argued the value of classroombased assessment and intervention.
– Nevertheless, SLPs spend proportionately less time
providing classroom-based intervention than pull-out
(Buck & Lieberman, 2008, for the State of Illinois)
– 4 vs. 21 hours per week, respectively
„
It is conceivable that SLPs could address
classroom language functions even in more
focused pull-out sessions.
– Then bridge these functions in natural ways to ongoing
classroom endeavors.
Functions of Language
Time-Ordered Agenda
1:00
„
1:10
„
1:30
1:50
„
Introduction: The Nature of
Persistent Language Problems
Seven Goals and Activities for
Addressing the Structure of
Language
Ten Goals and Activities for
Addressing School Functions of
Language
– Questions
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association Convention, Nov. 21, 2008,
Chicago, IL
For academics and social interaction at
school
1.
2.
3.
Paraphrasing and Dictating
Summarizing
Listening
– Discriminative (Informational)
– Evaluative (Critical)
– Empathic
6
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
Functions of Language (cont.)
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Discussion (Reciprocal Teaching)
NoteNote-taking (including “Stick Writing”
Writing”
“Library Research”
”
with
Mentors
Research
Writing 22-Paragraph Reading Responses and 55Paragraph Essays
Following Verbal Instructions and Conforming
to Scoring Rubrics for Assignments
Negotiating Social Power
Resolving Social Conflicts
The first 8 functions (1- 8) comprise
academic skills of great value to students
who intend to go on to college (or even
those who hope to perform well in the work
force).
„ All of these functions entail oral language
abilities and therefore fall within our
traditional scope of practice.
„
The last two functions (9-10) focus on
social interactions that are important for
success with peers at school and eventually
in the workplace.
„
PARAPHRASING AND
DICTATING
Paraphrasing and Dictating
The first four functions (1- 4) can be done
solely with oral language on the part of the
student (paraphrase/dictate, summarize,
listen, discuss).
„ Functions 5-8 require the extension of the
student’s oral language abilities to
handwritten or typed products.
„
American Speech-Language-Hearing
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Chicago, IL
Collect reference material from books or
the web.
„ The mentor interprets difficult material to
the student by paraphrasing each sentence
or related sets of sentences.
„ The student is asked to tell back the
interpreted message in his or her own
words while the mentor takes dictation.
„
7
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
The student keyboards or copies from the
mentor’
mentor’s handhand-printed dictation.
„ The student gives an oral presentation of his
poster.
the atmospheric pressure is so low it can’
can’t
keep the molecules from escaping the
substance and becoming a gas. For
example, when carbon dioxide is a solid, it
is called dry ice. When dry ice is at normal
room temperature and 1 atmosphere of
pressure, the carbon dioxide sublimes into a
gas. That is why people sometimes use dry
ice to make fog for a stage show.
„
Wikipedia Material
Science Poster from ParaphraseDictation
DEFINITION AND WHAT HAPPENS IN
SUBLIMATION
Sublimation is a change of phase when a
solid changes to a gas without turning into
liquid on the way. It only happens at low
pressures and temperatures. Ordinarily,
substances go through three different states
(solid to liquid to gas). Sometimes, though,
American Speech-Language-Hearing
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Chicago, IL
Dictation of Figure Labels
„
This graph shows how certain conditions of air pressure
and temperature can cause sublimation to happen. The
bright blue is for solid and the navy blue is for gas. When
air pressure is very low, you can move from a solid
directly to a gas by increasing the temperature, even
slightly. (From http://www.chem.queensu.ca
/people/
http://www.chem.queensu.ca/people/
faculty/mombourquette/FirstYrChem/slg/index.htm
faculty/mombourquette/FirstYrChem/slg/index.htm ,
1/30/2008)
8
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
Dictation of Figure Labels
„
Meteorites fall on Antarctica. Sometimes the ice pushes
them into the sea, but once in awhile the ice sublimates at
the surface and exposes the meteorites. Near the Allan
Hills, sublimation of the ice is caused mostly by dry
Katabatic winds from the middle of the continent blowing
over the ice. In this figure, the straight horizontal arrow
shows the Katabatic winds flowing over the Allen Hills Ice
Sheet, and the squiggly vertical arrows show a zone near
the mountain where the ice is sublimating. (From
http://beckerantarctica.crustal.ucsb.edu
http://beckerantarctica.crustal.ucsb.edu,, 11-3030-08)
SUMMARIZING
„
„
„
„
Exclude information not important to these critical
parts of the story (i.e., small or redundant details)
Say the same thing only once!
Replace a collection of elements with the
appropriate superordinate term (instead of “He had
a dog, cat, rabbit, and turtle”
turtle” say “He had many
pets.”
pets.”
Edit and Reduce: A summary is different from a
description: In a summary you:
– Delete! Delete! Delete!
„
Keep a copy of these strategies on a form inside
the writing folders (e.g., for 4th grade)
LISTENING
Summarizing
„
Source
– Paratore,
Paratore, Jeanne R. (1999, Nov.)
– Brown, A., & Day, J. (1983)
Include a sentence that expresses the main
idea or theme
„ Represent all critical parts of the story
„
Listening
„
Source
– Schreiber & McKinley (1995)
Listening is taught the least at school and
taken for granted (Nichols, 1995)
„ Listening is a “basic survival skill”
skill” (Sch &
McK,
McK, p. 63)
„
– Beginning, middle, end
– Setting, problem, solution or consequence
American Speech-Language-Hearing
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9
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
A. Relevant Details
75% of everyday interaction is oral (Wolff
et al., 1983)
„ In high school, students spend 46% of their
time in the classroom listening (143/150
minutes of talking is spent listening;
Goodlad,
Goodlad, 1983)
„ “Good listening requires empathy…
empathy…and
suspending preoccupation with our own
[experience]”
[experience]” (Sch & McK,
McK, p. 64; Nichols,
1995)
„
„
„
„
„
Activity 1
Classroom Survival
4 Kinds of Listening
1.
2.
3.
4.
„
„
Discriminative (Informational)
Evaluative (Critical Thinking)
Appreciative
Empathic
First 2 are need every day in school
It is a misconception that children are truly
listening when they merely say back what you
just said or remember directions or a sequence of
events (Sch
(Sch & McK,
McK, p. 67)
Lectures may include too many details
Only relevant details are used to create the test
questions
Adolescents with SLI have trouble picking out
who, what objects, what happened, to what extent,
where, when, how, which one, etc.
Moving from teacher supplied study guides
(elementary and middle school) to student selfselfgenerated study guides from their own notes (high
school and college)
„
Train adolescents with SLI to first use and
eventually create study guides
– Students with SLI (and preadolescents!) often
take only sketchy notes or none at all
Tape recording or sharing/copying someone
else’
else’s notes
„ StudyStudy-buddy: after each class session
„
1. Discriminative Listening
Take notes to answer basic whwh-questions for
each lecture topic
„ Ask for clarification as soon as possible
after confusion occurs.
„
A.
B.
C.
D.
Global ideas and relevant details
The speaker’
speaker’s organizational plan
How examples and illustrations convey
global ideas
Following instructions
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association Convention, Nov. 21, 2008,
Chicago, IL
– Use a key word instead of a general statement
(“I got lost when you said mechanical”
mechanical” vs. “I
don’
don’t know what you mean.”
mean.”)
– Put a ? or * in your notes wherever you got
confused. Then ask for clarification before or
after class.
10
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
„
Activity 1
Basic Patterns
Learn to be tactful when asking for clarification (Sch. &
McK,
McK, p. 91).
Unappreciated Better (Take personal
responsibility for your own
learning.)
What do I have How should I study for the test?
to know for the I have a lot of details in my
notes. How can I figure out
test?
which ones are most important?
I want to be careful to study well
Is that on the
for the test. Can you help me
test?
pick out the right things to
study?
„
A good listening fact to learn: Teachers
warm to students who show enthusiasm for
learning the lesson and seem to be trying
their best (Sch. & McK,
McK, p. 91).
B. The Speaker’
Speaker’s Organizational Plan
„
“Identify the structural pattern in each
message (Sch. & McK,
McK, p. 92) :
– We’
We’ll talk about three time periods: 1850,
1900, 1950.
– Should the government cut back on health care?
Yes or no?
– I would like to talk about the major economic
impact of war.
– What, then, were the causes of World War 1?
– Let’
Let’s talk about how to write a business letter.”
letter.”
„
Discuss:
– Could any of these ideas use a combination of
plans? (Sch. & McK,
McK, p. 93)
– What are some of the words that are cues for a
particular pattern?
– Which plan would you use to tell a teacher
something?
C. Examples of Global Ideas
5 kinds of plans that represent the most
common ways to organize information
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
„
„
Chronological (Jalongo
(Jalongo,, 1991)
Procedural (step(step-byby-step directions)
Categorical (several factors or characteristics)
Comparative (similarities and differences)
Causative (cause and effect)
Or combinations of these 5
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association Convention, Nov. 21, 2008,
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11
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
Activity 1
Matching Examples to Global Ideas
„
– Global Idea 2: Reading is an excellent way to
gather new ideas (Sch & McK,
McK, p. 98):
Which items are examples of the global
idea? (Sch
(Sch & McK,
McK, p. 96)
a. I changed spark plugs in my care after reading how
to do it, and I had never done it before.
b. Reading at night without sufficient light can cause
eye strain.
c. Books can be checked out from the public library.”
library.”
– “Relative: a. picnic, b. cousin c. wedding
– Subject: a. math, b. refrigerator, c. engine
– Government: a. democracy, b. president, c.
communism
– Meal: a. water, b. table, c. lunch
– Wars: a. Korean, b. guns, c. 1812”
1812”
Activity 3
Generating Examples
„
Discuss:
„
– How does listening for examples help you
figure out the main idea? How could a poor
example or no example interfere with listening?
(Sch & McK,
McK, p. 97)
Activity 2
Matching of Longer Statements to
Global Ideas
„
Which statements are examples of the
global idea? (Sch
(Sch & McK,
McK, p. 98)
– Global Idea 1: “Education faces some serious
problems:
problems:
a. Most young children are eager to go to school.
b. One out of four high school students drops out
before graduating.
c. More crimes against youth occur in high schools
than anywhere else.
American Speech-Language-Hearing
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Chicago, IL
Generate examples for the following global
ideas. Monitor each others’
others’ examples. Are
they relevant to the global idea? (Sch
(Sch &
McK,
McK, p. 102)
– Book
– Musical group
– An excellent parent
„
Discuss:
– Are some global ideas easier to monitor than
others? Due to your familiarity with the topic?
(Sch & McK,
McK, p. 103)
– If you disagree with someone, what cues can
you give while listening?
– When might you want to hide your feelings
when you disagree?
12
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
Activity 2
Barrier Games
D. Following Instructions
With a partial barrier, so the partners can
see each other’
other’s facial expressions
„
– Highlight accuracy in verbal messages and
attention to nonverbal cues
Reciprocity in playing the speaker/listener
role
„ Ask questions for clarification and respond
to requests for clarification
„
Activity 1
Repeating and Explaining Directions
„
Collect instructions from a variety of
academic subjects (Sch
(Sch & McK,
McK, p. 104)
„ SLP reads them and student:
„
„
„
– repeats them
– counts the number of steps involved
– summarizes and explains what to do, as in
“Take the swab and rub it across the material.
Next rub the swab on the glass slide. Then
place the small glass cover on top of the slide.”
slide.”
„
While looking at identical maps, Partner 1
announces a starting point and route
Partner 2 follow the directions and announces the
final destination at which he arrives
First done stepstep-byby-step, later in one set of
directions without interruption. Even later, do the
game without allowing questions.
Think of the real locations the map represents.
2. Evaluative Listening
„
Take the instructions from:
– Student exercises in textbooks
– “HowHow-to”
to” books
– Operating manuals
„
Discuss unfamiliar vocabulary in the
instructions, as in “swab, glass slide”
slide”
American Speech-Language-Hearing
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Chicago, IL
A.
B.
C.
D.
Discriminating facts from opinions
Recognizing prejudice, propaganda, and
bias
Knowing criteria for judging the truth of
statements and for drawing inferences
Evaluating the validity of arguments and
whether there is sufficient evidence to
uphold the argument
13
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
A. Facts vs. Opinions
Activity 3
Compare TrueTrue-False with FactFact-Opinion
„
Are all facts true? Are all opinions false?
(Sch & McK,
McK, p. 117)
– State a false fact.
– State a true opinion? Would it be true for
everyone? Can it be done?
„
Find opinions that pass for facts:
– “The most important skill is wilderness
survival.
– People prefer the taste of our brand.”
brand.”
„
Activity 1
Restating Facts and Opinions
„
Identify and discuss (Sch
(Sch & McK,
McK, p. 114):
Activity 4
Detecting Evidence or Lack of It
„
– Synonyms for fact (law, truth)
truth)
– Synonyms for opinion (view, feeling,
impression, conviction)
conviction)
„
Which statements have been proven to be
factual. Find the evidence in a reference
book, etc. (Sch
(Sch & McK,
McK, p. 118)
– “Earth is the only planet with life on it.
– All plants need sunlight to grow.
– Horses are mammals.
– Lake Michigan will never recover from its
polluted state.”
state.”
„
Activity 2
Facts or Opinions?
Explain why an opinion is not a fact.
When evidence is hard to find, does that
mean that the statement is false?
C. Criteria for Judgments and
Inferences
Are the following statements fact or
opinions? Change the facts into opinions
and vice versa (Sch
(Sch & McK,
McK, p. 114114-115):
– “All boys should play football.
– Some children have Roller blades.
– Parents should never spank children.”
children.”
„
To change opinion to fact, you need to
change the verb.
– Parents could (can) spank children → Some
parents spank children.
American Speech-Language-Hearing
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14
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
D. Validity of Arguments and
Sufficient Evidence
Activity 1
Supplying an Ending
„
What does inference mean? (Sch
(Sch & McK,
McK, p.
124)
– Predict outcomes based on the information at
hand
– Facts or opinions you hear + What you already
know → Draw a conclusion
– Examine the facts and make a judgment
„
– “The baby was hungry, so Ellie went to the
grocery store and bought _____.
– The morning of the picnic there was a
cloudburst, so Jeff and Bob decided _____.
„
Activity 1
Recognizing Errors in Arguments
Supply a conclusion and explain or defend it.
(Sch & McK,
McK, p. 124124-125)
Read Choose Your own Adventure series
(Bantam Books) to students:
The speaker tries to persuade the listener to
accept a new idea (“
(“adoption”
adoption”) or stop doing
something (“
“
discontinuance”
( discontinuance”). (Sch
(Sch & McK,
McK,
p. 130)
„ Common errors made by persuaders:
„
– False reasoning: Because we are used to
something, we should keep doing it.
– Hasty generalization: based on only a few cases.
– Hidden variable: if two events occur together,
one cause the other (correlation = causality)
– “At each decision point, students can draw a
conclusion and explain their reasoning.”
reasoning.”
Activity 2
Supplying a Beginning
„
Present outcomes of situations. Infer what
lead to each outcome. (Sch
(Sch & McK,
McK, p. 126)
– “The dog scratched and scratched itself all day.
– The child cried until he fell asleep.
– The potted plant lay broken on the floor.”
floor.”
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association Convention, Nov. 21, 2008,
Chicago, IL
„
One group creates persuasive arguments.
Second group (a) looks for common errors,
(b) judges if the goal is adoption or
discontinuance, and (c) decides if they were
persuaded by the argument (Sch
(Sch & McK,
McK, p.
130)
– “The voting age should be lowered to age 15.
– There should be a law that says each child in a
family is entitled to a private bedroom.”
bedroom.”
15
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
Coaching for Conversation:
Playing Games
Activity 2
Analyzing Arguments in Daily Encounters
„
Students identify arguments in which
someone tried to persuade them.
– Describe the situation, determine the
persuader’
persuader’s goal, identify any common errors,
and decide if you were persuaded.
„
Students create persuasive arguments for
situations where they frequently lose.
Source
„
–
Oden & Asher (1977), Child Development
Participating
1.
–
–
Getting started
Paying Attention
Cooperating
2.
–
–
– Does someone always need to win an argument?
Taking turns
Sharing material
4. Empathic Listening
„
StopStop-ThinkThink-Do Homework
„
Social coaching: Be friendly, fun, and nice
3.
– With the school social worker
Communicating
– Talking
– Listening
4.
Validating, Supporting
–
–
–
–
“Be friendly, fun, and nice.”
nice.”
Paying attention: Looking at the other person
Giving a smile
Offering help or encouragement
DISCUSSION
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association Convention, Nov. 21, 2008,
Chicago, IL
16
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
Discussion (Reciprocal Teaching)
„
Source
– Palincsar & Brown (1985)
Read a paragraph, page, or section of a
book (narrative or expository text)
„ Four strategies for discussion
„
1.Generate
1.Generate questions
2.Summarize
2.Summarize the material
3.Clarify
3.Clarify (vocabulary, pronouns)
4.Predict
4.Predict
Classroom Teacher: Nice job! I have a
question,
question, too. Why does the aquanaut wear
a belt? What is so special about it?
„ Student 3: It’
It’s a heavy belt and keeps him
from floating up to the top again.
„ Classroom Teacher: Good for you.
„ Student 1: For my summary now…
now…This
paragraph was about what the aquanaut
needs to take when they go under the water.
„ Student 5: And also about why they need
those things.
„
Student 3: I think we need to clarify gear.
gear.
„ Student 6: That’
That’s the special things they
need.
„ Classroom Teacher: Another word for gear
in this story might be equipment.
equipment. The
equipment that makes it easier for the
aquanauts to do their job.
„ Student 1: I don’
don’t think I have a prediction
to make.
„ Classroom Teacher: Well, in the story they
tell us that there are “many strange and
„
Each student in the group takes a turn being
the “teacher”
teacher” (leading the discussion).
„ Called “reciprocal teaching”
teaching” because each
student assumes the speaker and listener
roles.
„ 20 days (1 mo. ) of instruction
„
Excerpt from Reciprocal Teaching
“Student 1 (the “teacher”
teacher” for the moment):
My question is, what does the aquanaut
need when he goes under water?
„ Student 2: A watch.
„ Student 3: Flippers.
„ Student 4: A belt.
„ Student 1: Those are all good answers.
„
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association Convention, Nov. 21, 2008,
Chicago, IL
wonderful creatures”
creatures” that the aquanauts see
as they do their work. My prediction is that
they will describe some of these creatures.
What are some of the strange creatures that
you already know about that live in the
ocean?
„ Student 6: Octopuses.
„ Student 3: Whales?
„ Student 5: Sharks!
„ Classroom Teacher: Let’
Let’s listen and find
out . Who will be our [next] teacher?”
teacher?”
17
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
Notes in Social Studies
„
NOTENOTE-TAKING
Teacher projects Power Point slides of a
hierarchical outline of the material, one line at a
time.
– She poses a question about each line of the outline.
– Students read the textbook passage and answer the
question out loud in a group discussion.
– The teacher explains and tells more about that point.
If the students’
students’ answer is correct, she reveals that
line of the outline for the students to copy by hand.
Note-taking
„
Create abbreviations for common words:
– w/ = with, ch = child, lang = language
– Common in ee-mailing and instant messaging
„
– Students turn in their outlines for a grade.
– Teacher provides students with a typed copy of
their outlines.
Stickwriting (Ukrainetz,
Ukrainetz, 1998)
– Quick and easy drawings
– Arrows between facts or events in a sequence
„
Write phrases instead of full sentences
Chronology of Events
Social Studies Notes
Flow Map (Hyerle
(Hyerle,, 2004)
„ StickWriting (Ukrainetz,
Ukrainetz, 2006)
„
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association Convention, Nov. 21, 2008,
Chicago, IL
18
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
– Mentors need to have expertise that exceeds
that of the student.
“LIBRARY RESEARCH,”
RESEARCH,”
MENTORS, AND BARTERING
“Library Research”, Mentors,
(and Bartering)
» The mentor can be a family member who assumes
the role out of devotion to the student.
» In lieu of a family member, the child can “barter”
barter” to
find a willing mentor: assist the mentor with a
different task in exchange for help on the current
one.
» Bartering keeps the student on equal terms with the
mentor and maintains the student’
student’s selfself-esteem.
Emily Dickinson
Finding and interpreting resources (a major
goal in the IL State Learning Standards)
„ Language Arts (writing class)
„
– Create a collection of your favorite poets
» Find 10 poems by 4 different poets
» Recite 1 of the poems by memory
– Mentor previews poetry books and poems and
selects a larger set that might interest the
student and be within the range of his or her
understanding
Emily Dickinson
– Mentor reads each poem aloud to the student,
using engaging intonation and phrasing, and
paraphrases (interprets) the wording so that the
student can understand the meaning of the
poem
– The student selects his 10 favorite poems and
the one he or she will recite.
– The student writes the name of the poet on each
poem.
– The student recites one poem by memory for
his writing class.
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association Convention, Nov. 21, 2008,
Chicago, IL
19
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
Oral Language to Promote
Story/Report Writing
Dylan Thomas
Focused Mini-Lessons (Avery, 1993; SLP in pull-out)
“Think Aloud” (Hayes & Flower, 1987)
Discussion
Print
(Book,
Internet
Material)
(Collaborative,
Receptive/
Expressive
Discourse)
Print
(Dictation)
WRITING 2-PARAGRAPH
READING RESPONSES AND
5-PARAGRAPH ESSAYS
Pull-Out Language Therapy to
Promote Story/Report Reading or
Writing
Reading/Writing Expository Text
Reading Comprehension
„
„
Reading Response (2-Paragraph Essay – ISAT
test, March 5, 2007)
Discussion
–
–
–
–
–
–
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association Convention, Nov. 21, 2008,
Chicago, IL
State the main theme, not a just a related one
Find two relevant examples in the text that support it
Provide a personal link to each example
Explain each link
Make a transition between Paragraphs 1 and 2
Sustain the theme even in Paragraph 2
20
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
2-Paragraph Reading Response
(3rd Grade)
Babies and puppies are alike because when the
puppy, Dolly, was four weeks old, she could
finally sit and stand. Then she took her first step.
Soon she was running all over the place. When I
was one year old, I took my first step pushing a
little cart. Pretty soon I was zooming all around
the kitchen. Puppies and babies take their first
steps and are excited to go around the house on
their own.
Once they walk, puppies and babies want to
do more. Every day the outside world looked
more interesting. Then Dolly could get out of her
box all by herself. When I was little, the
countertops and cupboard looked interesting to
me. I climbed up on the counters to get myself
anything I wanted! Puppies and babies enjoy
climbing and exploring. Babies and puppies are
both really active.
Mouse Brother Essay
Ben, 3rd Grade
Sample of perfect paper
(teacher’s evaluation)
Reading/Writing Expository Text
Using a “Pillars” Graphic Organizer (5Paragraph Essay)
„ Discussion
„
– Introduction: General truth (Effect)
– Three supportive reasons (Cause)
» Three supportive details per reason
– Conclusion
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association Convention, Nov. 21, 2008,
Chicago, IL
FOLLOWING VERBAL
INSTRUCTIONS AND
CONFORMING TO SCORING
RUBRICS FOR ASSIGNMENTS
21
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
Third Grade– 2nd Semester (Ben)
Reading/Writing Narratives
Reading Comprehension
„
„
Characters in Charlotte’s Web
Discussion (Spoken Discourse)
– Don’t be satisfied with a minimalistic response
– Don’t rely on brief routines (“nice, good, kind”)
– Read the instructions, don’t just look at the visual
graphic organizer and guess what to do
– Respond fully to the instructions
– Use information in the book, don’t rely only on your
general memory of the book or outside knowledge of
the world.
– Search, find, and integrate information (= summarize).
– What the character says and does (physical Causes) =
an abstract noun or adjective (psychological Effect),
e.g., Goose = troublemaker, bossy
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association Convention, Nov. 21, 2008,
Chicago, IL
22
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
Character Development:
Bubble Map
Talked with Mom
Square surrounding the Map = Context (How you learned what you
added to the map) (Hyerle, 2004, p. 6)
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association Convention, Nov. 21, 2008,
Chicago, IL
23
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
Reading/Writing Expository Text
„
„
Science Report on Five Inventors (3-Paragraph
Essays)
Discussion
– Read the instructions and respond to them fully (e.g.,
benefits of the invention to people)
– Provide lesser detail, by search and find: Don’t assume
that information not readily found does not exist
(“Other Inventions: none”)
– Interpret difficult print material downloaded from the
Web
– Read the scoring rubric and respond to it fully (include
3 paragraphs: an introduction, body, and conclusion)
NEGOTIATING
Oral Language to Print
„
In 3rd and 5th grades, children may need
focused min-lessons in how to interpret
graphic organizers in order to write
descriptive summaries of chapter books, 2paragraph Reading Responses, and 3- and
5-paragraph essays.
Negotiating
„
Source
– Brinton, Fujiki, & McKee (1998)
„
6 children with SLI
– Ages 8;10 to 12;5
– In a triad with 2 children with normal language
„
Children with SLI produced
– a smaller percentage of the negotiation
strategies used by their triad partners
– Lower-level negotiation strategies
When we build bridges from oral language
to print, we fulfill our role and
responsibility for writing and serve the
needs of our young clients who are at high
risk for writing difficulties.
„ I believe we will find that our young clients
are able to move from collaborative to
independent writing, when apprenticed as
storytellers and writers.
„
American Speech-Language-Hearing
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RESOLVING CONFLICTS
24
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
Resolving Conflicts
„
Source
– Stevens & Bliss (1995)
30 children with SLI and 30 children with
normal language (NL)
„ In Grades 3-7
„ An imaginary conflict was presented
„
CONCLUSIONS
– Supply a hypothetical solution
– Role play the conflict
Conclusions
– Children with SLI proposed fewer solutions
– Two groups were similar in strategy types used
in role-play
„
Goals and activities for intervention with
adolescents can focus on:
– Structure of Language
» Role play was worse when children had both
receptive and expressive SLI
» Vocabulary, syntax, and discourse
– Function of Language
» For academics and social interaction at school
» Paraphrasing, Dictating, Summarizing, Listening,
Discussing, Note Taking, Library Research,
Negotiating, and Resolving Conflicts
Time-Ordered Agenda
„
2:00
„
2:30
„
2:40
„
Ten Goals and Activities for School
Functions (cont.)
Conclusions: School Language
Structures and Functions
(7th
Case
grader with Note-taking
challenges)
– Questions
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association Convention, Nov. 21, 2008,
Chicago, IL
SLPs are perfectly poised to provide such
assistance, even with a pull-out model
rather than a classroom or writing-lab
approach.
– In particular, focused min-lessons entail
discussion of “think aloud.” This is the SLP’s
domain of expertise: receptive/expressive
language, metalinguistics, and discourse-level
language.
25
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
„
„
Students can be effectively shown how to
transfer success with these goals to real
classrooms and social interactions at school.
„ I believe we need to be addressing these
structures and functions in order to have
enough impact on the language learning of
children with LI or LLD to prepare them for
college or success in the workplace.
„
Time-Ordered Agenda
2:00
„
2:30
„
2:40
„
Ten Goals and Activities for School
Functions (cont.)
Conclusions: School Language
Structures and Functions
Case
grader with Note-taking
challenges)
References
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
(7th
– Questions
„
„
Beck, I., McKeown, M., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life:
Robust Vocabulary Instruction. New York: Guilford Press.
Brinton, B., Fujiki, M., & McKee, L. (1998). Negotiation skills of
children with specific language impairment. Journal of SpeechLanguage-Hearing Research, 41, 927-940.
Brown, a., & Day, J. (1983). Macrorules for summarizing texts: The
development of expertise. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal
Behavior, 22, 1-14.
Catts, H., Fey, M., Tomblin, J.B., & Zhang, X. (2002).A Longitudinal
investigation of reading outcomes in children with language
impairments, Journal of Speech-Language-Hearing Research, 45,1142
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Eberhardt, N.B., Wiczer, E.S., Foster, S.K. (2008, Feb. 8). Transition
considerations for middle and high school college-bound SLI students.
Paper presented at 48th annual convention of the Illionis SpeechLanguage-Hhearing Association, Chicago, IL.
Giff,
Giff, P. Reilly. (1984). The Beast in Ms. Rooney’
Rooney’s Room. New York,
NY: Dell Yearling.
Goodlad, J. (1983). A place called school: Prospects for the future.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association Convention, Nov. 21, 2008,
Chicago, IL
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
Haugaard, E.C. (1984)/ The Samurai’s Tale. New York, NY:
Houghton, Mifflin Co.
Hendrickson, R (1987). The Henry Holt encyclopedia of word and
phrase origins. New York, NY: Henry Holt.
Hyerle, D. (Ed.) (2004). Student successes with thinking maps:
School-based research, results, and models for achievement using
visual tools. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Sage Publications.
Illinois Learning Standards, English Language Arts, Illinois State
Board of Education. Downloaded on March 29, 2008 from
www.isbe.net/ils/ela/standards.htm.
Larson, V., & McKinley , N. (1995). Language disorders in older
students: Preadolescents and Adolescents. Eau Claire, WI: Thinking
Publications.
Larson, V., & McKinley, N. (2003). Communication solutions for
older students: Assessment and intervention strategies. Austin, TX:
Pro-Ed.
Leadholm, B., & Miller, J. (1992). Language sample analysis: The
Wisconsin Guide. Madison, WS: Wisconsin Department of Public
Instruction.
Lobel, A. (1983). Fables. New York, NY: Harper Trophy, Harper &
Row.
Nichols, M. (1995). The lost art of listening. New York: Guilford
Press.
Nippold, M. (2007). Later language development: School-age
children, adolescents, and young adults. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
Oden, S., & Asher, S. (1977). Coaching children in social skills for
friendship making. Child Development, 48 (2), 495-506.
Palincsar, A., & Brown, A. (1985). Reciprocal teaching: A means to a
meaningful end. In J. Osborn, P. Wilson, & R. Anderson (Eds.),
Reading education: foundations for a literate America. Lexington,
MA: D.C. Heath and Co.
Paratore, J. (1999, Nov.). Teaching reading and writing to children
with special needs. Paper presented to the American Speech-Language
Hearing Association Convention. San Francisco, CA.
Schreiber, L., & McKinley, N. (1995). Daily communication, 2nd
Edition. Eau Claire, WS: Thinking Publications.
Scott, C., & Stokes, S. (1995). Measures of syntax in school-age
children and adolescents. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in
Schools, 26, 309-319.
Stevens, L., & Bliss, L. (1995). Conflict resolution abilities of children
with specific language impairment and children with normal language.
Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 38, 599-611.
Sommer, E., & Weiss, D. (Eds.). (2001), Metaphors Dictionary.
Detroit, MI: Visible Ink Press.
Tomblin, J. B., Freese, P., & Records, N. (1992). Diagnosing specific
language impairment in adults for the purpose of pedigree analysis.
Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 35, 832 - 843.
Ukrainetz, T. (1998). Stickwriting stories: A quick and easy narrative
representation strategy. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in
Schools, 29, 197-206.
Ukrainetz, T., Justice, L., Kaderavek, J., Eisenberg, S., Gillam, R.,
& Harm, H. (2005). The Development of Expressive Elaboration in
Fictional Narratives, Journal of Speech-Language-Hearing Research,
48, 1363 - 1377.
26
Dr. Cynthia J. Johnson, "Language
Intervention for Late Elementary through
High School Students"
Thanks!
„ Please contact Dr. Cynthia
J. Johnson by e-mail at
[email protected]
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association Convention, Nov. 21, 2008,
Chicago, IL
27