Julius and Ethel Rosenberg
1 Early lives and education
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Julius Rosenberg was born to a family of Jewish
immigrants in New York City on May 12, 1918. The family moved to the Lower East Side by the time Julius was
11. His parents worked in the shops of the Lower East
Side, as Julius attended Seward Park High School. Julius
became a leader in the Young Communist League USA
while at City College of New York (CCNY). In 1939, he
graduated from CCNY with a degree in electrical engineering.[11]
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were United States citizens who spied for the Soviet Union and were tried, convicted, and executed for conspiracy to commit espionage.
They were instrumental in the transmission of information about top-secret military technology and prototypes
of mechanisms related to the atomic bomb, which were
of value to the Soviet nuclear weapons program.[1][2]
Other co-conspirators were imprisoned, including Ethel’s
brother, David Greenglass, who supplied documents from
Los Alamos to Julius and who served 10 years of his 15
year sentence; Harry Gold, who identified Greenglass and
served 15 years in Federal prison as the courier for Greenglass; and a German scientist, Klaus Fuchs, who served
nine years and four months.[3][4]
Ethel Greenglass was born on September 28, 1915, to a
Jewish family in New York City. She originally was an aspiring actress and singer, but eventually took a secretarial
job at a shipping company. She became involved in labor disputes and joined the Young Communist League,
where she met Julius in 1936. They married in 1939.[12]
Together they had two sons, Michael and Robert, born in
For many decades defenders of the Rosenbergs, including
1943 and 1947 respectively.
their sons, maintained that they were innocent and victims of Cold war paranoia. After the fall of the USSR,
much information concerning the case was declassified,
including a trove of decoded Soviet cables, codenamed 2 Espionage
VENONA, which detailed Julius’s role as a courier and
recruiter for the Soviets and Ethel’s role as an accesJulius Rosenberg joined the Army Signal Corps Engisory. The Rosenbergs’ sons’ current position is that Julius
neering Laboratories at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, in
was legally guilty of the conspiracy charge, though not of
1940, where he worked as an engineer-inspector until
atomic spying, while Ethel was only generally aware of
1945. He was fired when the U.S. Army discovered
his activities. They believe that he did not deserve the
his previous membership in the Communist Party. Imdeath penalty and that she was wrongly convicted. They
[5] portant research on electronics, communications, radar
continue to campaign for Ethel to be legally exonerated.
and guided missile controls was undertaken at Fort MonIn 2014, five historians who had published on the Rosen- mouth during World War II.[13]
berg case wrote that Soviet documents show that “Ethel
According to a 2001 book by his former handler
Rosenberg hid money and espionage paraphernalia for
Alexander Feklisov, Rosenberg was originally recruited
Julius, served as an intermediary for communications
by the NKVD on Labor Day 1942 by former spymaster
with his Soviet intelligence contacts, provided her perSemyon Semyonov.[14] He had been introduced to Semysonal evaluation of individuals Julius considered recruitonov by Bernard Schuster, a high-ranking member of the
ing, and was present at meetings with his sources. They
Communist Party USA as well as Earl Browder's personal
also demonstrate that Julius reported to the KGB that
NKVD liaison. After Semyonov was recalled to Moscow
Ethel persuaded Ruth Greenglass to travel to New Mexin 1944, his duties were taken over by Feklisov.[14]
ico to recruit David as a spy.”[6]
Rosenberg provided thousands of classified reports from
There is a consensus among historians that Julius and
Emerson Radio, including a complete proximity fuse,
Ethel Rosenberg were guilty, but their trial was marred by
an upgraded model of which was used to shoot down
clear judicial and legal improprieties and they should not
Gary Powers' U-2 in 1960. Under Feklisov’s adminhave been executed.[7][8] Distilling this consensus, Haristration, Rosenberg recruited sympathetic individuals
vard law professor Alan Dershowitz wrote that the Roseninto NKVD service, including Joel Barr, Alfred Sarant,
bergs were “guilty – and framed”.[9][10]
William Perl and Morton Sobell.[15] Perl supplied Feklisov, under Rosenberg’s direction, with thousands of
documents from the National Advisory Committee for
1
2
4
Aeronautics, including a complete set of design and production drawings for Lockheed’s P-80 Shooting Star, the
first U.S. jet plane. Feklisov learned through Rosenberg
that Ethel’s brother David Greenglass was working on the
top-secret Manhattan Project at the Los Alamos National
Laboratory; he directed Julius to recruit Greenglass.[14]
In February 1944, Rosenberg also succeeded in recruiting a second source of Manhattan Project information,
engineer Russell McNutt, who worked on designs for the
plants at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. For this coup,
Rosenberg received a $100 bonus. McNutt’s employment
provided access to secrets about processes for manufacturing weapons-grade uranium.[16][17]
TRIAL AND CONVICTION
ing him by having the shadow of a death penalty over him,
we want to do it.” Myles Lane, a member of the prosecution team, said that the case against Ethel Rosenberg was
“not too strong”, but that it was “very important that she
be convicted too, and given a stiff sentence”.[23]
The problem of a weak case against Ethel Rosenberg was
solved just 10 days before the start of the trial when David
and Ruth Greenglass were reinterviewed. They were persuaded to change their original stories. David had said
that he'd passed the atomic data he'd collected to Julius on
a New York street corner. Now he stated that he'd given
this information to Julius in the living room of the Rosenberg’s New York apartment and that Ethel, at Julius’s
request, had taken his notes and “typed them up”. In
her reinterview Ruth expanded on her husband’s version:
“Julius then took the info into the bathroom and read it
and when he came out he called Ethel and told her she
had to type this info immediately... Ethel then sat down
at the typewriter which she placed on a bridge table in the
living room and proceeded to type the info which David
had given to Julius.” As a result of this new testimony, all
charges against Ruth were dropped.[24]
The USSR and the U.S. were allies during World War
II, but the Americans did not share information about or
seek assistance from the Soviet Union for the Manhattan
Project. The West was shocked by the speed with which
the Soviets were able to stage their first nuclear test, "Joe
1", on August 29, 1949.[18] In January 1950, the U.S. discovered that Klaus Fuchs, a German refugee theoretical
physicist working for the British mission in the Manhattan
Project, had given key documents to the Soviets throughout the war. Fuchs identified his courier as Harry Gold, On August 11, Ethel Rosenberg testified before a grand
who was arrested on May 23, 1950.[19] Gold confessed jury. She refused to answer all the questions and as she
and identified David Greenglass as an additional source. left the courthouse she was taken into custody by FBI
agents. Her attorney asked the U.S. Commissioner to paDavid Greenglass was arrested by the FBI for espionage
in June 1950 and confessed to having passed secret role her in his custody over the weekend, so that she could
make arrangements for her two young children. The reinformation on to the USSR through Gold. He also
[25]
claimed that his sister’s husband Julius had convinced quest was denied. Julius and Ethel were put under preshis wife Ruth to recruit him while on a visit to him in sure to incriminate others involved in the spy ring. NeiAlbuquerque, New Mexico, in 1944. He said Julius had ther offered any further information. On August 17, the
passed secrets and thus linked him to the Soviet contact grand jury returned an indictment alleging 11 overt acts.
as were
agent Anatoli Yakovlev. This connection would be nec- Both Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were indicted,
[26]
David
Greenglass
and
Anatoli
Yakovlev.
essary as evidence if there was to be a conviction for espionage of the Rosenbergs.[20]
Another accused conspirator, Morton Sobell, fled to
Mexico City, where he tried to figure out a way to reach
Europe without a passport. Abandoning that effort, he
returned to Mexico City, from which he claimed to have
been kidnapped by members of the Mexican secret police and driven to the U.S. border, where he was arrested
by U.S. forces.[21][22] The government claimed Sobell was
arrested by the Mexican police for bank robbery on August 16, 1950, and extradited the next day to the United
States in Laredo, Texas.[22] He was charged and tried with
the Rosenbergs on one count of conspiracy to commit
espionage.
3
Grand jury
At a secret meeting on February 8, 1950, twenty senior
government officials met to discuss the Rosenberg case.
Gordon Dean, the chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, stated: “It looks as though Rosenberg is the king
pin of a very large ring, and if there is any way of break-
4 Trial and conviction
Police booking photograph of Ethel Rosenberg
The trial of the Rosenbergs and Sobell began on March
6, 1951. The judge was Irving Kaufman. The prosecutor was Irving Saypol, the U.S. Attorney for the Southern
District of New York. The attorney for the Rosenbergs
was Emanuel Hirsch Bloch.[27][28] The prosecution’s pri-
3
David Greenglass’ sketch of an implosion-type nuclear weapon
design, illustrating what he allegedly gave the Rosenbergs to pass
on to the Soviet Union
mitting or attempting to transmit to a foreign government
information “relating to the national defense”.[30] Prosecutor Roy Cohn, who would play a major role assisting Joseph McCarthy with his hearings as his chief counsel, later claimed that his influence led to both Kaufman
and Saypol being appointed to the case, and that Kaufman imposed the death penalty based on Cohn’s personal
recommendation.[31]
Police booking photograph of Julius Rosenberg after his arrest
In imposing the death penalty, Kaufman noted that he
held the Rosenbergs responsible not only for espionage
mary witness, David Greenglass, stated that he turned but also for the deaths of the Korean War:
over to his brother-in-law Julius Rosenberg a sketch of the
I consider your crime worse than murder...
cross-section of an implosion-type atom bomb (the "Fat
I
believe
your conduct in putting into the hands
Man" bomb dropped on Nagasaki, Japan, as opposed to
of
the
Russians
the A-Bomb years before our
a bomb with the “gun method” triggering device as used
[29]
best
scientists
predicted
Russia would perfect
in the "Little Boy" bomb dropped on Hiroshima). He
the
bomb
has
already
caused,
in my opinion,
also testified that his sister Ethel Rosenberg typed notes
the
Communist
aggression
in
Korea,
with the
containing U.S. nuclear secrets in the Rosenberg apartresultant
casualties
exceeding
50,000
and
who
ment in September 1945.
knows but that millions more of innocent peoBoth Rosenbergs remained defiant and during testimony
ple may pay the price of your treason. Indeed,
asserted their right under the U.S. Constitution’s Fifth
by your betrayal you undoubtedly have altered
Amendment to not incriminate themselves whenever
the course of history to the disadvantage of our
asked about involvement in the Communist Party or with
country. No one can say that we do not live in a
its members.
constant state of tension. We have evidence of
The Rosenbergs were convicted on March 29, 1951, and
your treachery all around us every day for the
on April 5 were sentenced to death by Judge Kaufman
civilian defense activities throughout the nation
under Section 2 of the Espionage Act of 1917, 50 U.S.
are aimed at preparing us for an atom bomb
Code 32 (now 18 U.S. Code 794), which prohibits transattack.[32]
4
6
EXECUTION
Julius Rosenberg claimed the case was a political frame- other appeals were also unsuccessful.[41][42]
up.
This death sentence is not surprising. It had
to be. There had to be a Rosenberg case, because there had to be an intensification of the
hysteria in America to make the Korean War
acceptable to the American people. There had
to be hysteria and a fear sent through America in order to get increased war budgets. And
there had to be a dagger thrust in the heart of
the left to tell them that you are no longer gonna
get five years for a Smith Act prosecution or
one year for contempt of court, but we're gonna
kill ya![33]
5
Campaign for clemency
After the publication of an investigative series in the
National Guardian and the formation of the National
Committee to Secure Justice in the Rosenberg Case,
some Americans came to believe both Rosenbergs were
innocent or received too harsh a punishment, and a
grassroots campaign was started to try to stop the couple’s
execution. Between the trial and the executions there
were widespread protests and claims of antisemitism; the
charges of antisemitism were widely believed abroad, but
not among the vast majority in the United States, where
the Rosenbergs did not receive any support from mainstream Jewish organizations. The American Civil Liberties Union refused to acknowledge any violations of civil
liberties in the case.[34]
6 Execution
Sing Sing Correctional Facility, where the Rosenbergs were executed
Because the United States Federal Bureau of Prisons did
not operate an electric chair at the time, the Rosenbergs
were transferred to the New York State-run Sing Sing
Correctional Facility in Ossining for execution. Julius
and Ethel Rosenberg were executed in the electric chair
at sundown on June 19, 1953.[43][44] The executioner was
Joseph Francel, then the executioner of New York.
This was delayed from the originally scheduled date of
June 18 because, on June 17, Supreme Court Associate
Justice William O. Douglas had granted a stay of execution. That stay resulted from the intervention in the case
by Fyke Farmer, a Tennessee lawyer whose efforts had
previously been met with scorn from the Rosenbergs’ atMarxist (and later Nobel Prize-winning) existentialist torney, Emanuel Hirsch Bloch.[45]
philosopher and writer Jean-Paul Sartre called the trial
“a legal lynching which smears with blood a whole na- On June 18, the court was called back into special session
tion. By killing the Rosenbergs, you have quite sim- to dispose of Douglas’ stay rather than let the execution
ply tried to halt the progress of science by human be delayed for months while the appeal that was the basis
sacrifice. Magic, witch-hunts, autos-da-fé, sacrifices of the stay wended its way through the lower courts. The
– we are here getting to the point: your country is court did not vacate Douglas’ stay until noon on Friday,
11
sick with fear ... you are afraid of the shadow of June 19. Thus, the execution then was scheduled for [46]
pm
that
evening,
after
the
start
of
the
Jewish
Sabbath.
[35]
your own bomb.” Others, including non-Communists
such as Jean Cocteau, Albert Einstein and Nobel Prize– Desperately playing for more time, their lawyer, Bloch,
winning physical chemist Harold Urey,[36] as well as filed a complaint that this offended their Jewish heritage.
Communists or left-leaning artists such as Nelson Al- This argument was also made in front of Judge Kaufman
who was also part of the Rosengren, Bertolt Brecht, Dashiell Hammett, Frida Kahlo and by attorney Rhoda Laks,
[47]
The
play backfired and the execuberg
defense
team.
Diego Rivera, protested the position of the American
tion
was
rescheduled
to
before
sunset, at 8 pm instead of
government in what the French termed the US Dreyfus
the
regular
time
of
execution
at
Sing Sing of 11 pm.[48]
[37]
affair. In May 1951, Pablo Picasso wrote for the communist French newspaper L'Humanité, “The hours count. The Rosenbergs were executed separately, Julius first.
The minutes count. Do not let this crime against human- He died after the first electric shock, but she did not.
ity take place.”[38] The all-black labor union International After the normal course of three electric shocks, attenLongshoremen’s Association Local 968 stopped work- dants removed the strapping and other equipment only to
ing for a day in protest.[39] Cinema artists such as Fritz have doctors determine that Ethel’s heart was still beating.
Lang registered their protest.[40] Pope Pius XII appealed Two more electric shocks were applied, and at the concluto President Dwight D. Eisenhower to spare the couple, sion eyewitnesses, Bob Considine among them, reported
but Eisenhower refused on February 11, 1953, and all that smoke rose from her head.[49]
5
Ethel and Julius Rosenberg were buried at Wellwood
Cemetery, a Jewish cemetery in Pinelawn, New
York.[46][50] The funeral services were held in Brooklyn
on June 21. The Times reported that 500 people attended,
while some 10,000 stood outside:[51]
The bodies had been brought from Sing
Sing prison by the national “Rosenberg committee” which undertook the funeral arrangements, and an all-night vigil was held in one
of the largest mortuary chapels in Brooklyn.
Many hundreds of people filed past the biers.
Most of them clearly regarded the Rosenbergs
as martyred heroes and more than 500 mourners attended to-day’s services, while a crowd
estimated at 10,000 stood outside in burning
heat. Mr. Bloch [their counsel], who delivered
one of the main orations, bitterly exclaimed
that America was “living under the heel of a
military dictator garbed in civilian attire": the
Rosenbergs were “Sweet. Tender. And intelligent” and the course they took was one of
“courage and heroism”.
used in the Soviet atomic bomb project.[57] According
to Alexander Feklisov, the former Soviet agent who was
Julius’ contact, the Rosenbergs did not provide the Soviet
Union with any useful material about the atomic bomb:
“He [Julius] didn't understand anything about the atomic
bomb and he couldn't help us.”[58]
8 Later developments
8.1 Venona
In 1995, the results of the Venona decryption project
were released by the U.S. government, clearly showing
Julius Rosenberg’s role as the leader of a productive ring
of spies.[59] They show Ethel’s role was more limited,
but that she hid money and espionage paraphernalia for
Julius, served as an intermediary for communications
with his Soviet intelligence contacts, provided her personal evaluation of individuals Julius considered recruiting, and was present at meetings with his sources. They
also demonstrate that Julius reported to the KGB that
Ethel persuaded Ruth Greenglass to travel to New MexThe Rosenbergs were the only two American civilians ico to recruit David as a spy.[60]
to be executed for espionage-related activity during the
Cold War.[52] The then Deputy Attorney General of the
United States William P. Rogers, when later asked about 8.2 David and Ruth Greenglass
the death sentence imposed on Ethel in an effort to extract a full confession from Julius, reportedly said, “She David Greenglass, Ethel Rosenberg’s brother and key
called our bluff.”[53]
prosecution witness, recanted his testimony about his sis-
7
Soviet nuclear program
ter having typed the notes. In 2001 he stated, “I frankly
think my wife did the typing, but I don't remember.”[61]
He said he gave false testimony to protect himself and his
wife, Ruth, and that he was encouraged by the prosecution to do so; “My wife is more important to me than my
sister. Or my mother or my father, O.K.? And she was
the mother of my children.”[61] He refused to express any
remorse for his decision to betray his sister, saying only
that he did not realize that the death penalty would be
invoked.[52] He stated, “I would not sacrifice my wife and
my children for my sister.”[52] In September 2008, hundreds of pages of grand jury transcripts were released.
With this release, it was revealed that Ruth Greenglass
had irreconcilable differences between her grand jury
testimony of August 1950 and the testimony she gave
at trial. At the grand jury, Ruth Greenglass was asked,
“Didn't you write [the information] down on a piece of
paper?"[62] She replied, “Yes, I wrote [the information]
down on a piece of paper and [Julius Rosenberg] took
it with him.”[62] But at the trial, she testified that Ethel
Rosenberg typed up notes about the atomic bomb.[62]
Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan, vice-chairman of the
Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, investigated
how much the Soviet spy ring helped the USSR to build
their bomb. In 1945, Moynihan found, physicist Hans
Bethe estimated that the Soviets would be able to build
their own bomb in five years. “Thanks to information
provided by their agents”, Moynihan wrote in his book
Secrecy, “they did it in four”.[54] In his posthumously published memoirs, Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet
Union from 1953 to 1964, said that he “cannot specifically say what kind of help the Rosenbergs provided us”
but that he learned from Joseph Stalin and Vyacheslav
Molotov that they “had provided very significant help
in accelerating the production of our atomic bomb”.[55]
However Boris V. Brokhovich, the engineer who later became director of Chelyabinsk-40, the plutonium production reactor and extraction facility that the Soviet Union
used to create its first bomb material, called Khrushchev
a 'silly fool' and claimed the development of the bomb
had been a matter of trial and error. “You sat the Rosen- 8.3 Morton Sobell
bergs in the electric chair for nothing,” he said. “We
got nothing from the Rosenbergs.”[56] The notes allegedly In 2008, after many years of denial, Morton Sobell fityped by Ethel apparently contained little that was directly nally admitted he was a Soviet spy and confirmed Julius
6
9
ARTISTIC REPRESENTATIONS
targeted activists.[66] Michael has recently retired as the
Chair and Professor of Economics, School of Arts and
Sciences, Economics at Western New England College
in Springfield, Massachusetts. Michael’s daughter, Ivy
Meeropol, directed a 2004 documentary about her grandparents, Heir to an Execution, which was featured at the
Sundance Film Festival.[67]
8.5 Campaign for the exoneration of Ethel
Rosenberg
Morton Sobell (left), Marshall Perlin, Robert Meeropol, Franz
Loeser, April 19, 1976.
Rosenberg was “in a conspiracy that delivered to the Soviets classified military and industrial information ... [on]
the atomic bomb”, and that, “He never told me about
anything else that he was engaged in.”[63] However, he
stated that he thought the hand-drawn diagrams and other
atomic-bomb details that were acquired by David Greenglass and passed to Julius were of “little value” to the Soviet Union, and were used only to corroborate what they
had already learned from the other atomic spies.[63] He
also stated that he believed Ethel Rosenberg was aware
of her husband’s deeds, but took no part in them.[63] In a
subsequent letter to The New York Times, Sobell denied
that he knew anything about Julius Rosenberg’s alleged
atomic espionage activities – that the only thing he knew
for sure was what he himself did in association with Julius
Rosenberg.[64]
8.4
The Rosenbergs’ children
The Rosenbergs’ two sons, Michael Meeropol and Robert
Meeropol, spent years trying to prove the innocence of
their parents. They were orphaned by the executions and
no relatives adopted them. They were adopted by the high
school teacher, poet, songwriter and social activist Abel
Meeropol (author of the popular song 'Strange Fruit') and
his wife Anne, and they assumed the Meeropol surname.
After Morton Sobell's 2008 confession, they acknowledged their father had been involved in espionage, but
said that “whatever atomic bomb information their father
passed to the Russians was, at best, superfluous; the case
was riddled with prosecutorial and judicial misconduct;
their mother was convicted on flimsy evidence to place
leverage on her husband; and neither deserved the death
penalty.”[65]
Michael and Robert co-wrote a book about their and
their parents’ lives, We Are Your Sons: The Legacy of
Ethel and Julius Rosenberg (1975). Robert wrote a later
memoir, An Execution in the Family: One Son’s Journey
(2003). In 1990, he founded the Rosenberg Fund for
Children, a nonprofit foundation that provides support for
children of targeted liberal activists, and youth who are
In 2015, following the most recent grand jury transcript release, the Rosenbergs’ sons, Michael and Robert
Meeropol[68] called on the Obama administration to acknowledge that Ethel Rosenberg’s conviction and execution was wrongful, and issue a proclamation to exonerate her. Similarly, on September 28, 2015, the 100th
anniversary of Ethel’s birth, 11 members of the New
York City Council issued a proclamation stating that “the
government wrongfully executed Ethel Rosenberg”, and
Manhattan Borough President Gale Brewer officially recognized, “the injustice suffered by Ethel Rosenberg and
her family”, and declared it, “Ethel Rosenberg Day of
Justice in the Borough of Manhattan”. In March 2016,
Michael and Robert (via the Rosenberg Fund for Children) launched a petition campaign calling on President
Barack Obama and Attorney General Loretta Lynch to
formally exonerate Ethel Rosenberg before they leave office in January 2017.[69] In October 2016, the CBS news
show 60 Minutes presented the story of the Rosenbergs’
children who are seeking a proclamation from President
Barack Obama that their mother’s conviction was unjust
and her execution was wrongful. [70]
9 Artistic representations
• The E. L. Doctorow novel The Book of Daniel
(1971) is based on the Rosenberg case as seen
through the eyes of a (fictionalized) son. Doctorow wrote the screenplay of the Sidney Lumet film
Daniel, starring Timothy Hutton.
• Robert Coover's The Public Burning (1977) dealt
with the case. Unlike Doctorow, Coover uses real
names for most protagonists of the case, and uses a
fictionalized Richard Nixon as his narrator for half
of the chapters. This sparked a long delay in the publication of the novel, since publishing houses feared
lawsuits from persons portrayed in the book.
• Ethel Rosenberg is a major supporting character
in Tony Kushner's critically acclaimed play Angels
in America: A Gay Fantasia on National Themes
(1993), in which her ghost haunts a dying Roy Cohn.
In the HBO 2003 miniseries adaptation of the play,
she was portrayed by Meryl Streep.[71]
7
• Ethel Rosenberg also appears in the memories of
Cohn, and then as a spirit to haunt the dying Cohn,
in the biography Citizen Cohn as well as its HBO film
adaptation.
[6] Radosh, Ronald; Klehr, Harvey; Haynes, John Earl; Hornblum, Allen M.; Usdin, Steven (17 October 2014). “The
New York Times Gets Greenglass Wrong”. Weekly Standard. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
• Jillian Cantor’s The Hours Count (2015) tells the fictional story of a woman who befriends Ethel and
Julius Rosenberg and is drawn into their world of
intrigue.
[7] Radosh, Ronald (10 June 2016). “Rosenbergs Redux”.
[8] Ph.D, Frankie Y. Bailey; Ph.D, Steven Chermak. Crimes
and Trials of the Century [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p.
205. ISBN 9781573569736. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
• The main character in Sylvia Plath's novel, The [9] Dershowitz, Alan M. America on Trial: Inside the Legal Battles That Transformed Our Nation. Grand Central
Bell Jar, is morbidly interested in the Rosenbergs’
[72]
Publishing. ISBN 9780759511033. Retrieved 5 October
case. The novel begins with the sentence, “It was
2016.
a queer, sultry summer, the summer they electrocuted the Rosenbergs, and I didn't know what I was [10] DERSHOWITZ, ALAN M. (19 July 1995). “Rosenbergs
doing in New York.”
Were Guilty – and Framed : FBI, Justice Department and
• Images of the Rosenbergs are engraved on a memorial in Havana, Cuba. The accompanying caption
says they were murdered.[73]
• Kurt Vonnegut's novel Breakfast of Champions features an oblique reference to the Rosenberg execution, during a post-coital discussion of recent uses
of the electric chair (p. 160).
10
See also
• Atom Spies
• Roy Cohn, member of the prosecution team
• Soviet atomic bomb project
11
Notes
[1] Radosh, Ronald (10 June 2016). “Rosenbergs Redux”.
[2] “What the K.G.B. Files Show About Ethel Rosenberg”.
The New York Times. Aug 13, 2015.
[3] Ranzal, Edward (March 19, 1953). “Greenglass, in
Prison, Vows to Kin He Told Truth About Rosenbergs”.
The New York Times. Retrieved July 7, 2008. David
Greenglass, serving 15 years as a confessed atom spy, denied to members of his family recently that he had been
coached by the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the
drawing of segments of the atom bomb.
[4] Whitman, Alden (February 14, 1974). “1972 Death of
Harry Gold Revealed”. The New York Times. Retrieved
July 7, 2008. Harry Gold, who served 15 years in Federal
prison as a confessed atomic spy courier, for Klaus Fuchs,
a Soviet agent, and who was a key Government witness
in the Julius and Ethel Rosenberg espionage case in 1951,
died 18 months ago in Philadelphia.
[5] Meeropol, Michael; Meeropol, Robert (10 August 2015).
“The Meeropol Brothers: Exonerate Our Mother, Ethel
Rosenberg”. The New York Times. Retrieved 5 October
2016.
judiciary conspired to convict a couple accused of espionage.”. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
[11] Denison, Charles and Chuck (2004). The Great American
Songbook. Author’s Choice Publishing. p. 45. ISBN 1931741-42-5.
[12] Martin J. Manning and Clarence R. Wyatt, eds. Encyclopedia of Media and Propaganda in Wartime America,
Volume 1 (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2011), 753.
[13] Wang, Jessica (1999). American science in an age of anxiety. UNC Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-8078-4749-7.
[14] Feklisov, Aleksandr; Sergei Kostin (2001). The Man Behind the Rosenbergs. Enigma Books. ISBN 1-929631-081.
[15] Feklisov, Aleksandr; Sergei Kostin (2001). The Man Behind the Rosenbergs. Enigma Books. pp. 140–47. ISBN
1-929631-08-1.
[16] Radosh, Ronald (6 December 2010). “Rosenbergs Redux”. New Republic. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
[17] Haynes, John Earl. Spies: The Rise and Fall of the
KGB in America. Yale University Press. p. 36. ISBN
0300155727. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
[18] Ziegler, Charles A.; Jacobson, David (1995). Spying without spies. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 220. ISBN
978-0-275-95049-1.
[19] Radosh, Ronald; Milton, Joyce (1997). The Rosenberg
file. Yale University Press. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-0-30007205-1.
[20] Theoharis, Athan G. (1999). The FBI: a comprehensive
reference guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 65–
66. ISBN 978-0-89774-991-6.
[21] Haynes, John Earl; Klehr, Harvey. Early Cold War Spies:
The Espionage Trials that Shaped American Politics. Cambridge University Press. p. 159. ISBN 9781139460248.
[22] Neville, John F. (1995). The Press, the Rosenbergs, and
the Cold War. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 25.
ISBN 978-0-275-94995-2.
[23] Sol Stern and Ronald Radosh, The New Republic (June 23,
1979)
8
[24] John Simkin. “Ethel Rosenberg”. Spartacus Educational
Publishers Ltd.
[25] “Plot to Have G.I. Give Bomb Data to Soviet Is Laid to
His Sister Here”. The New York Times. August 12, 1950.
pp. 1, 30.
[26] “The Atom Spy Case”. Famous Cases and Criminals.
Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved January 13,
2011.
[27] Jenkins, John Philip. “Julius Rosenberg and Ethel Rosenberg (American spies) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia”.
Britannica.com. Retrieved September 4, 2011.
[28] “Milestones, February 8, 1954”. Time. February 8, 1954.
Retrieved June 21, 2008.
[29] Roberts, Sam (2003). The Brother: the Untold Story of
the Rosenberg Case. Random House. pp. 403–07. ISBN
978-0-375-76124-9. On February 28, 1945, the NKVD
submitted to Lavrenti Beria a comprehensive report on
nuclear weaponry, including implosion research, based
chiefly on intelligence from Hall and Greenglass.
[30] Huberich, Charles Henry (1918). The law relating to trading with the enemy. Baker, Voorhis & Company. p. 349.
[31] The Rosenberg file, By Ronald Radosh, Joyce Milton. p.
278
[32] “Judge Kaufman’s Statement Upon Sentencing the Rosenbergs”. University of Missouri–Kansas City. Retrieved
June 24, 2008.
[33] “Fifty years since the execution of the Rosenbergs”.
World Socialist Web Site. Retrieved June 15, 2013.
[34] Radosh, Ronald; Milton, Joyce (1997). The Rosenberg
File. Yale University Press. p. 352. ISBN 978-0-30007205-1.
[35] Schneir, Walter (1983). Invitation to an Inquest. Pantheon
Books. p. 254. ISBN 0-394-71496-2.
[36] Feklisov, Aleksandr; Kostine, Sergei (2001). The man
behind the Rosenbergs. Enigma Books. p. 311. ISBN
978-1-929631-08-7. The great physicists Albert Einstein
and Harold Urey asked President Truman to pardon the
couple.
[37] Radosh, Ronald; Milton, Joyce (1997). The Rosenberg
File. Yale University Press. p. 352. ISBN 978-0-30007205-1. But it was the apparent parallel with France's
own Dreyfus case that touched the deepest chords in the
national psyche.
[38] Schulte, Elizabeth (May–June 2003). “The trial of Ethel
and Julius Rosenberg”. International Socialist Review. Retrieved October 5, 2008.
[39] “Unions throughout U.S. joining in plea to save the Rosenbergs”. Daily Worker. January 15, 1953.
[40] Sharp, Malcolm P. (1956). Was Justice Done? The
Rosenberg-Sobell Case. Monthly Review Press. p. 132.
56-10953.
11 NOTES
[41] Schrecker, Ellen (1998). Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America. Little, Brown and Company. p. 137.
ISBN 0-316-77470-7.
[42] Cortes, Arnaldo (February 14, 1953). “Pope Made Appeal to Aid Rosenbergs.”. The New York Times. Retrieved
September 17, 2008. Pope Pius XII appealed to the
United States Government for clemency in the Rosenberg
atomic spy case, the Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore
Romano revealed today.
[43] “50 years later, Rosenberg execution is still fresh”. USA
Today. Associated Press. June 17, 2003. Retrieved January 8, 2008.
[44] “Execution of the Rosenbergs”. The Guardian. London.
June 20, 1953. Retrieved June 24, 2008. Julius and Ethel
Rosenberg were executed early this morning at Sing Sing
Prison for conspiring to pass atomic secrets to Russia in
World War II
[45] Wood, E. Thomas (June 17, 2007). “Nashville now and
then: A lawyer’s last gamble”. Nashville Post. Retrieved
August 8, 2007. Farmer, working at no charge against
the opposition of not only the government but also the
Rosenbergs’ legal team, had showed up at Douglas’s chambers without an appointment, on the day after the high
court adjourned for the term. Farmer convinced the jurist that the Rosenbergs had been tried under an invalid
law. If they could be charged with any crime, he asserted,
it would have to be a violation of the Atomic Energy Act,
which did not carry a death penalty, rather than the Espionage Act of 1917.
[46] Haberman, Clyde (June 20, 2003). “Executed At Sundown, 50 Years Ago.”. The New York Times. Retrieved
June 23, 2008. Rosenberg. One more name out of thousands, representing all those souls on their journey through
forever at Wellwood Cemetery, along the border between
Nassau and Suffolk Counties... Usually at Sing Sing, the
death penalty was carried out at 11 pm. But that June 19
was a Friday, and 11 pm would have pushed the executions well into the Jewish Sabbath, which begins at sundown. The federal judge in Manhattan who sentenced
them to death, Irving R. Kaufman, said that the very idea
of a Sabbath execution gave him 'considerable concern'.
The Justice Department agreed. So the time was pushed
forward.
[47] Ronald Radosh; Joyce Milton (1997). The Rosenberg File.
Yale University Press. p. 413. ISBN 9780300072051.
[48] Roberts, Sam (2003). The Brother: the untold story of
the Rosenberg case. Random House. p. 11. ISBN 9780-375-76124-9. (According to Orthodox tradition, the
Sabbath begins eighteen minutes before sunset Friday and
ends the following evening.)
[49] Philipson, Ilene (1993). Ethel Rosenber: Beyond the
Myths. Rutgers University Press. pp. 351–52. ISBN 9780-8135-1917-3.
[50] Ethel Rosenberg at Find a Grave; Julius Rosenberg at Find
a Grave
9
[51] “Funeral Tributes To Rosenbergs: Execution Denounced”. The Times. London. June 21, 1953.(subscription required)
[52] “False testimony clinched Rosenberg spy trial”. BBC
News. December 6, 2001. Retrieved July 30, 2008.
[53] Roberts, Sam (June 26, 2008). “Spies and Secrecy”. The
New York Times. Retrieved June 27, 2008. No, he replied,
the goal wasn't to kill the couple. The strategy was to use
the death sentence imposed on Ethel to wring a full confession from Julius – in hopes that Ethel’s motherly instincts
would trump unconditional loyalty to a noble but discredited cause. What went wrong? Rogers’s explanation still
haunts me. 'She called our bluff' he said.
[54] Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Secrecy (New Haven: Yale
Univ. Press, 1999), 143–44.
[55] Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Glasnost Tapes, translated and edited by Jerrold L Schecter
with Vyacheslav V Luchkov, Little, Brown and Company,
Boston, 1990, p. 194.
[56] McFadden, Robert (September 25, 2008). “Khrushchev
on Rosenbergs: Stoking Old Embers”. The New York
Times. Retrieved August 13, 2008. Nearly four decades
after Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed for conspiring to pass America’s atomic bomb secrets to the Soviet Union, the case that has haunted scholars, historians
and partisans of the left and the right has found a new witness: Nikita S. Khrushchev.
[57] Roberts, Sam (2001). The Brother: The Untold Story of
the Rosenberg Case. Random House. pp. 425–26, 432.
ISBN 0-375-76124-1.
[65] Roberts, Sam (September 16, 2008). “Father Was a Spy,
Sons Conclude With Regret”. The New York Times. Retrieved September 17, 2008. Now, confronted with the
surprising confession last week of Morton Sobell, Julius
Rosenberg’s City College classmate and co-defendant, the
brothers have admitted to a painful conclusion: that their
father was a spy.
[66] “My Parents Were Executed Under the Unconstitutional
Espionage Act”. Democracy Now!. December 30, 2010.
Retrieved January 6, 2011.
[67] “Sundance: Heir To An Execution". CBS News. January
20, 2004. Retrieved January 6, 2011.
[68] “The Meeropol Brothers: Exonerate Our Mother, Ethel
Rosenberg”. The New York Times. August 10, 2015. Retrieved April 9, 2016.
[69] “Exonerate our Mother, Ethel Rosenberg”. Rosenberg
Fund for Children. March 1, 2016. Retrieved April 9,
2016.
[70] “The Brothers rosenberghttp://www.cbsnews.com/news/
60-minutes-brothers-rosenberg-cold-war-spying/". External link in |title= (help)
[71] Ethel Rosenberg at the Internet Movie Database
[72] “The Bell Jar: Essay Q&A”. Novelguide.com. Retrieved
6 January 2013.
[73] Rosenberg Memorial, Havana
12 Works cited
[58] Stanley, Alessandra (16 March 1997). “K.G.B. Agent
Plays Down Atomic Role Of Rosenbergs”. The New York
Times. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
• Feklisov, Aleksandr, and Kostin, Sergei. The Man
Behind the Rosenbergs. Enigma Books, 2003. ISBN
978-1-929631-24-7.
[59] Haynes, John Earl; Klehr, Harvey. Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America. Yale University Press. p. 15.
ISBN 0300084625. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
• Roberts, Sam. The Brother: The Untold Story of the
Rosenberg Case. Random House, 2001. ISBN 0375-76124-1.
[60] Radosh, Ronald; Klehr, Harvey; Haynes, John Earl; Hornblum, Allen M.; Usdin, Steven (17 October 2014). “The
New York Times Gets Greenglass Wrong”. Weekly Standard. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
[61] Robert D. McFadden (Oct 14, 2014). “David Greenglass,
the Brother Who Doomed Ethel Rosenberg, Dies at 92”.
The New York Times.
[62] Watt, Holly (September 12, 2008). “Witness Changed
Her Story During Rosenberg Spy Case”. The Washington Post.
[63] Roberts, Sam (September 12, 2008). “For First Time,
Figure in Rosenberg Case Admits Spying for Soviets”.
The New York Times. Retrieved May 7, 2010. Sobell,
who served nearly 19 years in Alcatraz and other federal
prisons, admitted for the first time that he had been a Soviet spy.
[64] Morton Sobell (September 19, 2008).
Rosenberg Case”. The New York Times.
“Letter: The
• Schneir, Walter, and Scheir, Miriam. Invitation to
an Inquest. Pantheon Books, 1983. ISBN 0-39471496-2.
• Schrecker, Ellen. Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America. Little, Brown and Company, 1998.
ISBN 0-316-77470-7.
13 Further reading
• (French) Florin Aftalion, La Trahison des Rosenberg, JC Lattès, Paris, 2003.
• Alman, Emily A. and David. Exoneration: The
Trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg and Morton Sobell – Prosecutorial deceptions, suborned perjuries,
anti-Semitism, and precedent for today’s unconstitutional trials. Green Elms Press, 2010. ISBN 978-09779058-3-6 or ISBN 0-9779058-3-7.
10
14
• (English) Virginia Carmichael, Framing history: the
Rosenberg story and the Cold War, University of
Minnesota Press, 1993.
• (French) E. L. Doctorow, Le Livre de Daniel, Robert
Laffont, 1980, ISBN 978-2-221-00506-4.
• (English) E. L. Doctorow. The Book of
Daniel. Random House Trade Paperbacks,
2007. ISBN 978-0-8129-7817-9.
• (French) Howard Fast, Mémoire d'un Rouge, éd.
Payot & Rivage. Intéressant, traite de toute la période de l'avant seconde guerre mondiale et après
(MacCarthysme, etc.) aux États-Unis. Nombreux
témoignages. Plusieurs passages sur les Rosenberg
notamment pp. 349 à 359.
• (English) Alvin H. Goldstein, The Unquiet Death
of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, 1975. ISBN 978-088208-052-9.
EXTERNAL LINKS
• Roberts, Sam (July 15, 2015). “Secret Grand Jury
Testimony From Ethel Rosenberg’s Brother Is Released”. The New York Times. Retrieved July 16,
2015.
• (English) Sam Roberts, The Brother: The Untold
Story of Atomic Spy David Greenglass and How He
Sent His Sister, Ethel Rosenberg, to the Electric Chair,
Random House, 2001. ISBN 978-0-375-50013-8.
• (French) Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, Lettres de la
maison de la mort, Gallimard, 1953.
• (English) Walter Schneir & Miriam Schneir, Invitation to an Inquest: Reopening the Rosenberg Case,
1973. ISBN 978-0-14-003333-5.
• Schneir, Walter. Final Verdict: What Really Happened in the Rosenberg Case, Melville House, 2010.
ISBN 1-935554-16-6.
• Harris, “Brian, Injustice”, Sutton Publishing. 2006.
ISBN 0-7509-4021-2 (An examination of the trial)
• (French) Morton Sobell, On condamne bien les innocents, Hier et demain, 1974.
• Hornblum, Allen M. The Invisible Harry Gold: The
Man Who Gave the Soviets the Atom Bomb, Yale
University Press 2010. ISBN 0-300-15676-6
• Trahair, Richard C.S. and Robert Miller. Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies, and Secret
Operations. Enigma Books, 2009. ISBN 978-1929631-75-9.
• (French) Gérard A. Jaeger, Les Rosenberg. La
chaise électrique pour délit d'opinion, Le Félin, 2003.
• Meeropol, Michael, ed. The Rosenberg Letters: A
Complete Edition of the Prison Correspondence of
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. New York: Garland
Publishing, 1994. ISBN 0-8240-5948-4.
• Meeropol, Robert and Michael. We Are Your
Sons: The Legacy of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg.
University of Illinois Press, 1986. ISBN 0-25201263-1. Chapter 15 is a detailed refutation of Radosh and Milton’s scholarship.
• Meeropol, Robert Meeropol. An Execution in the
Family: One Son’s Journey. St. Martin’s Press,
2003. ISBN 0-312-30637-7.
• Wexley, John. The Judgment of Julius and Ethel
Rosenberg. Ballantine Books, 1977. ISBN 0-34524869-4.
• Yalkowsky, Stanley (July 1990). The Murder of the
Rosenbergs. Crucible Publications. ISBN 978-09620984-2-0.
• Zinn, Howard. A People’s History of the United
States. p. 434.
• (English) Sidney Zion, The autobiography of Roy
Cohn, Lyle Stuart Inc, 1988. ISBN 0-8184-0471X.
• Nason, Tema. Ethel: The Fictional Autobiography 14
of Ethel Rosenberg. Delacourt, 1990. ISBN 0440-21110-7 and by Syracuse, 2002, ISBN 0-8156- 14.1
0745-8.
• “David Greenglass grand jury testimony transcript”
(PDF). National Security Archive, Gelman Library,
George Washington University. August 7, 1950.
Retrieved July 16, 2015.
External links
Archival collections
• Guide to the Playscript about the Julius and Ethel
Rosenberg Espionage Trial. Special Collections and
Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.
• Radosh, Ronald and Joyce Milton. The Rosenberg
File: A Search for the Truth. Henry Holt (1983). 14.2 Other links
ISBN 0-03-049036-7.
• An Interactive Rosenberg Espionage Ring Timeline
• Roberts, Sam. The Brother: The Untold Story of
and Archive
the Rosenberg Case, Random House, 2003, ISBN 0375-76124-1.
• Timeline of Events Relating to the Rosenberg Trial.
14.2
Other links
• Rosenberg trial transcript (excerpts as HTML, and
the entire 2,563 page transcript as a PDF file)
• Ethel’s brother says he trumped up evidence.
• Documents relating to the Julius and Ethel Rosenberg Case, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
• Project Venona messages.
• Rosenberg FBI files (summary only)
• Heir to an Execution – An HBO documentary by Ivy
Meeropol, the granddaughter of Ethel and Julius.
• A statement by the Rosenberg’s sons in support of
their exoneration
• An Interview with Robert Meeropol about the adoption
• National Committee to Reopen the Rosenberg Case
• Annotated bibliography for Ethel Rosenberg from
the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
• Annotated bibliography for Julius Rosenberg from
the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
• The Cold War International History Project
(CWIHP) for Alexander Vassiliev’s Notebooks
• Rosenberg Son: “My Parents Were Executed Under
the Unconstitutional Espionage Act”—video report
by Democracy Now!
• History on Trial: The Rosenberg Case in E.L.
Doctorow’s The Book of Daniel by Santiago JuanNavarro from The Grove: Working Papers on English Studies, Vol 6, 1999.
• Julius Rosenberg at court sentenced to death
• The WSWS speaks to Julius and Ethel Rosenberg’s
son - An interview with Robert Meeropol
11
12
15
15
15.1
TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
Text
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