Fresh and Saline
Ground-Water Zones
in the Punjab Region
West Pakistan
GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY
Prepared in cooperation with the
Pakistan ff^ater and Power Development Authority under the auspices of
the U.S. Agency for International
Development
PAPER
1608-1
Fresh and Saline
Ground-Water Zones
in the Punjab Region
West Pakistan
By WOLFGANG V. SWARZENSKI
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA
GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY
PAPER
1608-1
Prepared in cooperation with the West
Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority under the auspices of
the U.S. Agency for International
Development
Delineation offresh and saline groundwater zones from data collected during
a program of test drilling and water
sampling . in the Punjab region
of u- s G- s
XVATZFr RS.COURCE3 DIVISION
ROU,A, no.
West Pakistan
C C C E 1 V E D
OCT 1-1968
PM
UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1968
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
STEWART L. UDALL, Secretary
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
William T. Pecora, Director
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.G. 20402
CONTENTS
Page
Abstract-____--_-_____-_-_-.__-_____________,___________._____,..
Introduction._____________________________________________________
Alluvial aquifer.__________________________________________________
Distribution of fresh and saline ground-water zones.____-__-____-----_ThalDoab______.._..________._..___.___.__.________.._
Chaj Doab____.______________________________________________
Rechna Doab__-______-________-___..____._______..___-___-.__
BariDoab---_______________________________________________
Bahawalpur area._____________________________________________
Quality of water in the Punjab region.________________________________
Origin of saline ground-water zones._________________________________
Solution-evaporation hypothesis-________________________________
Other theories________________________-_---_-----.---_-___---Movement of fresh and saline ground water____-_____-_--__-__-_--__
Conclusions..__ _ _______-_-_________________-_-__--___--__-_-_-_-_Selected references.-..___________________________________________
I1
2
4
5
6
8
9
10
11
12
14
14
18
19
22
24
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
PLATE 1. Map showing mineral content of native ground water in
Punjab region, West Pakistan.______________________ In pocket
2. Salinity profiles---____._____-___-___________-_-__-- In pocket
3. Hypothetical ground-water flow and salinity profiles for the
preirrigation period._______________________________ In pocket
FIGURE 1. Index map of Punjab region..__________________________
13
2. Graphs showing average ionic concentrations in 953 water
samples-. _____________________________________________
16
TABLE
Page
TABLE 1.
Chemical composition of river water and ground water from
shallow and deep sources, Rechna Doab___________---_-__
m
113
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA
FRESH AND SALINE GROUND-WATER ZONES IN THE
PUNJAB REGION, WEST PAKISTAN
By WOLFGANG V. SWARZENSKI
ABSTRACT
An extensive program of test drilling and water sampling, undertaken by
the Water and Soils Investigation Division (WASID) of the West Pakistan
Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) to evaluate hydrologic
problems related to waterlogging and soil salinity, has furnished data for the
delineation of fresh and saline ground-water zones in the Punjab region of
West Pakistan. Fresh ground water containing generally less than 500 ppm
(parts per million) of total dissolved solids is found in wide belts paralleling
the major rivers and in other areas of ground-water recharge. The fresh groundwater zone of upper (northeastern) Rechna Doab, where annual precipitation
in places exceeds 30 inches, is the most extensive of the Punjab region and
attains a depth of 1,700 feet or more below land surface near Gujranwala. Fresh
ground water adjacent to the Indus River extends locally to depths of about
1,500 feet.
Saline ground water occurs downgradient from sources of recharge, particularly in the central parts of the interfluvial areas. Also, available data
indicate a gradual increase in mineralization with depth and distance from
sources of fresh-water recharge. Thus, even extensive fresh-water zones appear
to be underlain, at variable depths, by saline ground water in most of the Punjab
region. The saline ground waters of the Punjab region do not constitute, however,
a distinct salt-water body that can be defined in terms of stratigraphic position,
sea-level datum, particular lithology, or by chemical character.
The ground waters of the Punjab region are characterized by a gradation
from calcium magnesium bicarbonate types, near the sources of recharge,
to waters containing a dominant proportion of sodium. Water containing from
500 to 1,000 ppm is commonly of the sodium bicarbonate type, or it may be of
the mixed type, having about equal proportions of the common anions (bicarbonate, chloride, and sulfate). With increasing mineralization from about 1,000 to
3,000 ppm, the relative proportion of chloride and sulfate increases, and these
waters are generally of the sodium chloride or sodium sulfate type. The highly
mineralized waters of the Punjab region are generally of the sodium chloride
type, whereas in Dera Ismail (D.I.) Khan District sodium sulfate waters predominate. The ground waters from more than 900 sampling sites have been
II
I 2
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA
classified into eight types, according to dominant cations and anions. These
types have been further subdivided into groups containing different amounts
of total dissolved solids.
The pattern of distribution of saline ground-water zones in the Punjab region
and the observed gradual increase in mineral content, downgradient from
sources of fresh-water recharge, can be explained best by the processes of
evaporation from the water table and solution of minerals within the alluvial
aquifier.
INTRODUCTION
Detailed ground-water investigations in progress since 1954 in the
Punjab region, are currently (1965) being conducted by the Water and
Soils Investigation Division (WASID) of the West Pakistan Water
and Power Development Authority (WAPDA). The investigations,
undertaken with the advisory assistance of the U.S. Geological Survey
under a basic agreement between the Government of Pakistan and the
U.S. Agency for International Development (AID), have been directed toward the formulation of reclamation measures to combat
waterlogging and salinization and the assessment of the ground-water
potential of the Punjab region and other areas of West Pakistan.
A report on the hydrology of the Punjab, based on the results of the
first 10 years of these investigations, was published by WASID
(Greenman and others, 1963). Other WASID publications describe
the geology, water quality, and aquifer characteristics or give basic
hydrologic data on a regional or areal basis (see "Selected references") . The area of investigation is shown in figure 1.
Because of the nature and urgency of primary reclamation objectives, the exploration in the earlier stages of the investigations
was limited generally to the upper part of the alluvial aquifer. About
1,030 test holes drilled in 47,000 square miles of the Punjab region
during the 1950's defined the nature of the alluvium to depths of about
600 feet and yielded water-quality data to depths of 400 to 500 feet.
Wells used for aquifer tests generally tapped alluvial sands between 80
and 300 feet. Since 1962, however, WASID has drilled about 95 deep
test holes in the Punjab and the adjacent areas of Bahawalpur and
Dera Ismall (D. I.) Khan District; and these holes have permitted
water sampling to depths of 600 to 1,500 feet. The present report is
concerned chiefly with the vertical extent of fresh and saline groundwater zones, as revealed by sampling of deep water since 1962, but also
considers areal or spatial water-quality relationships in the groundwater reservoir of the Punjab region.
The agencies concerned with Pakistan's water resources eventually
will be obliged to consider development of all available ground water,
including the deeper part of the alluvial aquifer which today (1966)
appears to be beyond the limit of economic exploitation. Accordingly,
GROUND-WATER ZONES, PUNJAB REGION, WEST PAKISTAN
EST
I 3
PAKIS
200
200 KILOMETERS
_i
200 MILES
FIGURB 1. Location of the Punjab region (stippled pattern).
and although there are substantial gaps in present (1966) knowledge
of the vertical distribution of fresh and saline ground water in the
Punjab region, it seems appropriate at this time to make pertinent
data and their interpretation available to the agencies concerned with
ground-water development.
This report has been prepared under the administrative direction of
Mr. S. M. Said, Chief Engineer, Water and Soils Investigation Division of WAPDA. The writer thankfully acknowledges the help received from his colleagues in discussion of the problem and review of
this report. Special thanks are due to Mr. Abdul Hamid, chemist,
WASID, and Messrs. M. J. Mundorff and G. D. Bennett, of the U.S.
Geological Survey.
I4
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA
ALLUVIAL AQUIFER
Ground water is contained in interbedded deposits of alluvial sand
and silt which are present almost everywhere to depths of 1,000 feet
and more in the Punjab region. These deposits have been laid down
since late Tertiary time by the Indus River and its tributaries in a
vast alluvial plain that extends from the foothills of the Himalaya
to the Arabian Sea. Gradients of the land surface of the plain are
generally very low and range from about 1% feet per mile in the upper
northern and northeastern part of the region to less than 1 foot per mile
to the south and southwest.
The monotony of the alluvial plain is broken by scattered hills and
bedrock outcrops south of Sargodha in Chaj Doab, and near Chiniot,
Sangla Hill, and Shah Kot in Rechna Doab. The bedrock hills are projections of the northwest-trending Delhi-Shahpur Ridge that is largely
buried by alluvium. The rocks of this buried ridge, presumably of
Precambrian age, are essentially impermeable and define the lower
limit of the alluvial aquifer in parts of Chaj, Rechna, and Bari Doabs.
Elsewhere in the Punjab there are no outcrops of consolidated rocks
and their presence below the alluvium is conjectural. Rocks of the
Siwalik Series, however, were penetrated by an oil test well near
Karampur and may also be present below the alluvial deposits in northwestern Bari Doab, at depths of about 1,000 feet (Kidwai and
Alam,1964).
The water-bearing characteristics of the upper part of the alluvial
aquifer have been evaluated by about 140 pumping tests in the Punjab
region. Horizontal permeabilities of the material in the screened zones
range from 0.001 to 0.008 cfs (cubic feet per second) per square foot
and are commonly between 0.0025 and 0.004. In areas where the alluvium is less permeable, permeabilities generally range from less than
0.001 to about 0.002. Although the alluvium may locally contain large
proportions of silt and silty clay, the occurrence of these deposits is
generally in the form of thin lenticular beds. Ground water in the alluvial aquifer is generally unconfmed; however, because of the random
distribution of clayey strata, the aquifer is anisotropic and lateral permeabilities are generally much greater than vertical permeabilities.
Specific capacities of tubewells range from about 50 to more than 120
gpm (U.S. gallons per minute) per foot of drawdown. The results of
pumping tests and aquifer characteristics in the Punjab region are
described in some detail by Bennett and others (1964).
GROUND-WATER ZONES, PUNJAB REGION, WEST PAKISTAN
I5
DISTRIBUTION OF FRESH AND SALINE
GROUND-WATER ZONES
The areal distribution of fresh and saline ground-water zones in
the alluvial aquifer of the Punjab region is shown on plate 1. The
lines represent average conditions at depths of about 100 to 450 feet,
as revealed by water samples collected between 1957 and 1965. The
quality of water in shallower wells, that is, those at depths of less
than about 100 feet, is commonly influenced by seepage from the canal
systems. Therefore, data obtained from shallow open wells were not
considered in the preparation of plate 1, which is believed to portray
essentially preirrigation conditions. As shown on plate 1, fresh ground
water, defined by the 1,000-ppm line, occurs in the upper (northeastern) parts of Chaj, Eechna, and Bari Doabs. In these areas, precipitation is relatively high, ranging from 15 to more than 30 inches
per year. Fresh ground water is also found in belts paralleling the
major rivers of the Punjab region where infiltration from rivers
crossing the present and recently abandoned flood plains provided
recharge. The width of these belts, from about 4 to more than 20
miles, is largely dependent on the width of the flood plain, which is
commonly bounded by interfluvial terraces (bar uplands). In many
places, particularly in parts of Bari and Chaj Doabs, the scarps
bordering the terraces demarcate the transition zone from fresh ground
water to the highly mineralized ground water of the interfluves.
Zones of saline ground water, containing from 4,000 to more than
20,000 ppm (parts per million) of total dissolved solids, are found
in the central and lower (southwestern) parts of the doabs and in the
Bahawalpur area to the southeast of the Sutlej Eiver (pi. 1). Moreover, saline ground water is found in the upper (northern) part of
Thai Doab and in the piedmont areas of the Sulaiman Eange, west of
the Indus Eirer. All these saline ground-water zones are in areas
that receive less than about 14 inches of rain per year. Annual precipitation in the southwestern part of the Punjab region is between 5 and
10 inches.
Study of profiles through the aquifer (pi. 2) indicates a gradual
increase in mineralization with depth and distance from sources of
fresh-water recharge throughout most of the alluvial aquifer. There
is, however, no distinct salt-water body that can be defined in terms
of stratigraphic position, sea-level datum, or any particular lithology
nor is there a well-defined zone of diffusion between fresh and saline
ground water. Thus, the saline ground-water zones of the Punjab
region can only be defined by the limits of the lines of equal total
dissolved solids. The degree of salinity, however, appears to be
related to the total water budget peculiar to any one hydrologic unit.
290-850 68
2
I6
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA
Some of the factors affecting the distribution and concentration of
highly mineralized ground water have been discussed by Greenman,
Swarzenski, and Bennett (1963). These include not only variations in
the magnitude of seepage from the streams bounding the doabs and
areal patterns of precipitation and evaporation but also such physiographic features as direction and degree of slope, symmetry and width
of the doabs, and the relative width and position of the terraces (bar
uplands) and recently abandoned flood plains within each doab.
Locally, the recharging effect of canals or former stream channels
may be manifest by the presence of 200 to 300 feet of relatively fresh
water in a generally saline environment. On the other hand, in areas
of predominantly fine-textured material, there may be local increases
in the degree of salinity, as much as 1,000 or 2,000 ppm, in a freshwater environment. These local increases are due to reduced groundwater flow and the solution of minerals.
THAL DOAB
Because of relatively small precipitation in Thai Doab (5 to 14 in.
per yr), ground-water recharge is limited to seepage from the bordering streams, inundation canals in the lower (southern) part of the
doab, and, since 1947, from the Thai Canal System. Of these, recharge
from the Indus Kiver is dominant in Thai Doab. Ground water containing generally less than 500 ppm extends eastward from the Indus
Kiver in a broad zone parallel to the Indus. Except in the lower part of
the doab, the thickness of this zone is generally 1,500 feet or more.
Test hole T10 near Kalur Kot revealed fresh water (320 ppm) at a
depth of 1,042 feet. Near the town of Dera Ismail (D.I.) Khan a
water sample from 1,320 feet contained 240 ppm of dissolved solids,
and similar conditions were observed in the northern part of D.I.
Khan District. In preirrigation time ground-water gradients were
southeasterly, from the Indus River toward the interior of Thai
Doab, and it can be assumed that the fresh-water zone paralleling the
Indus extends to depths of 1,500 feet or more in most of western Thai
Doab, except in. the extreme southern part. Locally, the fresh-water
zone is overlain by more saline water, to depths of 300 or 400 feet.
These conditions are illustrated on plate 2, A-A', in which the curvature of the 1,000-ppm line indicates the deterioration in the quality of
water in the upper part of the aquifer. At Kalur Kot, near the Indus
River, the shallow ground water has concentrations of 2,000 and
3,000 ppm. Elsewhere, concentrations rarely exceed 1,000 or 1,500 ppm
and ground water becomes increasingly fresher with depth in this
zone.
GROUND-WATER ZONES, PUNJAB REGION, WEST PAKISTAN
17
The fresh-water zone attains its greatest width in the vicinity of
Mankera and may actually extend across Thai Doab to the Jhelum
Biver near latitude 31°30' N. (pi. 1). No test holes were drilled in this
inaccessible part of the doab, but water samples taken at T5, near
Mankera, indicate fresh water to a depth of 1,042 feet with total dissolved solids ranging from about 500 to 800 ppm.
The fresh-water zone adjacent to the Jhelum and Chenab Bivers
in Thai Doab is considerably narrower than that near the Indus (pi.
1). This fact may be explained by the larger flow of the Indus Biver,
steep escarpments close to the Jhelum River, and by the concentration
of fine-textured alluvium in the upper and lower parts of the doab,
near Khushab, Girot, and Muzaffargarh. As shown on plate 2, A-A',
near Girot fresh water extends only about 5 miles westward from the
Jhelum Biver. The depth of fresh water along the flood plains of the
Jhelum and Chenab Bivers probably exceeds 1,000 feet. For example,
in test hole T4, 20 miles north of Atharan Hazari, fresh water containing 620 ppm was found at a depth of 1,073 feet.
Saline ground-water zones found in the lower central part of Thai
Doab, as shown on plate 1, are located within the low-lying area of the
abandoned flood plains of the Indus and Chenab Bivers. This fact
may explain the generally lower salinities (4,000 to 6,000 ppm) in the
lower part of Thai Doab as compared with those in other doabs and
the apparent displacement of the saline zones to the east of the central
axis of the lower part of Thai. The vertical extent of these saline
zones has not been explored below a depth of 500 feet. There are,
however, indications of increasing salinity with depth in some of the
test holes.
The most highly saline ground water (10,000 to 13,000 ppm) in Thai
Doab was found in an isolated zone, between Girot and Adhi Kot, in
the northern part of the doab (pis. 1 and 2, A-A'}. This zone, like
other saline zones in Thai, is in the eastern part of the doab; also, it
may be contiguous with the area of generally poor-quality ground
water near Khushab, to the northeast. To the north, however, water
quality improves markedly, and total solids rarely exceed 1,000 to
1.500 ppm. Most deep samples taken along the road from Khushab to
Mianwali contained less than 1,000 ppm. In two deep test holes (Tl,
T20), drilled near the base of the Salt Bange north of Bandial and
Khushab, the water contained 1,400 to 1,500 ppm at depths of 515 to
773 feet. Thus, ground water directly south of the Salt Bange is of
good or fair quality to considerable depth. Individual shallow wells
in the piedmont area, however, may yield more or less saline water,
according to their location with respect to present drainage channels
from the Salt Bange.
I 8
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA
CHAJ DOAB
The vertical extent of fresh and saline ground-water zones in Chaj
Doab is shown by two axial profiles (pi. 2, B-B', F-F') and three
transverse profiles (pi. 2, A-A', G-G'', and H-H').
Extensive fresh-water zones are found in the upper (northeastern)
part of the doab and along the present and abandoned flood plains of
the Chenab Eiver. In test hole C52, 8 miles north of Phalia, fresh
water was logged to a depth of 1,000 feet or more. At that site, located
on the terrace, a water sample from 760 feet contained 450 ppm.
Ground water in the upper part of the doab, which receives 18 inches
of rain or more, is generally of good quality. To the northwest of
Gujrat, however, the water locally contains as much as 1,500 to 2,000
ppm, as shown by the closed 1,000-ppm line (pi. 1). This area, south
and southwest of the Pabbi Hills, is characterized by generally fine
deposits.
In the flood plain of the Chenab Eiver, about 12 miles upstream
from Chiniot, fresh water of 160 to 300 ppm was found to a depth of
720 feet (test hole CM). At the same site, at a depth of 905 feet (125 ft
above the consolidated basement rocks) the water contains 2,260 ppm.
The extent of the fresh-water zone at that site, about 20 miles wide, is
shown on plate 2, H-H'. Downstream from Lallan, the fresh-water
zone adjacent to the Chenab Eiver in Chaj Doab is generally narrower,
being 6 miles wide or less.
Extensive fresh-water zones along the Jhelum Eiver are restricted
to the area between Malakwal and Easul, in the upper part of Chaj,
and to the area north and south of Sahiwal, in the lower part of Chaj.
The extent of the zone in the latter area is shown on plate 2, A-A',
which indicates a maximum fresh-water thickness of about 900 feet
(test hole C48). In the central part of the doab, particularly near
Shahpur, relatively impermeable deposits in the vicinity of the Jhelum
River have restricted recharge by the river to shallow depths or have
virtually confined it to the present flood plain (pi. 2, G-G'). Locally,
along former courses of the Jhelum there are fresh-water zones to
depths of 100 to 250 feet in a generally saline environment. One such
channel is located between Shahpur and Sargodha (test hole C25,
pi. 2, G-G'}. It extends northward to C103 (pi. 2, H-IT} , where
fresh water was found to a depth of 242 feet. Former courses of the
Jhelum and Chenab rivers apparently have also modified that part of
the saline zone in the lower part of Chaj Doab that is located on the
abandoned flood plains of these rivers. Thus, water containing less
than 1,000 ppm was found at depths of 150 to 340 feet at test holes
G2, Z52, and C46 (pi. 2, B-B').
GROUND-WATER ZONES, PUNJAB REGION, WEST PAKISTAN
I9
Seepage from the major canals also has locally improved the quality
of shallow ground water in the saline zone of Chaj Doab. The distribution of such fresh-water zones is highly erratic, in accord with
varying permeability of the material underlying the canals. Freshwater zones of this nature are of limited extent and available data
indicate that their thickness ranges generally from a few tens to
about 150 feet.
The areal distribution of saline ground water in Chaj Doab is shown
on plate 1. The transverse and axial sections (pi. 2, A-A', B-B', F-F',
G-G', H-H'} reveal that salinity increases with depth and exceeds
30,000 ppm near the base of the aquifer, in the vicinity of the buried
ridge and also in the lower (southwestern) part of Chaj Doab, near
the confluence of the Chenab and Jhelum Eivers, where bedrock has
not been encountered in test drilling (pi. 2. A-A', B-B'} . The spacing
of the lines on plate 2 (A-A', B-B', 'F-F', G-G', H-H'} indicates a gradual increase in mineralization with depth and distance
from sources of fresh-water recharge throughout most of the aquifer.
It is interesting to note that highly saline ground water is found in
the upper part of the aquifer that was unsaturated prior to the general
rise of water levels. Although no data on the quality of water in preirrigation time are available, it appears that much of the saline ground
water found today at shallow depth is continuous with deeper saline
zones. It apparently has been displaced upward and its upper surface
is but slightly modified by the downward percolation of fresh water
from canal seepage (pi. 2, F-F',H-H'}.
RECHNA DOAB
Extensive fresh-water zones, 15 to 20 miles wide, occur along the
flood plains of the Chenab and Ravi Rivers. Their depth is believed to
be about 1,000 feet or more throughout the doab. In the lower part of
Rechna Doab, however, the width of these zones is considerably reduced, as shown on plate 1. A test well drilled near the confluence of
the Chenab and Ravi Rivers (R4, pi. 2, C-C') revealed fresh water to
a depth of about 1,000 feet. A sample from 1,255 feet contained 4,700
ppm of dissolved solids.
The largest area of fresh ground water in the Punjab region is found
in the upper part of Rechna Doab, extending northeastrely from
Shekhupura and Khangah Dogran toward the border of Jammu and,
Kashmir, and extending laterally toward the Chenab and Ravi Rivers
(pi. 1). In most of this area, the ground water contains less than 500
ppm (R37, 71, 72, pi. 2, C-C'. A test well near Gujranwala (R72)
yielded water of 230 ppm from a depth of 1,700 feet. Similar to conditions in the upper part of Chaj Doab, ground water in areas of pre-
I 10
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA
dominately fine-grained alluvial deposits is locally more mineralized.
One such area, having concentrations of 1,000 to 2,000 ppm, is found
to the southwest of Pasrur, in the upper part of Eechna Doab.
Saline ground-water zones are found in the central lower part of
Eechna Doab (pis. 1 and 2, C-C'). Salt concentrations increase
gradually downdoab to 3,000 to 5,000 ppm near Lyallpur, where seepage from the Kakh Branch has locally improved the quality of shallow
water. The most highly mineralized ground water is restricted to a
comparatively narrow zone in the center of the doab, containing 10,000
to 12,000 ppm in the vicinity of Toba Tek Singh and 15,000 to 18,000
ppm near Shorkot Road. In the latter area the degree of mineralization
is remarkably uniform from about 100 feet to 1,100 feet, as shown by
the near-vertical position of the 15,000-ppm line (El, 73, pi. 2, C-C').
BARI DOAB
Because of less favorable recharge conditions in Bari Doab, freshwater zones are generally less extensive than in Rechna. Within about
20 miles southwest of Lahore, the average annual rainfall is less than
14 inches and diminishes to less than 10 inches in the lower third of
the doab. Moreover, the steep scarps of the terrace prevented the transgression of meandering streams in that direction and thus restricted
the recharge potential of the Ravi and former Beas Rivers. The terrace
in Bari Doab is relatively narrow, extending southwesterly to the
vicinity of Khanewal. Traces of former stream channels, common on
all other interfluves, are generally absent on the terrace of Bari Doab.
The scarps bordering the terrace coincide with the limit of fresh-water
zones to a remarkable extent, and the water underlying the terrace
is generally of inferior quality.
Thus, fresh ground water in the upper part of Bari Doab, within
Pakistan, is restricted to a relatively small area extending easterly and
southeasterly from Lahore to the border (pi. 1). A test hole drilled near
Wagha (BRIM) revealed fresh water to a depth of 1,070 feet. Downdoab, this fresh-water zone is reduced in thickness and extends to the
vicinity of Pattoki. It is overlain by a zone of increasing thickness of
more or less mineralized water, commonly containing from 1,500 to
4,OOOppm(pl.2,Z?-Z?').
Major fresh-water zones in Bari Doab are located along the flood
plains of the Sutlej, lower Chenab, and Ravi Rivers, as shown on
plate 1. Of these, the zone adjacent to the Sutlej is generally 15 to 20
miles wide throughout the doab, whereas the zone adjacent to the Ravi
River, between Lahore and Montgomery, is generally narrower. However, a wide belt of fresh water is found along the abandoned flood
GROUND-WATER ZONES, PUNJAB REGION, WEST PAKISTAN
111
plains of the lower Ravi and Chenab Rivers between Mian Channu
and Multan (pi. 1). The thickness of these zones is believed to be generally 1,000 feet or more. Near Lodhran the fresh-water zone adjacent
to the Sutlej River is about 1,100 feet thick (BR99, pi. 2, E-E'}. At
test hole BR76, near Mailsi, a water sample from 1,166 feet contained
520 ppm.
The saline ground-water zone in the upper part of Bari Doab,
already referred to, is found in the area of the terrace between Raiwind
and Montgomery. Near Okara, maximum concentrations of 10,000
ppm were determined within the explored depth limit of about 600
feet. Throughout most of this zone concentrations range from about
5,000 to 8,000 ppm (pis. 1 and 2, D-D'}. As is the case in the other doabs
ground water in the lower central part of Bari Doab is also generally
saline. The deepest water samples (450 to 500 feet) taken in the
center of the saline zone, between Dunyapur and Jalalpur Pirwala,
contain between 8,000 and 10,000 ppm (pis. 1 and 2, E-E'}. Available data indicate that salinity increases with depth in this area.
Between the saline zones of the upper and extreme lower parts of Bari
Doab, ground water is mineralized to a variable degree, as shown on
plate 2, D-D'. This zone, located in the center of the doab, is characterized by rapid changes in water quality within a short distance. There
are areas where fresh ground water extends to depths of 400 feet or
more, whereas the water in adjacent areas is mineralized to 5,000 to
7,000 ppm. All these local fresh-water zones can be attributed to long
periods of recharge by rivers, particularly the Beas, which formerly
flowed through the center of the doab. At least one zone of locally improved ground water, south of Chichawatni, may be attributed to a
former course of the Ravi River that traversed the terrace (pi. 1).
Throughout the lower (southwestern) part of Bari Doab there is
evidence of former stream channels and junctions, which permitted
fresh-water recharge at places now distant from present sources. Some
of the changes in the position of river courses took place in historic
times and explain the complex distribution pattern of fresh and saline
ground water in Bari Doab.
BAHAWALPUE AEEA
The only extensive fresh-water zone in the Bahawalpur area occurs
to the southeast of the Sutlej, parallel to the river. It is generally
5 to 8 miles wide; locally, near Ahmadpur East and Khanpur (Rangpur), in the southwestern part of the area, the width of the fresh-water
zone increases to 15 to 20 miles (pi. 1). A deep test hole near Khairpur
(BWP62) revealed fresh water (240 ppm) at a depth of 985 feet.
In the area south and southeast of Bahawalpur where water in the
I 12
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA
upper part of the aquifer is of poor quality, fresh water is found below
300 to 400 feet and extends to depths of about 800 feet at BWP77A.
Because of low precipitation, generally between 5 and 10 inches, the
chief source of fresh-water recharge in the Bahawalpur area is the
Sutlej River. Ground water moves generally southward from the river
toward the desert area of Cholistan and is commonly highly mineralized ; maximum concentrations of 20,000 to 25,000 ppm have been measured in test holes at or near the southern boundary of the canalirrigated area, at a distance of 25 to 35 miles from the Sutlej River
(pi. 1). Seepage from irrigation canals has locally improved the water
quality in the upper part of the aquifer and water containing less than
1,000 ppm has been noted to depths of 100 to 200 feet in some test holes
located within the saline zone.
In the southern part of the Bahawalpur area, between Fort Abbas
and Derawar Fort, there is a zone of reduced salinity as indicated by
the reentrant of the 5,000 ppm line shown on plate 1. This relatively
low-lying area corresponds to the Ghaggar (Hakra) channelway,
which was occupied in historic times by a major stream. This stream,
also known as the Hakra, appears to have joined the Indus-Kara
south of Panjnad River. Although the Ghagger (Hakra) channelway
is now generally dry, flood waters occasionally flow through it from
the east, near Fort Abbas, in periods of uncommonly high rainfall.
Available data indicate that the upper part of the aquifer along the
channelway contains water of about 4,000 ppm, but that locally it
may be fresh. At depth, however, ground water is highly saline, as
indicated on plate 2, E-E'. At Derawar Fort (BWP93A), a water
sample from 1,360 feet contained 25,400 ppm.
QUALITY OP WATER IN THE PUNJAB REGION
The river waters of the Punjab region, the ultimate source of most
of the ground-water recharge, commonly contain from about 90 to
350 ppm of total dissolved solids. Although dissolved solids concentrations vary seasonally with discharge and increase generally downstream, the average concentration is of the order of 150 to 180 ppm.
All river waters are of the calcium bicarbonate type, in which each
of these ions accounts for more than 60 percent of the total cations
and anions (table 1). Upon entering ground-water circulation, these
waters, which initially contain only about 13 percent sodium, commonly increase in sodium content by twofold or threefold but with
little increase in the amount of total dissolved solids. Thus, in ground
water containing less than 300 ppm, the calcium content is generally
reduced to about 40 percent or less of the total cations largely as the
result of base exchange in clays and the precipitation of calcium
GROUND-WATER ZONES, PUNJAB REGION, WEST PAKISTAN
I 13
carbonate. The magnesium content of these ground waters is generally
similar to that in river water (about 25 percent of the total cations)
and therefore there is generally an excess of calcium and magnesium
over sodium in ground water containing less than 300 ppm.
Average ionic concentration of the major constituents of river
water and ground water, from shallow and deep sources containing
less than 2,000 ppm, are compared in table 1. The data given in this
table for Eeclina Doab, within each group of total dissolved solids,
are in close agreement with similar data for other doabs and may
illustrate the chemical character of slightly mineralized ground water
in the Punjab region. It is interesting to note that the average calcium
content of 40 percent in waters from shallow wells (300 to 500 ppm
total solids) is considerably higher than the calcium percentage in
samples from deeper sources (table 1).
The ground waters of the Punjab region are characterized by their
evolution from fresher calcium magnesium bicarbonate waters, near
sources of recharge, to more mineralized waters containing a dominant proportion of sodium. Ground water containing from 500 to
1,000 ppm is commonly of the sodium bicarbonate type or it may be of
the mixed type, in which the common anions (bicarbonate, chloride,
and sulf ate) are present in about equal proportions. With increasing
mineralization, from 1,000 to 3,000 ppm, the relative proportion of
chloride and sulfate increases over the bicarbonate, and these waters
are generally of the sodium chloride or sodium sulfate type. The
highly mineralized waters of the Punjab region are generally of the
sodium chloride type, whereas in D. I. Khan District they are preTABLE 1. Chemical composition of river water and around water from shallow
and deep sources, Rechna Doab
Cations
Total dissolved
solids (ppm)
Calcium
(Ca)
Magnesium
(Mg)
Anions
Sodium (Na) Carbonate
and potas(CO3) and
sium (K)
bicarbonate
(HCOj)
Chloride
(Cl)
Sulfate
(80«)
Percent of total milliequivalents per liter
A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D
<300... .... _ . _ 62 42 42 41 25 29 24 26 13 29
25 26 20
35
40 25 29
18 15 15
21 17 14
61
11 9
12 13
77
300-500..... ... _ .
500-1000.. _ ......
1000-2000..........
A.
B.
C.
D.
34 33 72 71 66 73 11 11 10 5 17 18 24
49 51
64 66 74
8 12 7
28 22
15 17 16
68 71
57 50 56
28 33
78
18
27
51 38
31 35
Average, Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab Rivers, 1960-64 (153 ppm).
Average, 192 samples from shallow wells, Rechna Doab, 1956-59.
Average, 190 samples from deep test holes, WASID, 1956-63.
Average, 89 samples from tubewells, Shadman Reclamation Scheme, 1963.
22
19
28
I 14
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA
dominantly of the sodium sulfate type. Calcium and magnesium
chloride waters are not common anywhere in the area; however, a
small number of water samples of this type, containing from 3,000 to
10,000 ppm, have been noted in all saline ground-water zones.
The classification of ground water in the Punjab region is shown
by bar graphs in figure 2 that summarize analytical data for 953 water
samples taken, during WASID's test drilling operations between
1956 and 1963, from Bari, Chaj, Eechna, and Thai Doabs and the
Bahawalpur area. In general, only one water sample from each test
site was included in the compilation of chemical data. Thus, figure 2
presents a synopsis of the chemical quality of ground water between
depths of about 200 to 400 feet at more than 900 test sites.
ORIGIN OF SALINE GROUND-WATER ZONES
SOLUTION-EVAPORATION HYPOTHESIS
Data concerning the distribution of saline ground-water zones and
their chemical character, when examined in the context of preirrigation ground-water flow patterns and the Punjab region's geologic history, indicate that there is neither a single source for the saline waters
of the Punjab region nor a single theory that would adequately explain
their origin.
With respect to water quality, significant features in the hydrologic
regimen of the Punjab region are the semiarid or arid climate, areal
distribution of recharge, and extremely low ground-water gradients,
which are generally iy2 feet per mile or less. Also, as has been stressed
by Greenman, Swarzenski, and Bennett (1963), evaporation from the
water table and solution of minerals by slowly percolating ground
water must have been important factors affecting the chemical quality
of ground water. A hypothesis combining the processes of solution and
evaporation appears best to explain the observed gradual mineralization of ground water downgradient and away from sources of recharge
and the distribution pattern of saline ground-water zones in the Punjab. The term "solution-evaporation hypothesis" is proposed here.
Accordingly, the reaction of ground water with clay minerals and
any soluble secondary salts within the alluvial aquifer resulted in a
moderate progressive increase, downgradient, in the salt content of the
percolating waters. A factor contributing to the initial mineralization
of ground water was evaporation from the shallow water table adjacent to the rivers and particularly along the wide belt of abandoned
flood plains. The intermittent flooding of some of these areas in the
past, followed by long periods of evaporation from a free-water surface or a shallow water table, may have created local sources of moderately mineralized ground water close to the rivers.
GROUND-WATER ZONES, PUNJAB REGION, WEST PAKISTAN
I 15
With increasing distance from sources of fresh-water recharge, the
character of ground water changed from a predominantly sodium
bicarbonate type to sodium sulfate and chloride waters. Mineralization proceeded according to relatively simple laws of physical chemistry, in which the solvent action of the water varied chiefly with the
concentration of total dissolved solids, the relative proportions of
different salts in solution, and the concentrations of dissolved gases,
particularly carbon dioxide. With increasing mineralization, the least
soluble salts were precipitated, such as the carbonates of calcium, magnesium, and iron and also iron hydroxide. The presence of calcium
carbonate nodules (kankar) and ferruginous concretions throughout
the alluvium bears witness to conditions favoring precipitation of these
compounds in the alluvial deposits. Changes in the physical environment, particularly in the position of the water table, subsidence, or the
introduction of new sources of recharge, would tend to reverse the
conditions favoring precipitation. Local variations in the content of
total dissolved solids or in the chemical composition of ground water
may be explained by the retention of, or incomplete flushing of, saline
water from clay strata or by variations in the nature of soluble minerals within the alluvial deposits. It may be assumed that local salt
concentrations are present within the alluvial deposits that have been
derived from salt-bearing sedimentary rocks of the Tertiary and older
formations bordering the Punjab region to the north and west or that
they have resulted from surficial salt accumulations on the alluvial
plain during the geologic past. Local salt accumulations of this type,
which may have passed through several cycles of erosion and deposition, would involve chiefly the salts of relatively low solubility including calcium sulfate. Calcium sulfate predominates in many of the
moderately mineralized ground waters of D. I. Khan District. In this
case the origin of the calcium sulfate may be sought in secondary
gypsum that is within the piedmont and alluvial deposits and is derived from gypsum beds of Tertiary age exposed in the Sulaiman
Eange (Hood and others, 1964).
As total dissolved solids increase beyond 3,000 or 4,000 ppm, there
is a progressive trend toward ground water of the sodium chloride
type; and, as shown in figure 2, the majority of samples in the ranges
of 5,000 to 10,000 ppm and greater are sodium chloride waters. Locally,
however, waters of the calcium chloride type are present, particularly
in the lower part of Rechna and Bari Doabs and in the Bahawalpur
area; sodium sulfate waters are common in D. I. Khan District and
are also present in the Bahawalpur area. Calcium chloride and sodium
sulfate waters commonly contain from 3,000 to 10,000 ppm of total
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL, IN EQUIVALENTS PER MILLION
o
Ed
O
IT1
O
O
GROUND-WATER ZONES, PUNJAB REGION, WEST PAKISTAN
Bar! Doab
I 17
-100
-50
-0
Bahawalpur area
rlOO
<300
300-500
500-1000
1000-2000 2000-3000
3000-5000 5000-10,000 > 10,000
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS, IN PARTS PER MILLION
EXPLANATION
Calcium
Sodium and
potassium
Chloride
Magnesium
Carbonate and
bicarbonate
Sulfate
FIGURE 2. Average ionic concentrations in 953 water samples, 1956-63 Continued
dissolved solids and their occurrence is probably related to variations
in the lithologic environment.
In the lower downgradient parts of the doabs, particularly in the
large areas of abandoned flood plains, evaporation from the water
table must have contributed in substantial measure to the mineralization of ground water. In the preirrigation period, these areas were
characterized by a flattening of the hydraulic gradients, convergence
I 18
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA
of ground-water flow, and the probable reversal of flow directions near
the confluence of rivers. Thus, long-continued evaporation from
shallow, nearly stagnant ground water was most certainly an important process in the building up of the salinity in the water in these
areas. Although the rate of effective evaporation decreases appreciably
below a water-table depth of about 8 feet, it is likely that significant
evaporation losses occur from much greater depths. As suggested by
Greenman, Swarzenski, and Bennett (1963) they may extend to depths
of 60 feet or more under the climatic conditions prevailing in the lower
part of the Punjab region.
OTHER THEORIES
Other theories seeking to explain the origin of the saline ground
waters of the Punjab region emphasize the importance of evaporite
deposits of the Salt Range and other areas, cyclic windborne salt accumulations, or connate sea water as sources of salts in the saline
ground water. In general, these theories fail to account for the observed
pattern of salinity distribution in the alluvial aquifer. If halite and
gypsum deposits in the Salt Range were primary sources of salts in
the ground water of the Punjab region, increasing mineral concentrations toward the source, reaching maxima near the base of the Salt
Range, might be expected; this however, is not the case. Similarly,
observed ground-water salinities do not point to any other source of
surficial salt accumulation.
In regions of low relief and strong prevailing winds, salt and saline
silt may be transported by winds from coastal or inland salt flats and
deposited over extensive areas. In the Punjab region windborne salts
have no doubt contributed to the mineralization of ground water;
however, it cannot be established that the regional pattern of groundwater salinity in the Punjab is primarily related to windborne sources
of salt.
In the Punjab region there is no evidence of a marine transgression
younger than the Eocene. Limestone and other marine strata of
Eocene age are found in the mountain ranges to the north and west
of the alluvial aquifer in the Salt Range, in the Potwar Plateau, and
they probably underlie a part of the alluvial plain. The first Himalayan orogeny, at the close of the Eocene, appears to have been accompanied by a general withdrawal of the sea in the northern part of
West Pakistan. In the Sind region, however, marine conditions prevailed throughout the Oligocene and early Miocene, up to the second
Himalayan upheaval. In the north, including the Punjab region,
small residual basins or lagoons and brackish-water conditions may
have persisted in early post-Eocene time. Thus, the lowermost rocks
GROUND-WATER ZONES, PUNJAB REGION, WEST PAKISTAN
I 19
of the Murree Series, of Oligocene age, may include strata of brackishwater origin. All subsequent deposition, however, from early Miocene
to Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Recent time, indicates a fresh-water, terrestrial environment of deposition. The rocks of predominantly
fluviatile origin include those of the upper Murree, the Siwalik, and
the Pleistocene and Recent alluvium, which were deposited during a
time span of about 25 million years or more. During part of this time,
climatic conditions were probably similar to those of the present, but
moister climates presumably prevailed during the Pliocene and the
pluvial stages of the Pleistocene. In view of the time span involved
and the abundance of river water flowing from the Himalayan region
into the alluvial plain, it is probable that an interface between fresh
and saline water was always maintained in the coastal zone and that
it migrated southward somewhat contemporaneously with the seaward
growth of the alluvial plain. In part of the Punjab, alluvial deposits
directly overlie the Precambrian(?) basement rocks; elsewhere, they
may rest on several thousand feet of rocks of the Murree and Siwalik
Series, which are of fresh-water origin. No brackish-water or evaporite
deposits are known from the early Miocene and younger rocks that
would suggest the presence of an isolated shallow marine basin in
which saline waters may have remained trapped since middle Tertiary
time. Thus, any theory ascribing the origin of saline ground water in
the Punjab region to residual marine waters is inadequate, largely
on geologic grounds. Asghar and Hamid (1960) have speculated that
the saline ground water of the Punjab may be a mixture of residual
sea water and surface waters. It is generally not possible, however, to
identify the marine origin of saline ground waters by chemical character alone. On the other hand, age determinations by radioisotope
methods of samples of saline water from different depths may shed
light on this controversial question.
MOVEMENT OF FRESH AND SALINE GROUND WATER
The movement of ground water through the alluvial aquifer of the
Punjab region, as deduced from preirrigation and more recent watertable maps, is described by Greenman, Swarzenski, and Bennett
(1963). In Chaj, Rechna, and Bari Doabs, the preirrigation water
table generally sloped from the rivers downstream and toward the
central axes of the doabs and indicated that the rivers were sources of
ground-water recharge. In upper Rechna and Bari Doabs, the watertable contours were nearly normal to the rivers, or their curvature
indicated a water table slightly above the level of the adjacent rivers,
as the result of recharge from precipitation in these areas. In Thai
Doab, the contours suggest that ground-water flow was predominantly
I 20
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA
southeasterly from the Indus River, toward the Chenab River and
lower Bari Doab. The Indus River was also the principal source of
ground-water recharge in D. I. Khan District, where ground water
moved southwesterly from the river (Hood and others, 1964). In the
preirrigation period, ground-water flow in the Bahawalpur area was
generally southward from the Sutlej River toward the desert areas.
Since the introduction of intensive canal irrigation, water levels have
been rising and the water table in much of Chaj and Rechna Doabs,
in part of Bari Doab, and in the upstream areas of Thai Doab and
Bahawalpur is now above the average level of the bordering streams
and within 5 to 15 feet of the land surface. Thus, there is a component
of ground-water flow toward the rivers, as shown by Greenman,
Swarzenski, and Bennett (1963, fig. 18).
Available water-table maps depict ground-water gradients only in
two dimensions. Although the major component gradients of groundwater flow in the vast alluvial aquifer were probably in a horizontal
plane in the preirrigation period, it can be assumed that significant
vertical gradients were present in the flow system of the past, as they
are today. Little or no information is available, however, with respect
to the vertical distribution of pressure heads in the aquifer, either
present or past.
In the preirrigation period, recharging fresh water moved downward from the line sources of the river channels, and subsequent
ground-water flow was essentially downgradient, with upward components probably present throughout much of the flow system. The upward components were presumably most pronounced in the discharge
areas of high evapotranspiration losses, that is, the flood plains and
particularly the zones of flattened gradients and stagnation in the
lower parts of the doabs. These conditions are depicted in two hypothetical flow sections, plate 3. Plate 3, X-X' is a profile along the
flow path from the vicinity of Chiniot on the Chenab River, toward
the confluence of the Ravi and Chenab in the lower part of the Rechna
Doab, and is based on preirrigation water levels. Areas of maximum
evapotranspiration losses and presumably of upward ground-water
flow are found adjacent to the Chenab River and centering near Shorkot Road (pi. 3, X-X'} in the large area in the lower part of Reclina
Doab. The area in the lower part of Rechna Doab is a zone of groundwater stagnation, characterized by flattened hydraulic gradients, and
probably includes a small area of reversed ground-water flow updoab
from the confluence of the Chenab and Ravi Rivers. As indicated
on plate 3, X-X', the water table in a large part of this area, coinciding
GROUND-WATER ZONES, PUNJAB REGION, WEST PAKISTAN
I 21
with the zone of highly mineralized ground water, was at depths of
25 feet or less below land surface in the preirrigation period.
Plate 3, Y-Y' shows ground-water flow in the preirrigation period
from the Indus Eiver southwestward into D.I. Khan District, and
southeastward into Thai Doab. It is assumed that water levels in the
lower part of D.I. Khan District have not changed substantially since
preirrigation time. In this illustration, areas of ground-water recharge
and downward components of flow are indicated along the Indus
River and along the front of the Sulaiman Eange. In the intervening
area, including D.I. Khan City, upward components of ground-water
flow were noted throughout the deeper part of the aquifer. In D.I.
Khan District, ground water moves from the sources of recharge
toward a hydraulic sink or zone of discharge sink, located a few miles
downgradient from test hole DIK19 (pi. 3, Y-Y'). Under conditions
analogous to those of the lower parts of the doabs, the water becomes
increasingly mineralized toward this zone of discharge or stagnation,
where, moreover, the water table is as deep as 90 feet (Hood and other,
1964) below the land surface. As shown also on plate 3, Y-Y', ground
water moved from the Indus Eiver southeastward, into Thai Doab,
toward a relatively small zone of mineralized ground water near
Chaubara.
In general, figure 2 and plate 3, X-X' support the hypothesis of
progressive ground-water mineralization by the processes of evaporation and solution. Evaporation from the water table tends to create a
zone of maximum mineralization just below the water table. Indications of such high mineral concentrations just below the water table are
found in many areas beneath the terraces, where neither irrigation
canals nor former river channels are present, particularly in western
Thai Doab (pi. 2, A-A'), Bari and Eechna Doabs, and parts of D.I.
Khan District. The periodic shifting of rivers, however, and the construction of major canals in the Punjab region have masked these
conditions by introducting new sources of fresh-water recharge.
Within the saline ground-water zone of the lower part of Eechna
Doab there is a central area, about 10 to 15 miles wide, in which mineral
concentrations of 15,000 to 18,000 ppm are remarkably uniform within
the explored depth of about 1,100 feet (pi. 3, X-X'}. The degree of
mineralization is probably the net result of all factors affecting the
hydrologic budget of lower Eechna Doab and is specific for that area.
The saline ground water of this zone is believed to be nearly stagnant;
however, there are no data available at present (1965) to substantiate
this conclusion. Downward components of flow, perhaps related to
increased densities of the saline ground water, may be present in most
or part of this zone. It is a matter of further speculation whether a
I 22
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA
fraction of the saline ground water of the lower part of Eechna Doab
becomes part of the regional system of deep ground-water circulation,
with gradients toward the Arabian Sea, if, indeed, such a system exists.
The question whether and to what extent upward gradients in the
alluvial aquifier have persisted since preirrigation time is of practical
interest, but it cannot be answered adequately on the basis of available
data. To shed some light on this problem a small number of paired,
shallow and deep observation wells have been put down since 1961 in
Eechna and Chaj Doabs, and in D.I. Khan District. Downward
components of groundwater flow were noted only in the upper (northeastern) parts of Chaj and Eechna Doabs, north of Phalia and near
Gujranwala. Most of the paired observation wells indicated upward
components of flow from depths of 800 feet or more and some of the
deep wells produced artesian flow. Thus, a temporary piezometer installed in Khangah Dogran produced flow from a depth of 1,445 feet,
which indicated a pressure head of about 15 feet above the water table
in 1962. This test site (E71) is located close to the central axis of
Eechna Doab, in an area where the water table has risen about 50 feet
since preirrigation time.
Because of the fact that water levels have risen 50 to 90 feet throughout a large part of the doabs one might expect downward components of
ground-water flow in most of the area, except where the rivers are line
sinks for effluent ground-water seepage. Presently available information, however, indicates that upward components of flow, at least from
the deeper part of the aquifier, are rather common. They may have
persisted from preirrigation time and probably were enhanced in the
central parts of the doabs including some of the saline ground-water
zones, by disproportionately large seepage losses of the canal systems in
the upper part of the doabs.
In order to evaluate three-dimensional ground-water flow in any of
the Punjab region's hydrologic units, it will be necessary to install
temporary or permanent piezometers, screened at two or three different
depths. Probably 50 to 75 groups of piezometers would be required to
provide adequate coverage for each doab.
CONCLUSIONS
West Pakistan's principal natural resource is the ground-water
reservoir underlying the Punjab Plain. By conservative estimates,
about 2 billion acre-feet of fresh ground water is stored in the alluvial
deposits of the Punjab region. The aquifer, which is generally uiiconfined, is being replenished by the infiltration of water from rivers,
canals, and precipitation. Extensive zones of fresh ground water,
containing from less than 500 to 1,000 ppm of total dissolved solids,
GROUND-WATER ZONES, PUNJAB REGION, WEST PAKISTAN
123
are found in the northeastern parts of Chaj and Rechna Doabs,
where increased precipitation in the vicinity of the foothill ranges of
the Himalaya and seepage from canals in the upper doabs provide
above-average recharge. Moreover, fresh ground water extending to
depths of 800 to more than 1,500 feet is found in wide belts paralleling
the major rivers. The largest area of fresh ground water is found in
the upper part of Rechna Doab, extending northeasterly from Shekhupura toward the border of Jammu. In this area ground water generally contains less than 500 ppm of total dissolved solids. A test well
near Gujranwala yielded water of 230 ppm from a depth of 1,700 feet.
Saline ground water, containing from 4,000 to more than 30,000
ppm, occurs downgradient from sources of fresh-water recharge, particularly in the lower central parts of the interfluvial areas and,
presumably, underlies most of the Punjab Plain. Saline ground water
is also found in the northern part of Thai Doab; in the piedmont area
of the Sulaiman Range, west of the Indus River; and in a large part
of the Bahawalpur area, southeast of the Sutlej River.
The distribution of fresh and saline ground-water zones and the
observed gradual mineralization of ground water with increasing distance from sources of recharge are related to the total water budget
operative in each of the hydrologic subunits of the Punjab region.
With respect to water quality, the significant factors in the hydrologic
regimen are areal distribution of sources of recharge, including present and abandoned river courses, precipitation patterns, and extremely
low ground-water gradients, which are generally l1/^ feet per mile
or less. Water-quality data, examined in the context of preirrigation
flow patterns, indicate that there is neither a single source of the
saline ground waters of the Punjab region, nor a single theory that
would adequately explain their origin. The solution of minerals contained in the alluvial deposits by slowly circulating, nearly stagnant
ground water and evaporation from the waiter table, apparently effective to depths of 90 feet or more, are two processes that seem adequate
to explain the origin of the saline ground waters in the Punjab Plain.
Ground water in the former province of Sind, downgradient and to
the south, locally contains 100,000 ppm or more of total dissolved
solids. It may be assumed that the areal distribution of saline zones
and the degree of mineralization of ground water in that area are also
controlled by the combined processes of solution and evaporation,
operating in an environment comparable with, but more arid than,
that of the Punjab region.
I 24
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ASIA AND OCEANIA
SELECTED REFERENCES
Asghar, A. G., and Hamid, Abdul, 1960, Saline characteristics of waters in old
canal colonies of West Pakistan: West Pakistan Eng. Cong. Proc. Paper
342, p. 48.
Auden, J. B., 1951, Some geological and chemical aspects of the Rajasthan
salt problem: India Natl. Inst. Sci. Bull. 1, p. 53.
Bennett, G. D., Ata-ur-Rahman, Sheikh, Ijaz Ahmed, and Ali, Sabir, 1964,
Analysis of aquifer tests in the Punjab region of West Pakistan: West
Pakistan Water and Power Devel. Authority, Water and Soils Inv. Div.,
Tech. Paper 6, 94 p., 24 figs.
Ghosh, P. K., 1952, Western Rajputana its tectonics and minerals, including
evaporites: India Natl. Inst. Sci. Bull. 1, p. 101.
Gilani, Maqsood Ali Shah, and Hamid, Abdul, 1960, Quality of ground water,
Chaj Doab: West Pakistan Water and Power Devel. Authority, Water and
Soils Inv. Div., Basic Data Release 2,90 p., 4 figs.
Greenman, D. W., Swarzenski, W. V., and Bennett, G. D., 1963, The ground-water
hydrology of the Punjab, West Pakistan: West Pakistan Water and Power
Devel. Authority, Water and Soils Inv. Div., Bull. 6, 98 p., 29 figs.
Hood, J. W., Khan, L. A. and Jawaid, K., 1964, Preliminary report on ground
water in the Dera Ismail Khan District, West Pakistan: West Pakistan
Water and Power Devel. Authority, Water and Soils Inv. Div., Prelim. Kept.
4, 32 p., 16 figs.
Hussain, M. A., and Hamid, Abdul, 1964, Quality of ground water, Bari Doab:
West Pakistan Water and Power Devel. Authority, Water and Soils Inv.
Div., Basic Data Release 10,95 p., 4 figs.
Kidwai, Z. TL, 1962, The geology of Rechna and Chaj Doabs, West Pakistan:
West Pakistan Water and Power Devel. Authority, Water and Soils Inv.
Div., Bull. 5,27 p., 14 figs.
Kidwai, Z. TL, and Alam, S., 1964, The geology of Bari Doab, West Pakistan:
West Pakistan Water and Power Devel. Authority, Water and Soils Inv.
Div., Bull. 8.
Shamsi, R. A., 1960, Quality of ground water, Bahawalpur area: West Pakistan
Water and Power Devel. Authority, Water and Soils Inv. Div., Basic Data
Release 4,10 p., 2 figs.
Shamsi, R. A., and Hamid, Abdul, 1960, Quality of ground water, Rechna Doajb:
West Pakistan Water and Power Devel. Authority, Water and Soils Inv.
Div., Basic Data Release 1,85 p., 4 figs.
1961, Quality of ground water, Thai Doab: West Pakistan Water and
Power Devel. Authority, Water and Soils Inv. Div., Basic Data Release 7,
75 p., 4 figs.
Siddiqi, Rauf, and Kazmi, S.A.T., 1964, The geology of Thai Doab, West Pakistan:
West Pakistan Water and Power Devel. Authority, Water and Soils Inv.
Div., Bull. 7.
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1968