America’s First Empire
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Contents:
Who Makes Foreign Policy
Export Trade
Expansionists v. Anti-Imperialist
War with Spain—Turning Point
Hawaii
Asia
Conclusions.
A brief post test.
Who Makes Foreign Policy?
America was founded on the principle of opposing IMPERIALISM—the act of Britain holding
North America as a colony. How did America become and imperial power herself? Throughout
the world from the 1830s to the early 1900s the strongest powers on earth tended to gain
some control over weaker powers. The notion of “strong” changed significantly during this
time. No longer was power regional. It was global. No longer was it dependent upon
horseback—power flowed through steam driven navies. No longer was it for some profit and
food; but for extensive profits in any endeavor. Three trends ( militarism, industrialism, and
expansion) came together to send British, German, French, and Dutch forces into Africa for
example. These same forces sent America into a world market. They also sent troops to
protect those markets. And following close behind came a wide variety of “explanations” or
justifications for these behavior. American missionaries flooded new colonies in an effort to
convert “heathens”; and
Many factors in America—wealth, technical power, moral sense of duty, and so on created
what some view as a genuine “burden” to help; and what others say was an “excuse” for
economic control of foreign natural resources. An example was Rudyard Kipling’s White Man’s
Burden, 1899. Originally a moral call to duty with a sobering list of the costs of such duty—It
was used by American expansionists as a call for action. One soap company even used the
phrase to advertise that Americans should teach the “lesser races” cleanliness
Take up the White Man's burden-Send forth the best ye breed-Go bind your sons to exile
To serve your captives' need;
To wait in heavy harness,
On fluttered folk and wild-Your new-caught, sullen peoples,
Half-devil and half-child
American Top Export Targets, 1890
Millions of
Nation Sold To
Dollars
Europe
$459,000,000.00
South America
$118,000,000.00
Asia
$98,000,000.00
West Indies
$86,000,000.00
Canada (Brit.N. Am.)
$39,000,000.00
Mexico & Central America
$37,000,000.00
American Goods Exported, 1860-1890, Millions of Dollars
Product
1860
1890
% Change
All Farm Goods
$257,000,000.00
$643,000,000.00
250%
All Manufacturing
$46,000,000.00
$169,000,000.00
367%
Cotton
$191,000,000.00
$290,000,000.00
152%
The massive industrial and technical output of America & Europe produced a world wide
expansion of “empires”—or the control of one country by another..mostly focused around
business.
Minor Keith’s United Fruit Company. Between 1874-1882 he struggled to build a railroad in
Costa Rico. With few passengers it was about to fail when he started shipping bananas! After
years of success he went bankrupt only to re-organize.
Established banana & pineapple plantations in Honduras & Nicaragua
Control of over 1 million acres in Central America
Built railroads and secured 99 year leases on land
Nearly every foreign incursion in the late 1800s was tied to economic interests United Fruit
Company.
After commerce, came demands to protect that commerce
Naval militarism is best expressed by Alfred T. Mahan
Described influence of sea power, The Influence of Sea Power
upon History.
Or “navalism” as it was called
Said “industry gained by the sea”
Said U.S. needed colonies for wartime defense
As well as peace time commerce.
As a result of his influence the United States would expand its
Navy, Marines, and Army. And commercial sea vessels would be a
factor in China, Latin America, Hawaii & Cuba
First, in peace: The government by its policy can favor the
natural growth of a people's industries and its tendencies to
seek adventure and gain by way of the sea….
Secondly, for war: The influence of the government will be
felt in its most legitimate manner in maintaining an armed
navy, ...favoring a healthful spirit and activity, and providing
for rapid development in time of war …preparation must
come the maintenance of suitable naval stations, in those
distant parts of the world to which the armed shipping must
follow the peaceful vessels of commerce. The protection of
such stations must depend either upon direct military force….
Colonies attached to the mother-country afford, therefore,
the surest means of supporting abroad the sea power of a
country.
Motives for Empire?
Economic Motives —to extend & protect America’s growing export/import economy
Approximately 50% of U.S. farm goods depending on exports
Military Motives —defense and protection…based on fears of German and English
expansion
Sense of Superiority/Obligation —the often misguided hope of making other peoples
like Americans (industrialized, urban, Christian, capitalistic and democratic). This
included many church missionaries spreading their word overseas. This also includes
humanitarian efforts —to aid those in need who suffered poverty, ignorance, &
political repression
Expansionists
Many expansionists were prominent Protestant clergy seeking to convert the “heathens”
for the Philippines and other areas. Josiah Strong, author of Our Country called upon the
United States to…
maintain “order in Latin America”…to protect our citizens the world over. "Why should
an American missionary," asked Strong, "be a man without a country?" He claimed
underdeveloped countries “spread disease and disorder”. He also called for the
recognition of imperialism as the climax of a continuing movement. Strong felt that the
United States was destined to he the great imperial power.
“I do not believe that there ever was a war more righteous than that which we have
undertaken” Wayland Hoyt, pastor, New York City.
Josiah Strong
Strong came to national attention with his 1885 book:
Our Country: Its Possible Future and Present Crisis
In the book he asserts:
"Anglo-Saxon race (by which he meant the white Protestants - peoples of England and
America) had a responsibility to civilize and Christianize the world….”
was an influential clergyman who helped found the “Social Gospel” movement of the
late nineteenth century. In 1898 he established the League for Social Service to provide
volunteer help for social ills of poverty, homelessness etc.
Anti-Imperialists
Americans opposed to expansion in foreign waters were especially concerned with the
expansion into the Caribbean and Pacific. The ‘anti-imperialist divided themselves into two
camps.
Most, given the racial and cultural attitudes of the time, felt that the peoples in places like
Cuba, Hawaii, the Philippines, and so on were racially and culturally inferior. They expressed
concern that the “American” race would be “infected”. Some felt that even freeing Cuban
natives from Spain would create a “Black Republic” on the American doorstep. Andrew
Carnegie and Carl Schurz among others expressed these views.
Others, like Mark Twain, felt taking another’s lands and countries, whatever the practical
reason, was morally wrong and abusive.
Background: Spain & Cuba
Spain held colonies in the Americas since 1500—and for most of that time used the
colonies to send raw trade goods back to Spain. Despite the wealth, Spain declined in
power and England and France soon dominated trade…leading to revolutions and
independence for most of Latin America in the early 1800s—except for Cuba. Cuba
remained a source of sugar and other goods.
Cuban background
Since the 8140s guerrilla fighters known as mambises fought for autonomy from Spain.
That war concluded with a treaty that was never enforced. In the 1890's Cubans began
to agitate once again for their freedom from Spain. The moral leader of this struggle was
José Martí, known as "El Apóstol." Americans were sympathetic, but also felt themselves
to be racially superior to the “darker” race of Cubans.
Cuban Sugar
In 1895 the US still did not assess export tariff taxes on Cuban sugar
sold to the Americans because it was so popular.
And because, we benefitted financially.
That year U.S investments in Cuba’s sugar industry was $50,000,000; and the sales of sugar
products from Cuba was $102,000,000!
The Wilson-Gorman Tariff placed Cuban sugar on the tariff list, making it more expensive than
Louisiana beet sugar—and relations began to sour with Spain. Fearing reduced sugar production
and more successful rebels, Spain sent General Valeriano Weyler to force more labor into the
fields and to quell uprisings. He developed a controversial plan of “Concentration Camps” during
the planting and harvesting seasons. Many Cubans suffered and died; and Weyler earned the
nickname, “Butcher Weyler”.
Treatment of the natives, soon became a cause for many
Expansionists. Pro-expansionist newspapers like William
R. Hearst’s NY Journal, and the NY World paid artists and
Photographers to send images to the papers for exploitation.
Marti and other revolutionary leaders went back and forth
between Cuba to fight, and New York City to raise money.
In 1896, over the objections of the President, Congress
Passed a resolution formally recognizing Cuban belligerency
and recognizing Cuban Independence.
Hearst
Fearing mistreatment of natives & possible war, the U. S.
negotiates with Spain to send the brand new ship USS Maine
to Havana Harbor so that American officials can reach a
diplomatic agreement with Spain over Cuba.
On February 9, the NY Journal
leaked a copy of a cable from
Enrique de Lome, the Spanish
Minister to Cuba which was highly
critical of President McKinley—
Americans were outraged:
“…it once more shows what
McKinley is, weak and a bidder for
the admiration of the crowd besides
being a would-be politician
(politicastro) who tries to leave a
door open behind himself while
keeping on good terms with the
jingoes of his party.’
McKinley
SHOCKING NEWS
“Maine blown up tonight about 9:40 and destroyed. Many wounded and doubtless more
killed or drowned”. Capt. Charles Sigsbee, Feb 15, 1898
When the USS Maine exploded in Cuba, Americans blamed Spain & demanded action
Congressional Resolutions
Cuba declared free by the American Congress
Spain was asked to withdraw
Spain did offer an apology, but it was not enough
President given authority to use force if needed
“Teller Amendment” prohibits annexation of Cuba
Emphasized “enslavement of natives”—humanitarian motives when needed
McKinley’s war message…
"... to authorize and empower the President to take measures to
secure a full and final termination of hostilities between the
government of Spain and the people of Cuba, and to secure in
the island the establishment of a stable government, capable of
maintaining order and observing its international obligations,
insuring peace and tranquillity [sic] and the security of its
citizens as well as our own, and to use the military and naval
forces of the United States as may be necessary for these
purposes.“
Teller Amendment
"... hereby disclaims any disposition of intention to exercise
sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said island except for
pacification thereof, and asserts its determination, when that is
accomplished, to leave the government and control of the island
to its people."
Volunteers and regular armed forces went on high alert.
The U.S. Navy began an immediate blockade of Cuba. As preparations were made for an
invasion, planners feared the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay of the Philippine Islands might
attack American interests in the Pacific. So Navy Secretary Long issued these orders to
Admiral Dewey:
“Proceed at once to the Philippine islands. Commence operations against the Spanish
fleet. Use utmost endeavors.” John Long Secretary of the Navy
William Hearst covered the war personally aboard the “Sylvia” where he wrote the
“Cuban Edition”. The war with Spain would be the first modern journalists war.
Admiral Dewey aboard his flagship, USS Olympia
A big victory for the U.S.; and a new type of war!
Only 10 short weeks
Often called the “Splendid” little war
Only 400 Americans killed in action
But 6,000 die of disease
Heroes: George Dewey & Teddy Roosevelt
Fought on two oceans
200,000 volunteered; 7,400 fought
7,000 African Americans
African Americans honored in
24th-25th Infantry & 9th-10th Calvary(smoked Yankees)
Sheet music of the war!
Also interest in Hawaii!
The Islands were a major re-fueling port in
Pacific (just as Mahan had argued). By
1857 U.S. planters dominated sugar trade.
In 1887 U.S. planters rig a “Senate” to rule
over natives & pass laws favorable to
planters. In 1891 Queen Liliuokalani staged
coup to regain power & fails.
U.S. Marines and State Department
officials aided the planters in the Queen’s
downfall.
The islands were finally annexed 1898.
Motives include economic, some military,
and some sense of obligation.
Sanford B. Dole, the son of a missionary, became a friend of both the
sugar planters and the natives in Hawaii. He advocated westernizing the
islands. He is on the left seated with the Queen.
The treaty we forced on Spain gave Cuba her
independence; but (according to the Teller
Amendment) with U.S. Troops occupying Cuba until
1901—to stabilize the government. When we left Cuba
in 1901, the U.S. Congress adopted
A resolution, the Platt Amendment, and forced it into
the new Cuban constitution—that we had the right to
intervene in Cuba to promote stability.
Aguinaldo, Mother, child
But since Dewey had captured the heart of the
Philippine Islands, the Congress & President were less
sure about such a distant island. After considerable
thought, McKinley decided to “keep them”. And war
between the Philippine rebels, lead by Emilio Aguinaldo,
lasted from 1899-1902. Opposition to the war helped
create the Anti-Imperialist League, and led Rudyard
Kipling to write the White Man’s burden”.
European interests and some Americans were
also expanding into China.
But nationalistic forces in China attempted to
overthrow the foreigners. The nationalists,
called Boxers, because of their Chinese
namesakes—righteous and harmonious fists.
In June 1900 Boxers attacked allied forces and
bitter fighting took place.
While an accord was reached the incident
spoiled U.S. China relations for decades. It also
resulted in the overthrow of the government.
treatment of Boxer prisoner
Conclusions! The American Empire! By 1902, the U.S.
Was one of the largest export economies of the World!
Expanding farm exports by 250%
Expanding manufactured goods by 367%
Had fought & won a major war on two ocean fronts!
Controlled Guam, Philippines, Hawaii, Cuba and more!
Had intellectually & spiritually justified these new roles!
Had greatly expanded the foreign powers of government!
Was a partner in the defeat of Chinese rebels!
And, we had the heroes to prove it.
We fully embraced militarism, missions, imperialism, & the
“White Man’s” burden.
The gross cartoon above was popular in this period—clearly stating that Uncle
Sam, supported by the Army & Navy, was holding up the poor uncivilized, “darker”
Peoples of the islands we controlled. Note the stereotypes of the black skinned individuals—and
note that they are depicted as “babies” in diapers. Europeans look on in admiration.
A Brief Post Test! Read the question, then click on the best answer to see feedback.
Kipling’s “White Man’s Burden” advocated imperialism but at great cost. True. False.
U.S. exports to South America by 1900 were second only to Europe. True. False.
U.S. farm exports from 1860-1900 only grew 25%. True. False.
Minor Keith’s fruit exports finally collapsed and failed in Central America. True. False.
A. T. Mahan advocated colonies for both business and military defense. True. False.
Economic, military and human motives helped create America’s first empire. True. False.
Josiah Strong advocated missionary work, but was not an expansionist. True. False.
Anti-imperialism rested on racism, and on claims imperialism was wrong. True. False.
Decisions to go to war over Cuba were not influenced by an active press. True. False.
The Teller Amendment said the U.S. would withdraw from Cuba once stabilized. True. False.
The Hawaiian monarchy supported U.S. annexation. True. False.
The U.S. fought a three year war to subdue the Philippine Islands. True. False.
The U.S. helped European allies defeat the Boxers in China in 1900-1901. True. False.
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