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CONTENTS
List of Mapsxiii
Forewordxv
David Armitage
Part 1: The Challenge
Preface to Part 13
I. The Age of the Democratic Revolution5
The Revolution of Western Civilization7
A “Democratic” Revolution: “Democrat” and “Aristocrat”
in European Languages13
A Preview of What Follows18
II. Aristocracy about 1760: The Constituted Bodies22
The Diets of Eastern Europe25
Councils and Estates of the Middle Zone27
The Provincial Estates and Parlements of France33
Parliaments and Assemblies in the British Isles and America35
III. Aristocracy about 1760: Theory and Practice42
Montesquieu, Real de Curban, Blackstone, Warburton43
Uses and Abuses of Social Rank52
Problems of Administration, Recruitment, Taxation,
and Class Consciousness58
IV. Clashes with Monarchy64
The Quasi-­Revolution in France, 1763–­177465
The Monarchist Coup d’Etat of 1772 in Sweden75
The Hapsburg Empire78
V. A Clash with Democracy: Geneva and Jean-­Jacques Rousseau83
Rousseau, Voltaire, and Geneva to 176284
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viiiContents
The Social Contract, 176289
The Genevese Revolution of 176896
VI. The British Parliament between King and People106
The British Constitution107
The First American Crisis: The Stamp Act114
Tribulations of Parliament, 1766–­1774123
The Second American Crisis: The Coercive Acts and
the Continental Congress130
VII. The American Revolution: The Forces in Conflict138
The Revolution: Was There Any?139
Anglo-­America before the Revolution142
The Revolution: Democracy and Aristocracy148
The Revolution: Britain and Europe155
VIII. The American Revolution: The People as Constituent Power159
The Distinctiveness of American Political Ideas160
Constitution-­Making in North Carolina, Pennsylvania,
and Massachusetts163
A Word on the Constitution of the United States171
Ambivalence of the American Revolution174
IX. Europe and the American Revolution177
The Sense of a New Era178
Channels of Communication180
The Depths of Feeling190
The American Constitutions: An International Argument198
X. Two Parliaments Escape Reform214
The Arming of Ireland: “Grattan’s Parliament”216
The “Association” Movement in England221
The Reform Bills and Their Failure228
The Conservatism of Edmund Burke232
The “Appellation of Citizen” vs. the Test Act238
XI. Democrats and Aristocrats—Dutch, Belgian, and Swiss242
The Dutch Patriot Movement243
The Belgian Revolution256
A View of Switzerland269
Reflections on the Foregoing274
XII. The Limitations of Enlightened Despotism280
Joseph II: The Attempted Revolution from Above281
Leopold II: The Aristocratic Counterattack289
Three Charters of the North299
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Contentsix
XIII. The Lessons of Poland307
The Gentry Republic308
The Polish Revolution: The Constitution of 1791316
A Game of Ideological Football321
XIV. The French Revolution: The Aristocratic Resurgence326
The Problem of the French Revolution328
Ministers and Parlements, 1774–­1788333
The Aristocratic Revolt341
XV. The French Revolution: The Explosion of 1789347
The Formation of a Revolutionary Psychology348
The Overturn: May to August 1789355
The Constitution: Mounier and Sieyès362
Part 2: The Struggle
Preface to Part 2375
XVI. The Issues and the Adversaries377
Bastille Day, 1792379
Ideological War383
The Adversaries387
Shades of Doctrine396
XVII. The Revolutionizing of the Revolution400
The “Second” French Revolution401
Popular Revolutionism407
International Revolutionism412
XVIII. Liberation and Annexation: 1792–­1793424
The Storm in the Low Countries425
The Submersion of Poland437
XIX. The Survival of the Revolution in France447
Gouvernement Révolutionnaire450
Reaction against Popular and International Revolutionism458
The Moral Republic466
The Meaning of Thermidor471
XX. Victories of the Counter-­Revolution in Eastern Europe473
The Problem of Eastern Europe474
The Impact of the Western Revolution in Russia477
The Abortive Polish Revolution of 1794482
Agitations in the Hapsburg Empire490
The Jacobin Conspiracies at Vienna and in Hungary, 1794496
An Addendum on Southeast Europe502
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xContents
XXI. The Batavian Republic505
The Dutch Revolution of 1794–­1795508
The Frustration of the Conciliators513
Federalists and Democrats517
The Coup d’Etat of January 22, 1798: Dutch Democracy
at Its Height522
A Word on the Dutch of South Africa527
XXII. The French Directory: Mirage of the Moderates530
After Thermidor531
The Directory533
The Sources of Moderate Strength536
XXIII. The French Directory between Extremes544
Democracy and Communism544
The Throne and the Altar554
Fructidor and Floréal563
XXIV. The Revolution Comes to Italy568
“World Revolution” as Seen from Paris, 1796569
The Beginning of French Action in Italy573
Italy before 1796578
The Kingdom of Corsica585
XXV. The Cisalpine Republic589
The Val Padana and the Bridge at Lodi590
The Cispadane Republic597
The Venetian Revolution and the Treaty of Campo Formio600
The Cisalpine Republic: Sketch of a Modern State603
Politics and Vicissitudes of the Cisalpine609
XXVI. 1798: The High Tide of Revolutionary Democracy614
The Great Nation, the Sister-­Republics, and
the Wave of Cisalpinization617
A Comparative View of the New Republican Order623
The Republican Constitutions629
Religion and Revolution: Christianity
and Democracy635
XXVII. The Republics at Rome and Naples642
The Politics of the Semi-­Peace643
The Roman Republic648
The Neapolitan Republic655
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Contentsxi
XXVIII. The Helvetic Republic663
Switzerland before 1798663
Geneva: Revolution and Annexation666
The Swiss Revolutionaries669
Swiss Unity vs. External Pressures672
Internal Stresses in the Helvetic Republic678
XXIX. Germany: The Revolution of the Mind684
The Ambiguous Revolution685
Mainz Jacobins and Cisrhenane Republicans692
The Colossi of the Goethezeit699
Counter-­Revolutionary Cross Currents705
XXX. Britain: Republicanism and the Establishment709
British Radicalism and Continental Revolution711
Clubs and Conventions720
The “Lévee en Masse” of the People of Quality728
The Abortive Irish Revolution of 1798734
XXXI. America: Democracy Native and Imported745
The “Other” Americas, Latin and British747
Which Way the New Republic?753
The Impact of the Outside World758
The “Corruption of Poland”765
Democracy in America772
XXXII. Climax and Dénouement775
The Still Receding Mirage of the Moderates776
The Conservative Counter-­Offensive of 1799779
The Revolutionary Re-­Arousal and Victory785
Two Men on Horseback791
Appendixes
I. References for the Quotations at Heads of Chapters796
II. Translations of Metrical Passages798
III. Excerpts from Certain Basic Legal Documents801
1. The Russian Charter of Nobility, 1785801
2. The Prussian General Code, 1791802
3. The Swedish Act of Union and Security, 1789805
4. The Polish Constitution of 1791805
5. The Hungarian Coronation Oath of 1790806
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xiiContents
6. The Brabant Declaration of Independence, 1789806
7. The Geneva Edict of Pacification, 1782807
8. The Canada Act, 1791808
9. The Constitutions of the United States, 1787, and
of Pennsylvania, 1790808
10. The French Constitution of 1789–­1791809
IV. The Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776, and the
French Declaration of Rights of 1789811
V. “Democratic” and “Bourgeois” Characteristics in the
French Constitution of 1791: Property Qualifications
in France, Britain, and America815
Index821
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