Eastern Michigan University
DigitalCommons@EMU
Senior Honors Theses
Honors College
2017
The Effects that War Has on Children and Child
Soldiers
Breanna V. Kingsley
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Kingsley, Breanna V., "The Effects that War Has on Children and Child Soldiers" (2017). Senior Honors Theses. 527.
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The Effects that War Has on Children and Child Soldiers
Abstract
The focus of this research is to help explain the effects that war has on children and child soldiers. The effects
being researched include those of psychological, physical, emotional, economical, and educational effects. The
type of war being analyzed in this research is civil war with case studies of countries such as the Syrian Arab
Republic, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Somalia, South Sudan, and the lraqi war. These cases are among the most
violent, oppressive, cases involving children and/or child soldiers. The ultimate goal of this research is to
discover and better understand what these children experience and how that will affect them and continue to
affect them as they grow older. The way this research paper is organized as such that is consistent with the
table of contents ending with a list of references.
Degree Type
Open Access Senior Honors Thesis
Department
Political Science
Keywords
Civil War, Psychological, Education, Economical, Health
Subject Categories
Political Science
This open access senior honors thesis is available at DigitalCommons@EMU: http://commons.emich.edu/honors/527
THE EFFECTS THAT WAR HAS ON CHILDREN AND CHILD SOLDIERS
By
Breanna V. Kingsley
A Senior Thesis Submitted to the
Eastern Michigan University
Honors College
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for Graduation
with Honors in Political Science
Approved at Ypsilanti, Michigan, on this date
U\)'t '·\ \o, 'l. D\1)
\
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction•••••••••••••••..........•....•..•..••.............•.•.•.......••.••.••••••••••.•....•..3-4
Literature Review•••.•.........•.•........•...•••................•....•.••••••••••••.•••........•.5-8
Theory with Hypothesis.....•••.•.•••••••••••.••...•.....••.•..•.....•••••••••••••••..•........•...9
Research Design•••••••••••••....•....•.......•..•••••••••••••••••••.•..........•..•.••••••••••••9-10
Case Study: Syrian Arab Republic.••.••.......••.....••....•..••.••••••••.•••••••10-12
Case Study: Sri Lanka•••••••••••••••••••.•......•......•..•.••••••.••••••••••••••...12-14
Case Study: Somalia.••...•...••..••..•••.•.•••••••••••••.........................•...14-15
Case Study South Sudan•••••••••••••...............•.•....•..........•••••••••••••••15-17
Case Study: The Democratic Republic of the Congo.............•••••••••••••17-19
Case Study: Iraq•.••.•.••••••••••••••••••••.•.•..•..••.........•...........•..•.••.•...19-21
Case Study: Afghanistan•••••••••••••••••...•..........•......•...............•....•.21-22
Case Study: Colombia.•...•.......•••.........•..•.....•••......•..•...•.•.•..•..•••23-24
Conclusion•..•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••.••••....••....•.•.....•.....•.........24-26
Appendices••••••.......•.•...................•..•....•..............•.......••....••...•.......•27-37
References........•...••••••..•••.••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••38-4-3
Kingsley 2
The focus of this research is to help explain the effects that war has on children
and child soldiers. The effects being researched include those of psychological, physical,
emotional, economical, and educational effects. The type of war being analyzed in this
research is civil war with case studies of countries such as the Syrian Arab Republic,
Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Somalia, South Sudan, and the lraqi war. These cases are among
the most violent, oppressive, cases involving children and/or child soldiers. The ultimate
goal of this research is to discover and better understand what these children experience
and how that will affect them and continue to affect them as they grow older. The way
this research paper is organized as such that is consistent with the table of contents
ending with a list of references.
Introduction
It is known that children are among the most vulnerable populations when
exposed to conflict (along with women), however what occurs even after the war has
ended will continue to have lasting effects on these chi1dren. It is near impossible for
children to be able to leave a conflict - risen area due to their lack of mobility and Jack of
education. Children who live in poverty-struck areas are also among the most vulnerable
and more likely to be taken and converted into child soldiers. It is the unfortunate truth
that children are often used as political tools in order for the opposition to gain control
and power in an area. Mazower finds that the effects of war can be lasting, however the
actual impact of the war is ..conditioned by the way in which they [children] interpret and
understand their suffering". This suggests that although children who have lived through
civil wars have experienced traumatic events, if they do not necessarily understand what
had happened and they cannot connect the war with suffering, they in tum may grow up
Kingsley 3
..normal" and enjoy life without long-term psychological effects (Mazower, 1996).
Appendix I shows areas where child soldiers have existed or may continue to exist from
UNICEF; there are other countries that have violations against children still happening
however this could mean other forms such as child labor, etc.
If children are involved in a war, the complications suffered infringe deeply on
the child's development physically, mentally, and emotionally. Not only have the number
of wars increased in years passed, but the severity has increased alarmingly.
Militarization has taken control of conflicts making it extremely difficult for women and
children to escape; if they are caught while attempting to flee the consequences are grave.
Wars have become more involved with civilians as well causing schools and hospitals to
be targets of destruction. It is apparent that children may be killed while simply playing
outside with friends or killed during the night by raids and such. While living in war
zones these children need to be alert at all times of their surroundings or they may be
killed, captured, or injured. It is possible to help curve these effects by intervention from
Intergovernmental Organizations (IGO's), Nongovernmental Organizations (NGO's),
emergency medical assistance, or other individual government assistance. However all
three of these possibly entities are limited in their ability to a) respond and b) actually
take due to the implications of crossing borders into war zones (Plunkett, 1996).
Kingsley 4
Literature Review
The Correlates of War Project provide some definitions and distinctions on types
of war and how they can be categorized. First, it is important to note the difference
between International wars and civil wars; international wars are divided into two sub­
categories known as inter-state and extra-systemic wars (Sarkees, Meredith Reid and
Frank Wayman, [2010]). Inter-state wars can be defined as "those in which a territorial
state that qualifies as a member of the interstate system is engaged in a war with another
system member"; this means involvement from another state (Sarkees, Meredith Reid and
Frank Wayman, [20 IO]). Extra-systemic wars can be defined as ''those in which the
interstate system member engaged in a war with a political entity that was not a system
member"; this could mean an entity that is not a recognized state (Sarkees, Meredith Reid
and Frank Wayman, [20 I OJ). To tum to civil wars, or Intra-State wars, they can be
defined as "any armed conflict that involved; (1) military action internal to the
1
metropole of the state system member; (2) the active participation of the national
government; (3) effective resistance by both sides; and (4) a total of at least 1,000 battle­
deaths during each year of the war" (Sarkees, Meredith Reid and Frank Wayman,
[2010]).
The article by Albertyn provides information based on the continent of Africa and
due to the high number of conflicts the continent as a whole has seen, it provides us with
narrowly tailored ideas about the effects that war can have on children (as well as child
soldiers). So far this article also provides statistics on these children with an "estimated
1
Metropole is "the core of the system member itself" (Sarkees, Meredith Reid and Frank Wayman,
(20101).
Kingsley 5
international total of 2 million children already killed in battle, 6 million left disabled, 12
million homeless, 1 million orphaned or separated from their families and 10 million
children suffering from psychological trauma as a result of their exposure to armed
conflict". These numbers are not small and they represent the fear that these children
have to live through, knowing they could be killed or separated from their
parents/families for life. The conflicts in African have left certain regions instable and
unable to recover in tum leading to more conflicts to arise. Many of these conflicts often
began due to poor economics, negative gross domestic product growth, as well as the lack
of basic social needs among the populations. The children involved in these conflicts may
also experience poverty and hunger, abduction (leading to forced child soldiers), as well
as health complications. In the year of 2001, the continent of Africa was estimated to
have anywhere from 120,000-200,000 child soldiers ranging from 5-16 years of age and
the abductors use scare tactics to invoke fear into the children so that they will comply
with orders. (Appendix 11 provides the locations of child soldiers in Africa, as of 2014,
from the UN report on children in armed conflict - all areas highlighted have or have had
child soldiers in armed conflicts).
Child soldiers are first trained to spy and perform carries of weapons, and later
forced to kill. While trained these children are exposed to abuse and violence again in
order to invoke the fear to obey their leaders. Child soldiers may also be forced to take
pain killers and drink alcohol to enhance their ability to fight or disable a landmine.
Young girls can be abducted, but are not forced into combat but rather forced into
prostitution which increases the chances of HIV/AIDS as well as other infections. All of
this becomes normal to these children who are exposed to these situations and they see no
Kingsley 6
harm in what is being done. The United Nations has attempted to ban the use of children
under the age of 18 in military conflicts, however unfortunately children as young as 5
years old may be exploited. As a repercussion of these conflicts the issue of growing
Internally Displaced Persons (IDP's) and refugees has become greatly increased; the
United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees has defined refugees as ..someone who
has been forced to flee his or her country because of persecution, war, or violence" and
an !DP as ..a person who has been forced to flee his or her home for the same reason as a
refugee, but remains in his or her own country and has not crossed an international
border" (unfortunately IDP's are not protected under international law like refugees are).
A child's health is compromised during conflicts causing mortality, infections,
war-related injuries, malnutrition, and psychological effects. Children may be killed in
action or die from illness and/or starvation. Many can experience infections such as
cholera, measles, meningitis, HIV/ AIDS, or malaria. War-related injuries may include
those from bullets or shrapnel, bums, malformed limbs, or possible amputation. In
Africa, landmines account for more than 12,000 deaths each year and even after the war
has ended landmines may still be found to cause the death toll to continue to rise. During
conflict access to food becomes scarce due to the militarization of the economy leading to
malnutrition in children (and women especially) which leads to malnutrition and
ultimately death. The psychological impacts on children can range from anxiety, PTSD,
depression, insomnia, irritability, sleeping disorders, nightmares, aggression, and the
inability to concentrate. The psychological effects end up being lasting and continue way
after the war has ended; additional treatment is also needed long after the war is over
(Albertyn, 2003).
Kingsley 7
In the article written by Moynagh, she notes the importance of the correlation
between human rights and the idea of the child soldier, and restoring the rights of the
child that were previously taken away. She provides an insight to the humanitarian aspect
of the side of the child soldier that may otherwise be overlooked. It is difficult to
differentiate between the ..child" and the ..soldier"; many people may look at a child
soldier and not think that their human rights were abolished (Moynagh, 2011). Child
soldiers are seen as the epitome of violence, without the need for humanitarian
intervention and without viewing the child as a victim, but rather the perpetrator
(Moynagh, 2011). Children are protected under international law, under the Convention
on the Rights of the Child, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the International
Criminal Court (ICC) forbids the use of children under 18 in the military. So it is
important to note that these children are being stripped of their rights under international
law; their rights to be children, and not be forced in labor (military or sexual) (Moynagh,
2011). Some children join groups voluntarily, however after conflict it is very difficult to
reintegrate them back into civilian life. These children may feel safer holding a rifle than
they do staying at home, which can cause them to find a party to the conflict and join
(Moynagh, 2011). Moynagh also states that ..The child soldier, in other words, is a figure
for a crisis in human futurity", meaning that the idea of the child soldier in and of itself is
the figure of the crisis of humanity's future endeavors. There are two different ways of
looking at these children: (1) the child as a soldier and (2) the child as a human
(Moynagh, 2011).
Kingsley 8
Theory with Hypothesis
My theory is essentially that children and child soldiers who live in war zones of
internal conflicts will have lasting effects emotionally, physically, and psychologically
even after the conflict has ended. The conflict can also cause a stunt of development
(again physically and mentally) in the child as well as the inability to grow economically
due to the effects from the conflict. My hypothesis is that civil wars are directly
correlated with long-term effects on children and child soldiers. I also think that when
there is a lack of government, meaning almost no functioning government, the effects
will intensify. The experiences that children leave with after the war is over will continue
to haunt them and cause them pain. Although some may determine it is up to the child to
have a "normal" life, I think a child may be unable to know what a "nonnal"2 life is in the
first place thus leading them to do what they know and what they have learned from their
childhood; fight, kill, starve, and fend for themselves - even if they may have lived a
"normal" life before the war began (especially if they are separated from their families).
War has too many implications and is a very difficult thing for children to understand,
thus leaving long-term effects on these children.
Research Design
The research conducted is based on a case study approach due to the inability to
access further resources. With more resources this research could have been conducted
through thorough interviews with children of who were previously child soldiers or other
research done in the countries being studied. If I were able to travel to these countries I
2
In this context "normal" is defined as "living free of excessive discomfort''.
Kingsley 9
could get in depth research with a hands-on experience, however since that is not a
possibility case studies are the best way to conduct this research. Crowe et al. explain the
case study approach as research "used to generate an in-depth, multi-faceted
understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context". Case studies can be useful
when you need a real in-depth analysis of an event (Crowe et al., 2011). This research
approach provides a naturalistic insight on a specific issue with a collective overview of
multiple cases to offer a comparison (Crowe et al., 2011).
Case Study: The Syrian Arab Republic
My first case study is the civil war that has been going since circa 2011 in the
Syrian Arab Republic. There are many parties to this war including the Bashar al-Assad
regime, the Free Syrian Army (opposition to the Assad regime), the Islamic State and the
Nusrah front Gihadist groups), the Kurdish People's Protection Units (from the area of
Turkey where the Kurdish population resides), with assistance to the Syrian Government
from Russia as well (Sary, 2015). The war began after the eruption of the movement
known as the "Arab Spring" in 2011 and has been going on since. 13.5 million people are
in need of humanitarian aid, there are 4.8 million refugees, and 6.1 million are Internally
Displaced Persons - half of which are children (World Vision, 2016). Most refugees have
fled to neighboring countries such as Lebanon, Jordan, Turkey, and Iraq for example and
10% have made it to Europe (World Vision, 2016). As the crisis continues the death toll
has been rising as well with now more than 400,000 killed since the start of the war in
2011 (World Vision, 2016). Many schools have been destroyed or occupied by displaced
families, which has caused a halt in education for the Syrian children (Omer, 2015).
Books, transportation, and tuition costs are hardly affordable for many Syrian families as
Kingsley
10
well; many children were forced out of school to help provide for their families (Omer,
20 15). The refugee crisis in Syria has been one of the worst and conditions in the refugee
camps are not very comfortable (Omer, 2015). It is extremely difficult for Syrian families
to often even afford rent or food; putting a pressure on children to be able to help (Omer,
2015).
The United Nations has reported roughly 362 cases of children used and/or
recruited as child soldiers in the war as of April, 2016 ("Syrian Arab Republic Office of
the Special Representative of the Secretaiy-General for Children and Armed Conflict.",
20 16). Out of the 362 cases, 274 cases were recruited from [S[UISIS, 62 cases were from
the Free Syrian Army, 1 1 cases were from Liwa' al Tawhid, 5 cases were from popular
committees, 4 cases were from the Kurdish People's Protection Units, 3 cases were from
Ahrar al-Sham, 2 cases were from the Nusrah front, and l case was from the Anny of
Islam ("Syrian Arab Republic Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary­
General for Children and Armed Conflict.", 2016) - these are only of the reported cases,
there are many cases that have gone unreported. Over half of the children involved were
under the age of 15 with children as young as 7 and possibly held captive, bribed to join,
or tortured "Syrian Arab Republic Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary­
General for Children and Armed Conflict.", 20 16). Groups such as ISIUIS[S,
government forces including the National Defence Forces and the Shabbiha militia have
been reported to commit acts of sexual violence and/or commit rape of children ("Syrian
Arab Republic Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children
and Armed Conflict.", 20 16). As the war continues Syrian children can act out
aggressively and become violent due to the hostilities they have witnessed (Thompson,
Kingsley 11
2016). In Syria, there is hardly any available access to health care services and as of
2015; over 1,000,000 children are living under siege or in areas that are very difficult to
get to (Devakumar, 2015). Children in Syria can experience higher rates of trauma after
the war is over and over 2,000,000 million are said to be malnourished (as of 2013)
(Devakumar, 2015). The delay of education of the children in Syria is "likely to delay
post-conflict recovery" and can cost more than 5% of the country's GDP (Devakumar,
2015). If you tum to Appendix lll, you can see a map of Syria that shows the locations of
the different groups inside borders (derived from Political Geography Now, August of
2014).
The Syrian war may be categorized as a civil war, following the typology by
Sarkees, Meredith Reid and Frank Wayman (2010). It is (1) internal, (2) has (national)
government participation, (3) resistance on both sides, and (4) 400,00o+ deaths; thus it
may be classified as a civil war.
Case Study: Sri Lanka
The Sri Lankan civil war began in 1983 with growing tensions between the
Buddhist Sinhalese (82% of population) and the Hindu Tamil (9% of population) (Sri
Lanka: Conflict Profile, 2013). The war ended in 2009, however ethnic tensions remain
between the groups currently (Sri Lanka: Conflict Profile, 2013). The main parties to the
conflict were the government, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), Eelam
People's Revolutionary Liberation Front {EPRLF), the People's Liberation Organisation
of Tamil Eelam (PLOTE) and the Tamil Eelam Liberation Organisation (TEL0), and the
Janatha Vimukthi Peramui:ia (JVP)- a Marxist/Nationalist political party (Sri Lanka:
Kingsley 12
Conflict Profile, 2013}. Peace talks and ceasefires were attempted but never succeeded
until May of 2009 after the LTTE was defeated (Sri Lanka: Conflict Profile, 2013).
Children were often recruited by the LTTE and other government opposition groups; if
they escaped they were eventually captured and/or interrogated ("Child Soldiers Global
Report 2001 - Sri Lanka.", 2001). The captured children are interrogated by the
government for acts of terrorism and under the Prevention of Terrorism Act children 1618 can be charged ("Child Soldiers Global Report 2001 - Sri Lanka.", 2001). The
youngest reported age of the use of child soldiers is 9 years old and 75% of the LTTE
fighters were children ("Child Soldiers Global Report 2001 - Sri Lanka.", 2001).
Children are often recruited for wars for two main reasons, ( I ) Recruitment and
maintaining of these children is cost effective and (2) Coaching children to become child
soldiers is an easy task (Balasuriya, 2013). These children "eat less, wear less, and are
paid less" and children are "highly vulnerable to manipulation" (Balasuriya, 2013). The
use of children in military action can come in many forms; child soldiers,
spies/messengers/suicide bombers, or human shields/propaganda (Balasuriya, 2013). The
major child soldier recruitment group during the Sri Lanka Civil War was the LTTE with
fighters killed in action being 40% children (Balasuriya, 2013). The LTTE trained these
children to be fearless of death, be aggressive, vengeful, all to gain ''Suthanthiram " or
independence (Balasuriya, 201 3). The thoughts put inside these children's minds were
they must sacrifice their life for independence through promoting heroism (Balasuriya,
2013). Child soldiers were placed into rigorous training programs lasting months and
"brainwashing" children by showing them war paraphernalia (Balasuriya, 2013). The
LTTE continuously neglected international efforts to end child soldiering while
Kingsley 13
continuing to violate human rights (Balasuriya, 2013). However, the defeat of the LTTE
led to the ultimate halt of the recruitment of child soldiers (Balasuriya, 20 13 ). After the
war some children were able to seek rehabilitation and protection, whereas others were
not leading them to develop disorders such as PTSD and depression (Balasuriya, 2013).
The Sri Lankan war may be categorized as a civil war, following the typology by
Sarkees, Meredith Reid and Frank Wayman (201 0). It is ( 1 ) internal, (2) has (national)
government participation, (3) resistance on both sides, and (4) 80,000+ deaths; thus it
may be classified as a civil war.
Case Study: Somalia
Somalia is located in the horn of Africa next to Djibouti, Kenya, and Ethiopia;
during the period of 199 1-2000 there was no functioning government in Somalia and
with the overthrow of the regime of Siad Barre in 199 1 , this led to the formation of war,
creating warlords and opposition groups that took over the country ("'Somalia Country
Profile'\ 2017). The parties to the Somali Civil War included: the Somali National
Movement (SNM), the United Somali Congress (USC), Rahanweyn Resistance Army
(RRA), with divisions between the northern "Republic of Somaliland" and the "Puntland
State of Somalia" (Healy and Bradbury, 2015). Since the start of the Somali Civil War,
numbers of recruited child soldiers have been steadily increasing, as well as other
opposition groups. It was reported by the Secretary-General that since 2014, there were
9 03 documented cases of the recruitment of child soldiers, "with 60 per cent of the cases
(555) attributed to Al-Shabaab" . . . "The Somali National Army also recruited a high
number of children (218), who were used for various tasks, such as manning checkpoints.
Kingsley 14
Recruitment was also attributed to clan militias {68), Ahl al-Sunna wal-Jama'a {40) and
Galmudug forces { 1 7)" {"Somalia Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary­
General for Children and Armed Conflict.", 20 15). With more than 60% of Somali
children living in poverty, 40% malnourished, and the country in a state of violence, the
children of Somalia are at the most at-risk of being recruited as child soldiers {"Children
of Somalia", 201 1 ). The current humanitarian crisis in Somalia has led to the increase of
child soldiers due to a lack of resources, motivation, and obedience ("Children of
Somalia", 201 1 ). lf you look at Appendix IV, UNICEF has provided a graph on the
amount of aid needed in Somalia, as of 2012 in US dollars. Most of the assistance needed
is nutrition, and child protection is a major requirement as well.
The Somali war may be categorized as a civil war, following the typology by
Sarkees, Meredith Reid and Frank Wayman (2010). It is ( I ) internal, {2) has (national)
government participation, (3) resistance on both sides, and (4) 500,000+ deaths; thus it
may be classified as a civil war.
Case Study: South Sudan
South Sudan gained its independence from the Republic of Sudan in 201 1 ; soon
after, violence erupted ("Global Conflict Tracker.", 2017). December 2013 war began
due to violence between guard soldiers of the president, causing ethnic tensions ("Global
Conflict Tracker.", 2017). The quarrel between Salva Kiir (president and part of the
Danka ethnic group) and Riek Machar (vice president and part of the Nuer ethnic group)
divided the two largest ethnic groups of South Sudan ("Global Conflict Tracker.", 201 7).
Since the eruption of violence, the two ethnic groups have committed rape and sexual
Kingsley 1 5
violence, recruited child soldiers (Sudan People's Liberation Movement - a reform
party), and even destroyed property ("Global Conflict Tracker.", 2017). The violence has
caused the largest food crisis the worst in the world (as stated by the UN Security
Council), over 50,000 people have died in a matter of 4 years, and there are over 1.6
million Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) ("Global Conflict Tracker.", 201 7). South
Sudan has the third largest refugee crisis, right after Syria and Afghanistan ("Global
Conflict Tracker.", 2017). Many people have fled to other countries in Africa such as
Ethiopia, Uganda, and Kenya because of the humanitarian crisis present in South Sudan
("Global Conflict Tracker.", 2017). Appendix V shows the divide amongst the ethnic
groups in South Sudan, as provided by Stratfor (20 13).
Commanders in the South Sudanese conflict have purposely used children in war
in contrast to South Sudan's laws ("South Sudan: Terrifying Lives of Child Soldiers.",
2016). It is estimated by UNICEF that roughly 15,000-16,000 children have been used in
conflict since the start of the war in 201 3 ("South Sudan: Terrifying Lives of Child
Soldiers.'\ 2016). If children refused to join the group, then they were beaten or tortured
("South Sudan: Terrifying Lives of Child Soldiers.'', 20 16). Although so many children
have been forced into soldiering, no commander has ever faced any sort of charges or
punishment of human rights violations ("South Sudan: Terrifying Lives of Child
Soldiers.", 2016). South Sudan created the 2008 Child Act, stating children under the
ages of 1 8 cannot be used as parties to a conflict, and the invading of schools for military
purposes has put a halt on children's education ("South Sudan: Terrifying Lives of Child
Soldiers.'', 2016). Due to the ethnic-based violence in South Sudan, it is likely that these
Kingsley 1 6
child soldiers will experience long-term effects (..South Sudan: Terrifying Lives of Child
Soldiers.", 2016).
The Sudanese war may be categorized as a civil war, following the typology by
Sarkees, Meredith Reid and Frank Wayman (201 0). It is ( 1) internal, (2) has (national)
government participation, (3) resistance on both sides, and (4) 1 0,000+ deaths; thus it
may be classified as a civil war.
Case Study: The Democratic Republic of the Congo
The Democratic Republic of the Congo - formerly known as Zaire (from now on
referred to as the DRC) has had a long history of war and violence, with the first civil war
outbreak in 1994, followed by the second civil war outbreak in 1998 which have both
since led to the violence in the DRC as of today (Young, 2017). Due to the vast amounts
of resources such as diamonds, tin, and copper, the DRC has become a battleground for
resources (..Child Soldiers in DRC.", 2017). The inherent violence in the DRC has led to
more than 5.5 million people dead, malnutrition, diseases such as malaria, and mass rape
(Young, 2017). The first civil war erupted after the Rwandan genocide due to the mass
inflow of refugees to the DRC; this caused much instability (Young, 20 1 7). The second
civil war occurred due to the Congolese forces pushing Rwandans out of the DRC,
causing an overthrow of the government by the Ugandan and Rwandan forces (Young,
2017). The war ..formally"3 ended in 2003, although conflict still remains in the DRC
(Young, 2017). The wars have seen multiple opposition parties and alliances, many of
which have been involved in the recruitment of child soldiers. The conflicts have also
3
Officially ended
Kingsley 1 7
caused ethnic tensions, disruption of humanitarian aid, exploitation of women and
children, and immense corruption of the DRC government (Young, 2017). Appendix VI
is a map of the DRC during the times of the Second civil war including some of the
groups involved and where they were located/what areas of the DRC they controlled
during 2001-2003, derived from Thompsell's article "The Second Congo War: Its Origins
and Initial Stages.", 2017.
Since the times of the civil wars to now children have been forced into child
soldiering by the many groups involved (''Child Soldiers in DRC.", 2017). One out of ten
children are thought to be child soldiers in the DRC that is approximately 30,000 child
soldiers ("Child Soldiers in DRC.", 2017). Roughly 15-30% of all new recruits are
children (or under 18 years of age), and females are frequently used as sexual slaves by
the commanders ("Child Soldiers in DRC.", 2017). lt is not uncommon that many of
these children did not return to their families after the wars either because their families
were killed or because their families did not welcome them back ("Child Soldiers in
DRC.", 2017). Children were recruited from refugee camps in Rwanda and child soldiers
exist(ed) in the DRC provinces of Equateur, lturi, Katanga, North and South Kivu, and
Maniema (Child Soldiers International, 2008). Child recruitment practiced by the
previous Congolese army halted in 2003, however this did not end child recruitment
altogether and many other parties to the conflict continued their recruitment (Child
Soldiers International, 2008). There were many efforts to demobilize child soldiers,
however many children escaped or were forcibly re-recruited (Child Soldiers
International, 2008). Child soldiers were also "arrested, detained, and tried in military
courts for military offences and other crimes al1egedly committed while they were in
Kingsley 1 8
armed forces or groups" (Child Soldiers International, 2008). Since 2003, of these
military trials it is estimated that 12 children were sentenced to death and many were
detained (Child Soldiers International, 2008).
It is not uncommon that children of the DRC enlist into the armies on a voluntary
basis to receive a monetary salary of about $ 1 00 US dollars per month (Kim, 2006).
Estimates of child soldier deaths in the DRC are difficult to pin point, however they
currently remain in the thousands (Kim, 2006). Many child soldiers have undergone the
DOR process, or disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration back into society (Kim,
2006). The hardest part for child soldiers is the reintegration process due to their
experiences as soldiers - the killings, maiming, rapes, etc. (Kim, 2006). Females are the
most vulnerable during the reintegration process because they are often seen only as
"wives" or "child carriers"4; they may also be deemed unfit for marriage because they
may have HIV/ AIDS or other sexually transmitted diseases (Kim, 2006).
The Democratic Republic of the Congo war may be categorized as a civil war,
following the typology by Sarkees, Meredith Reid and Frank Wayman (20 I 0). lt is ( 1 )
internal, (2) has (national) government participation, (3) resistance on both sides, and (4)
5,800,000+ deaths; thus it may be classified as a civil war.
Case Study: Iraq
The Iraqi war began after the al-Qaida linked group the Islamic State (ISIS/ISIL)
took over the city of Fa11ujah and later took over neighborhoods in the province of al­
Anbar (Pike, 2016). As violence escalated the Islamic State took over Mosul and neared
4
Pregnant or able to carry children
Kingsley 1 9
within 55 miles of Baghdad causing nearly 200,000 people to flee Iraq {Pike, 2016).
Many Iraqi government supporting militias have been the ones reported to have been
recruiting child soldiers, however there are other groups as well. {"Iraq: Militias
Recruiting Children.'', 201 6). Aside from government forces, opposition forces such as
ISIS have also been recruiting and deploying child soldiers - which I also discussed in
my case study of the Syrian Arab Republic (refer to pages 8-9) ("Iraq: Militias Recruiting
Children.", 2016). There are few parties to this conflict, including Kurdish forces (of the
Kurdistan region of Turkey), ISIS/ISIL, and Iraqi government forces - Appendix VII is a
map of the locations of the different parties derived from Rizten's article, "Iraq war map:
Who controls what" (2017). Some children are captured and forced into military service,
and some volunteer themselves ("Iraq: Militias Recruiting Children.", 2016). ISIS has
used the term "cubs of the Islamic State" to refer to the children recruited - which is done
often through brainwashing due to the lack of knowledge and development children have
(Vinogard et al., 2014). It is believed that ISIS has its own fonn of education (known has
the principles ofjihad), grooming children to be soldiers and kill without feeling anything
(Vinogard et al., 2014). Once the children enter into the training camps they undergo a
5
complete transfonnation and upon completion of camp the "cubs" are then chosen and
sent to fight (Vinogard et al., 2014). There is an ISIS training camp/recruitment area in
the Iraqi city of Mosul, where children as young as I 2 have been seen in action
(Vinogard et al., 201 4). Ultimately, the fight in Iraq is the Iraqi forces attempting to gain
back control of the land that is now occupied by either ISIS or the Kurdish population.
s Name given to children in ISIS training camps before they are sent out to combat
Kingsley 20
The Iraqi war may be categorized as a civil war, following the typology by
Sarkees, Meredith Reid and Frank Wayman (2010). It is (1) internal, (2) has (national)
government participation, (3) resistance on both sides, and (4) 75,000+ deaths; thus it
may be classified as a civil war.
Case Study: Afghanistan
Afghanistan is a country that unfortunate]y has dea]t with conflict since the Soviet
Union invasion in 19 79 , then the overthrow of the government in 1989 , leading to an
internal conflict of the Afghan population (Child So]diers International, 200 l ). The
Taliban was formed in 1994 and is a conservative Sunni Pushtun group that practices
Sharia law, and that took control of Kabul and now has control of roughly 9 0% of the
territory of Afghanistan in autonomous zones (Child Soldiers International, 200 I ). There
are also other groups occupying Afghanistan such as the Haqqani network, Hezb-i-Jslami
and Jamat Sunat al-Dawa Salafia (Stowe, "Afghanistan"). The Ta]iban chose to "step
forward" to "cleanse Afghanistan of the violence, murder, and lawlessness" (Liakhovsky,
2000). Those fighting against the Taliban include the groups of the "Northern Al1iance"
or the "United Front" and it supports the principles of the government (Child Soldiers
International, 2001). Appendix VIII is a map of the different ethnicities in Afghanistan
(circa the Afghan civil war), with the Pushtun ethnicity again being mainly Taliban
occupied area, derived from Chellaney's article "Afghanistan's Partition Might Be
Unpreventable" from 2013.
Throughout the 20+ year conflict children have been heavily involved on both
sides of the war. Since 19 79 after the invasion by the Soviet Union, children were forced
Kingsley 2 1
to join in opposition forces to push the USSR out of Afghanistan and soon after they were
forced to join the many Afghan factions that exist(ed) (Child Soldiers International,
2001). Compulsory recruitment is a heavy factor in the militarization of the Taliban with
children joining the ranks at a steady and alarming rate (Child Soldiers International,
2001 ). In 2015 alone, the recruitment and use of children in combat grew double the
number of2014 in Afghanistan (Stowe, "Afghanistan"). It is not uncommon for children
to be detained for their "alleged association with terrorist groups6" by the Afghan
government (Stowe, "Afghanistan").
The humanitarian crisis in Afghanistan does no help the well-being of the
country; millions are living in refuge or are internally displaced and 40% of the
population lives in areas with no access to health care (Stowe, "Afghanistan"). 40% of
children in Afghanistan have no access to any kind of education, and over half of the
schools available have no building due to the militarization of schools by parties to the
conflict (Stowe, "Afghanistan"). Sexual violence among women and children is immense
and conditions continue to worsen with70-80% of all marriages of girls being forced
marriages and 57% can be classified as "child marriages"7 (Stowe, "Afghanistan").
The Afghanistan war may be categorized as a civil war, following the typology by
Sarkees, Meredith Reid and Frank Wayman (2010). It is ( 1 ) internal, (2) has (national)
government participation, (3) resistance on both sides, and (4) 400,000+ deaths; thus it
may be classified as a civil war.
6 Terrorist Groups - non-state actors with compromising interests of the home country
7 Any marriage under 16 years old - United Nations Development Fund for Women
Kingsley 22
Case Study: Colombia
Colombia is a country that has seen the effects of war for many years. The larger
issue for Colombia is the fact that the government is unable to take control over areas of
the nation which are under control by opposition forces. The current conflict dates back
to the mid-l960s. although conflict can date back to the country's independence of 1810
("Colombia: Conflict Profile.". 2009 ). After the assassination of the leader Jorge Eliecer
Gaitan Ayala (1948), conflict between Liberals and Conservatives skyrocketed, causing
an era known as "La Violencia"8 (1948-19 58). La Violencia eventually ended through a
formal agreement between sides, however tensions continued to grow after the Cuban
Revolution of 19 59 and many guerrilla groups were formed (Revolutionary Armed
Forces of Colombia (FARC), and the National Liberation Army (ELN)) ("Colombia:
Conflict Profile.", 2009 ). Aside from guerrilla groups, groups known as "paramilitary''9
groups were formed (such as United Self-Defence Forces of Colombia [AUC]) to protect
drug lords, businessmen, etc. from being captured by the guerrilla forces C'Colombia:
Conflict Profile.", 2009 ). There have been many attempts at peace, but because Colombia
has many mountainous regions many countryside areas still lack government. Appendix
VIIII is a map of the different locations of the groups involved in the Colombian war
(derived from the People's March).
The gueri11a group FARC announced they will no longer recruit children under
the ages of 17; however the recruitment of children (in all aspects) has been a long
problem in the Colombian civil war (Florey, 2015). It has been reported by the
8
Translates to ''The Violence" in English
Paramilitary - pseudo military; not involved with country's military but organized and operates like a
format military
9
Kingsley 23
Colombian Ministry of Defence that 70% of the recruited children are males, and 30%
are females; a majority of those children recruited came from homes that had domestic
violence or other forms of violence (Florey, 2015). Often these children who are already
exposed to violence seek other opportunities or a new "purpose" in life so they will
voluntarily join these groups. However, a lot of children are still forced into the
recruitment process (Florey, 2015).
The Colombian war can definitely be categorized as a civil war under the
typological method by Sarkees, Meredith Reid and Frank Wayman (2010). It is (1)
internal, (2) has the participation of the (national) government, {3) there is resistance on
both sides, and {4) there are 220,000+ deaths from this war; thus it classifies as a civil
war.
Conclusion
Often it is difficult to understand why children may become child soldiers; it
could be for food, purpose, safety, or the little monetary salary they receive. However, it
seems as though it is also difficult to differentiate the child soldier and the child as a
human being. Child soldiers have their human rights taken away, and although they may
partake voluntarily, they are still protected under international law. Civil wars are
amongst the most brutal and long-lasting; the worst effect{s) come during and after the
conflict has ended. The humanitarian crises that these conflicts cause are detrimental to
the populations of a country, causing starvation, disease, injury, mental illness, and a
never-forgetful image of the violence. The case studies in this research provided much
insight into how exactly these wars infringe upon a population. It seems as though in
Kingsley 24
countries such as Colombia, Afghanistan, and Somalia, which have all had/have periods
of no functioning government, the conflict is more destructive and causes a larger
humanitarian crisis. More children may feel pressured to both comply and join groups or
are forced because there is a lack of an existing government to intervene. It is difficult to
have a functioning government in the first place when there are either one or more
opposition groups invading the country and essentially overthrowing the government.
The effects that the wars have on children are immense and can haunt children for the rest
of their lives. It is extremely difficult for child soldiers to go through the disarmament,
demobilization, and reintegration process (DDR) due to their experiences in combat; they
are prevented from being able to live a "normal" life as a child, with their basic human
rights.
I found that many civil wars often begin either due to ethnic tensions or sparks of
conflict in neighboring countries. Ethnic tensions rise at a steady rate until eventually
conflict breaks out and war is started. Conflicts in neighboring countries may intensify
clashes and can cause conflict in the home country (such as the Arab Spring for
example). All in all, my findings have supported my theory and hypotheses, however if l
was able to do in-depth research in my countries of interest I would have been able to
gather much more concise and detailed data. Is it possible to achieve global peace? I
think so. However, it must start with containment of civil wars and internal conflicts due
to their destructive capabilities.
To conclude, you may find a map of the peace index of the world in Appendix X,
derived from the Institute for Economics & Peace (20 l 6). The map includes the rankings
of alI countries from 1 - 1 63 ( although 1 93 are recognized states under the UN), with 1
Kingsley 25
being the most peaceful to 163 being the least peaceful. The different colors indicate
different levels of peace; red is the least amount of peace, and green is the most amount
of peace. Appendix XI is a graph of the death tolls, refugees, and IDPs caused by the civil
wars. The DRC has the largest death toll, and Syria has the most IDPs and refugees. Is
there global peace in the near future?
Kingsley 26
APPENDIX I
C H I L D SO L D I E R S R E C R U I T M E N T R I S K
• VIOLATIONS AGAINST CHILDREN ONGOING
SITUATION OF CONCERN
LIBYA
MAU
I
IVORYCOAST
NIGERIA
• • ALSO COLOMBIA
SUCli\N
� SOUTH SUDAN
DRCONro
PHILUP1NES
THAILAND
SOURCE. UNICEF
Kingsley 27
APPENDIX II
African countries where children were used in armed conflict
(201'1)
, ..._
...
Kingsley 28
APPENDIX Ill
'\:'�
G
TURKEY
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b.lnc
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e Al-Bab
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e
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•
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hb
Safira
Uarku!h
'
•
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5.tlma •
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(R.i� �I·Ayn)
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e Salamiva
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•
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•
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e N,1hck
•,·.1hrnud
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02.ibadani
Doumn
Syrian Civil War
(j
Situation as known August 18, 2014
Damascus
GOLAN
HE '.;HTS
•
D"4:'I
Daraa->
WEST
BANK
www.polgeonow com
Approximate Territorial Control
e
ae
•
Suwavda
J O R DA N
e
e
Islamic State (formerly 1515)
FSA, Al-Nusra, & other rebels
Kurdish YPG
Government
f> Mixed or unclear control
Kingsley 29
APPENDIX IV
UNICEF HUMANITARIAN NEEDS FOR 2012 (in US dollarsl
141,989,000 Nutrition
25,942,000 Health
21,436,000 Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
12,475,000 Chfld Protection
20,392,000 Education
Cash programme
Shelter
1,734,000 Cluster coordination
60,381 ,000
$289,134,000 TOTAL
Kingsley 30
APPENDIX V
S O UTH S U DA N ' S M A I N ETH N I C G R O U P S
Kingsley 3 1
APPENDIX VI
_
--- ____
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llalNlll ldmlnlstnllon
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RCO-IC-ML(1llled with lllbllll
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/
Kingsley 32
APPENDIX VU
Iraq: Who controls what
• Iraqi government
• ISIL
Kurdish forces
Sparsely
populated areas
Source: Institute for the Study of War, l.NeUAMap
Upd.11.ad: lkn:h 19 2017
ALJUtU.1
Kingsley 33
APPENDIX VIII
Including
• Nurinfl'li
• Pash.JI
Kingsley 34
APPENDIX Villi
Caribbean Seo
Pacific
Ocean
• FARC demilitarised
area/safe haven
Paramllltary area
Wider FARC·
, controlled area
-�
....-
BRAZIL
Source: BBC ontine and AP
Kingsley 35
APPENDIX X
- ··-·--·--�
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A SNAPSHOT OF THE GLOBAL STATE OF Pl:ACE
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2016 GLOBAL
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Kingsley 36
I
APPENDIX XI
7,000,000
6,000,000
5,000,000
4,000,000
l
3,000,000
2,000,000
1,000,000
0
a Death Toll
• Refugees
IDPs
Kingsley 37
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