1.1. Introduction:
United Nations peacekeeping is a unique and dynamic instrument
developed by the Organization as a way to help countries torn by conflict
foster the conditions for lasting peace. Peacekeeping is a technique developed
under the aegis of the United Nations to help control armed conflicts.
Traditionally,
peacekeeping
relied
on
monitoring
ceasefires,
troop
withdrawals, creating buffer zones and aiding political settlement. However,
in the post cold war, the notion of peacekeeping has evolved in tandem with
an expanded notion of collective security that includes economic, political
and environmental issues. This shift is reflected in ―second generation‖
peacekeeping operations which have evolved into more intensive and multidimensional ―peacebuilding‖, as seen in the United Nations ―An Agenda for
Peace‖1 (1992). The United Nations definition of peacebuilding thus includes
and incorporates non-military elements designed to foster democratic
institutions, the rule of law, economic recovery, a functional police and
judiciary and a free and fair electoral process as well as reforming and
strengthening governmental institutions and human rights protection as well.
International peacekeeping thus has come a long way from the first armed
United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) which was deployed in Egypt in
1956.
Over the years, UN peacekeeping has evolved to meet the demands of
different conflicts and a changing global political landscape. Born at a time
when cold war rivalries frequently paralyzed the Security Council, UN
peacekeeping goals were primarily limited to maintaining ceasefires and
stabilizing situations on the ground, providing crucial support for political
efforts to resolve the conflict by peaceful means. Those missions consisted of
military observers and lightly armed troops with primarily monitoring,
reporting and confidence-building roles.
1
With the end of the cold war, the strategic context for UN
peacekeeping dramatically changed, prompting the Organization to shift and
expanded its field operations from traditional missions involving strictly
military tasks, to complex ―multidimensional‖ enterprises designed to ensure
the implementation of comprehensive peace agreements and assist in laying a
foundation for sustainable peace2.
Today‘s peacekeepers undertake a wide variety of complex tasks, from
helping to build sustainable institutions of governance, to human rights
monitoring, to security sector reform, to the disarmament, demobilization and
reintegration of former combatants. The nature of conflicts has also changed
over the years. Originally, developed as a means of dealing with inter-State
conflict, UN peacekeeping has been increasingly applied to intra-State
conflicts and civil wars.
Although, the military remain the backbone of most peacekeeping
operations, the many faces of peacekeeping now include administrators and
economists, police officers, legal experts, gender officers, de-miners, electoral
observers, human rights monitors, specialists in civil affairs and governance,
humanitarian workers and experts in communications and public information.
Women have also taken on an increasingly important role in UN
peacekeeping. More and more, they are represented in the military, police
and civilian components of peacekeeping operations. In an historic event, the
first ever all-female contingent to serve in a UN peacekeeping operation was
deployed in 2007, when a 125-strong Formed Police Unit from India arrived
in Liberia. Their presence has served to demonstrate the special contributions
that women can make to law enforcement.
As provided by UN Web Site3, the latest statistics of UN Peacekeeping
Operations as on 30th June 2014 revealed that, there are total 71 peacekeeping
2
operations all over the world as on June 2014.
Total 98071 uniformed
personnel including 84056 troops, 12197 troops and 1818 military observers
are functioning in these operations. There are also 17277 civilian personnel
including 5323 international and 11954 local civilians. There are also 2015
UN volunteers and currently 117363 personnel are serving in 16 current
peacekeeping missions. Totally 122 countries are contributing uniformed
personnel to UN peacekeeping operations. India is third largest contributor to
UN peacekeeping operations after Bangladesh and Pakistan.
India‘s participation in peace-keeping began when the Indian combat
troops were first assigned to Korea in 1950 as the Custodian Force of India.
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, gave the following
message to it before its departure to Korea: ―You the custodian force of India,
deployed for the urgent humanitarian duty in the War-torn peninsula of Korea
in the early 1950s, are going on a mission of peace and goodwill... with illwill to none and categorical friendship to all. India and the Indian Army are
honoured by being asked to undertake this task but the responsibility is a
heavy one‖4.
India is one of the most important supporters of UN-led peacekeeping
operations (UNPKOs). Over 100,000 Indian military and police personnel
have rotated through service in 40 of the United Nation‘s 65 peacekeeping
missions and in April 2012, 8,133 Indian peacekeepers were serving in 9
separate UNPKOs across the globe5. From the first days of UN peacekeeping,
India has been an eager and prized contributor to help tackle the world‘s
second-order international security issues; for its early expeditionary
capabilities to rapidly deploy competent forces abroad – a legacy of its
colonial past – as well as generally being seen outside South Asia as a nonthreatening nation. Today, the foundational premise for Indian involvement is
changing. As India‘s ambitions and might grow, sentimental legacy
3
attachments to the UN and to UNPKOs are eroding in favor of more hardheaded assessments of the costs of participating in today‘s complex
operations relative to their tangible benefits to the Indian strategic interest.
Indian participation in UNPKOs has evolved with peacekeeping itself.
UNPKOs have multiplied since the end of the cold war, but the number of
willing and able troop contributors remains scarce. Before 1990, the UN had
authorized only 18 of today‘s 65 peace operations, the majority being factfinding observer missions to observe truce violations. Today, in addition to
their expanded number, missions are significantly more dangerous and
complex. Core peacekeeping tasks now includes peace building requiring
vastly expanded civil-military activity, as well as ―peace enforcement‖ that
authorizes the use of force under Chapter VII and actively confronts armed
belligerents6. Despite these growing demands, Western troop contributions
have fallen to below 2 percent of total deployed forces, compared to 25
percent during the cold war period.
India serves UNPKOs in service of an ideal of the UN as a
strengthened international body for international peace and security. Many see
peacekeeping as a reward unto itself, but growing undercurrents question
engagement with a UN that has provided few tangible benefits to the Indian
strategic interest. Despite its growing power, India still lacks clout in firstorder international security decision-making, has made little tangible progress
toward a permanent Security Council seat, and despite a large engagement in
African UNPKOs still lags in influence and access on the continent.
Moreover, India increasingly faces acute domestic security shortages. As a
result, growing sympathy now trends for the view held by retired Indian Lt.
Col. A K Sharma that, ―If India needs to flex its muscles, pretensions to
which it is credited with, or our diplomacy wants to strut and do its stuff, it
should be done in the immediate neighborhood where its writ is likely to run,
4
where it will be of some benefit to at least a portion of its citizenry. Not
halfway around the world in some remote corner of Africa‖7.
It is a matter of pride that India is successfully participating in
peacekeeping missions of United Nations. The peacekeeping operations are
not just for establishing peace all over the world, but also to build multilateral relations between different nations all over the world. For developing
country like India, the successful contributions to the UN peacekeeping
missions be useful for joint working groups comprising diplomats and
selected military personnel to inter-act at the global level at multilateral
forums like the United Nations and with organisations like NATO and the
AU, to share perceptions about coordination and training, exchange of data on
trouble spots on a regular basis, mechanisms for consultation, etc. At the
regional level similar moves should be initiated to secure understanding and
cooperation from organisations like the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), the
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO),
etc.
Due to their continuous struggle to establish peace all over the world,
Indian gallant soldiers have won following gallantry awards in UN Missions8:
Table No. 1. Gallantry Awards Won by Indian Soldiers in
UN Peacekeeping Operations
Sl. No.
Name of Awards
Number of
times
1
Param Veer Chakra 01
2
Mahavir Chakra
06
3
Kirti Chakra
02
4
Veer Chakra
20
5
Shaurya Chakra
09
6
Yudh Seva Medal
04
7
Sena Medal
32
5
It is clear from above discussion that India is contributing much to the
UN Peace keeping operations. The main aim behind Indian cooperation with
UN peace keeping operations is to build international cooperation through
maintaining peace and harmony all over the world. To play its role, India
already participated in different activities of UN peace keeping. There is need
to know much about the UN peace keeping activities and India‘s active
participation and role played by Indian Government and Indian army in
achieving their goals. There are many obstacles and critics faced by the
Indian peacekeepers world over.
The Indian peacekeepers have many
challenges in different nations while performing different operations. Hence,
the present research study is made to analyze and assess India‘s role in the
United Nation‘s Peacekeeping Operations since 1991.
1.2. Statement of the Problem:
United Nations is an international organization, which established to
develop social, cultural, educational, health, welfare, peace and harmony
among all the nations throughout the world.
Hence, it already sought
cooperation of many nations in terms of finance and army troops to achieve
its goals. India is playing a significant role in the activities of UN. Peace
keeping operation is one of the major functions of United Nations and many
of the nations including India are providing necessary assistance to UN to
maintain peace and harmony all over the world. The present study is made to
explore the role of India in the UN Peace keeping operations and it is stated as
―India‟s Role in the UN Peace-Keeping Operations: An Assessment
(1991-2011)”.
3. Significance of the Study:
UN peace keeping operations have become multidimensional, composed
of a range of components including military, civilian police, political, civil
affairs and rule of law, human rights, humanitarian, reconstruction, public
6
information and gender. Some of these operations do not have a military
component but carry out their mandates alongside a regional or multinational
peacekeeping force.
Apart from peacekeeping, UN is also playing an
important role to provide a secure environment encouraging a return to
normal civilian life, to prevent the outbreak or spillover of conflict across
borders, lead states or territories through a transition to stable government
based on democratic principles, good governance and economic development,
assist in implementing a comprehensive peace agreement, monitor a ceasefire
or cessation of hostilities to allow space for political negotiations and a
peaceful settlement of disputes and administer a territory for a transitional
period, thereby carrying out all the functions that are normally the
responsibility of a government.
Due to certain similarities in foreign policy of India and the principles
of United Nations, the cooperation of India with the UN is increasing.
Further, India is taking active role in its different activities such as counter
terrorism, disarmament, peace building, peacekeeping, etc. Due to its role in
peacekeeping operations all over the world, India is also recognized
internationally as the Indian troops have proved their strengths in difficult
situations and humanity in protecting the civilians. Even UN has recognized
Indian troops by gallantry awards and few of the Brigadiers and Army
Generals were also given decision making while on peacekeeping operations.
But on the other hand, there are problems and challenges faced by Indian
troops during peacekeeping operations. As criticized by few thinkers, India is
suffering from internal security problems such as terrorist attacks and
communal violence and disturbance of law and order on different occasions.
In spite of protecting our land from such disturbances, deputing Indian troops
to peacekeeping operations in other States has become controversial. Though,
India‘s role is appreciated by United Nations, still decision making authority
7
at Security Council is dominated by developed western countries, which
contribute less troops for the operations.
Though a few of the studies were already made on India‘s contributions
toward UN peacekeeping operations, still they have concentrated only on one
or only a few of such operations and most of such studies have highlighted
statistics of participation, rather than uncovering the difficulties faced,
problems encountered, recognition sought and even allegations faced by the
Indian troops during the peacekeeping operations. Hence, the present study is
proved as significant to analyze the advantages and benefits gained by India
from its participation in UN peacekeeping operations and also the challenges
and problems faced by Indian peacekeeping personnel and also allegations
faced by them during the operations at different parts of the world. Overall,
the present study is providing role and critical analysis of India‘s role and
contributions in almost UN peacekeeping operations, in which its
peacekeeping personnel is participated actively.
1.4. Objectives of the Study:
Primarily the present study aimed to analyze and assess the activities of
UN Peacekeeping all over the world in general and India‘s role in particular.
Particularly, this research work intends to:
1. To look into the origin and development of the United Nations along
with its present activities all over the world;
2. To study the background of the UN peacekeeping operations;
3. To analyze relationship and coordination of India in the programmes
and activities of the United Nations;
4. To explore UN peacekeeping operations all over the world since 1945;
5. To assess India‘s role in the UN peacekeeping operations; and
8
6. To analyze the practical difficulties and lacuna‘s in peace keeping
operations and to suggest for the improvement and development of
India‘s role in UN peacekeeping.
1.5. Hypotheses:
Based on the above objectives, the following hypotheses have been
framed. They are as under:
1. United Nations peacekeeping is trying to establish peace and security
all over the world;
2. United Nations is playing significant role in developing peace,
harmony, education, culture, health, security, etc all over the world;
3. India is the active member of United Nations and it coordinates almost
all activities of the United Nations ;
4. UN peacekeeping operations are coordinating the nations all over world
by reducing the threats of war and insecurity of global community by
establishing peace.
5. India is successfully managing the civilian and military contingents by
coordinating and supporting UN peacekeeping operations by extending
its civil and military cooperation.
1.6. Research Methodology:
The methodology for the present study is historical, descriptive and
analytical. The present study is based on primary and secondary information
sources.
Various UN Reports, UN Handbooks, UN News Letters and
documents published by the UN Office constitutes the primary information
sources. Books, magazines, newspapers, journals and articles published in
conference proceedings related to the United Nations and its relationship with
India in peacekeeping operations would be used as the secondary sources for
the present study. The relevant information found in the internet is also used
9
for the present study. It is highlighted from the United Nation‘s web site that
total 71 peacekeeping operations were undertaken by United Nations in
different parts of the world and of which, still many are continued to achieve
peace and normal life. India has already contributing and contributed its
forces for more than 43 peacekeeping missions of United Nations. It is not
possible to analyze and assess the earliest peacekeeping operations due to
limitations of time. Hence, the present study is based on the recent operations
of India during the period from 1991 to 2011.
1.7. Limitations of the Study:
As discussed in the research methodology, it is not possible to analyze
and assess all the peacekeeping missions, in which India is involved. Hence,
the present study is limited to the United Nations Peace Keeping Operations
in general and the role of India in particular during the period from 1991 to
2011. The study is based on the published literature that is, it is based on the
information published by various sources, such as books, journals, conference
proceedings, UN Reports, etc. Hence, the present study is limited to the
information published in secondary sources and few primary sources
published by various governments and the United Nations and developments
of UN Peace Keeping operations with reference to India during the period
from 1991 to 2011.
1.8. Review of Related Literature:
Many of the research papers, books and reports have been already
published on UN peacekeeping operations and India‘s role in such
peacekeeping operations. A few of these information sources are reviewed as
under:
Faridi in his research paper entitled “India‟s Role in the United
Nations Peace-Keeping Operations Since 1990s” published by „Indian
10
Journal of Political Science‟ (2008) discussed that, India is a founding
member of the United Nations. In the UN peace-Keeping and peace making
operations India's contribution has been significant. The purpose of this paper
is to demonstrate India's growing support for the UN peace-keeping
operations abroad. While this is reflected in its consistency and size of
participation, India's pro-active commitment can also seen in the way it
responds to the growing demand and challenges of the post-cold war peacekeeping operations. Today, India is making large and simultaneous troop
commitments than past. Along with this, India's willingness to take risks and
sustain its commitment in-hazardous operations has demonstrated its
'reliability' as a peace-keeper. While India takes an eager interest to participate
and contribute actively to UN peace-keeping operations, it is highly motivated
by the need to enhance its international identity and political image within the
UN. This provides India not only the opportunities to further strengthen and
increase its presence within the UN system, but also to present a strong case
for a permanent seat in the UN Security Council9.
William Durch (2011) in his book entitled „The Evolution of UN
Peace Keeping‟ published by MacMillan, writes on UN Peacekeeping and
Case Studies on peacekeeping operations throughout the world. The book
covered the peacekeeping operations initiated by UN with other member
nations10.
In the context of post-cold war security structures, as described by Alan
Bullion (2007) in his research paper, „India and UN Peace keeping
Operations‟ published in the research journal „International Peace
Keeping‟ commented that, India is undergoing a major re-evaluation of both
its regional and global roles. In the past, participation in UN peacekeeping
operations represented a significant means by which India could demonstrate
both its Third World credentials and its continuing commitment to the ideals
11
and ethos of the United Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement. Since
achieving independence in 1947, India has continuously participated in the
UN operations in different parts of the world, and in varying capacities. The
Indian solidarist objectives, however, have been superceded by their wider
global ambition for recognition and influence on the world stage. Although,
this should not necessarily be construed as the primary determinant for their
post-cold war participation in UN peacekeeping operations, there has been
cognisance in Indian foreign policy-making circles of the potential kudos to
be gained from such missions. However, this is likely to be tempered by a
more cost-effective approach on a case-by-case basis in the light of the
operational difficulties of post-cold war missions and the lack of progress
towards expansion of the Security Council and India's claim to a permanent
seat11.
According to Kesavan as stated in ‗Occasional Paper‘ published by
Observer Research Foundation (2007), the Asia-Pacific region has now
emerged as the main centre of dynamic economic and technological
development in the world. Though, the success story of Japan's rise to the
status of an economic super power is too well-known, the growth trajectories
of China and India, if their current tempo of growth is sustained, will add new
dimensions to the emerging economic and security architecture of Asia as a
whole. One outstanding feature of the post-cold war period is seen in the
deepening of interdependence that is taking place among Asia-Pacific
countries. There are strong trends towards economic integration as is evident
by the conclusion of numerous free trade/economic partnership agreements
and these will gather greater strength in the coming years as the efforts to
build an Asian Community are accelerated. Multilateral bodies like the
ASEAN, ASEAN+3, the ASEAN Regional Forum and APEC contribute to
strengthen the trends towards regional integration. Many countries, which had
earlier shunned multilateral security arrangements, have now changed their
12
policies and today they are quite inclined to welcome them. However, the
Asia-Pacific region is also very complex since it is home to diverse problems
including those connected with territories, terrorism, ethnic and religious
fundamentalism,
nuclear
proliferation,
maritime
security and
fierce
competition for energy. Concerns over North Korea's nuclear weapons and
ballistic missiles, and China's military modernization, have also deepened. In
addition, there are flash points like Taiwan that could flare up suddenly and
destabilize the security situation of the region12.
Ramesh Thakur and Dipankar Banerjee in their paper on “Japan‟s
Security Policy in the Asia-Pacific during the Post-Cold War Period”
published in “India, Democratic, Poor, International” edited by Charlotte
Ku in 2009 stated that, India has a fivefold significance. First, India is the
largest troop contributor to UN Peacekeeping Operations (UNPKO),
including twenty-four missions, ten force commanders, 4,747 officers, and
47,353 soldiers. As all Indian soldiers serve for a minimum of one year under
the UN, rather than the more usual six months, the overall contribution is
larger than these numbers might suggest. Ninety-four Indian soldiers have
died on peacekeeping duty since 1961 and forty officers and soldiers were
decorated or received commendations during UNPKO. India also provided
the bulk of the personnel for three International Control Commissions (ICC)
in Indo-China after the 1954 Geneva Agreements. This is a record in which
India and its armed forces take immense pride. It is seen both as the nation's
commitment to international peace and as a showcase of its military
proficiency and tradition. The Indian army has adequate manpower readily
available and trained for peacekeeping, experience in all types of climate and
terrain and the full range of military capabilities from mechanized operations
to dismounted infantry, engineer-dominant and humanitarian support, to meet
all types of UNPKO. Since 1993 Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)
with the UN, India has maintained a Standby Brigade Group for UNPKO with
13
a comprehensive all-round capability numbering 4,056 all ranks. An infantry
battalion group is deployable within thirty days, and the remainder of the
brigade within eight weeks13.
Dipankar Banerjee and Ramesh Thakur published a book entitled
“Emerging Challenges in UN Peace keeping Operations” (2009), which is
the result of an intense dialogue over two days between senior Indian and
Japanese experts on UN Peacekeeping operations in the early 21st Century. It
examines the challenges faced in UN Peacekeeping in the light of the Brahimi
Committee Report, examines the impact of the UN High Level Panel‘s Report
and international commission report on the Responsibility to Protect. There is
an excellent case study of the Sierra Leone operations and the transition of the
Timor-Leste operations. Finally, it examines frankly the constraints on UN
peacekeeping in the current international order and the crisis it confronts
today14.
Bimal N Patel in his edited book entitled “India and International
law” (2005) in 2nd volume, examines India's policy and practical approach to
modern and emerging subjects such as energy, investment, sports, banking,
biotechnology, taxation, water courses, feminism, air law and role of India in
UN reforms. The most discussed interlinked issues of civilian nuclear energy
and nuclear weapons are analysed in two separate chapters. This volume also
examines legal challenges and offers possible solutions in the area of private
international law, which hopefully would serve the purposes of relevant
policy-makers, judiciary, common men and women and 2.5 million NonResident Indians (NRIs).
―India and International Law, volume 2‖ will
enable the readers to realize the sheer magnitude of legal challenges faced by
India, hence, one way forward is to consider some of the suggestions offered
by the authors. It is hoped that these two volumes will provide a useful
14
framework for similar studies and will remain a must source of consultation
for those who are interested in India's state practice on international law15.
Trivor Findlay written a book entitled “The Use of Force in UN
Peace Operations” (2005) and it covers the results of Stockholm
International Peace Research Institute‘s (SIPRI) Project on Peacekeeping and
Regional Security, which was led from its inception in 1993 to 1997. The aim
of the study is to examine the use of force in all its forms—in self-defense, in
defense of the mission and as a tool of peace enforcement. One of the most
troubling issues that faced the international community in the closing decade
of the 20th century was the use of force by the United Nations peace
operations in situations where the ultimate goal was the alleviation or ending
of armed conflict. Such missions were dubbed as ‗peace enforcement‘. The
difficulty is that they were carried out by peacekeepers—UN forces designed
for the relatively benign function of monitoring borders between states after
conflict has ended. Complex civil wars in Somalia, Bosnia and Rwanda, in
which UN peacekeeping missions were deployed with disastrous results,
raised several stark questions. When and how should UN peacekeepers use
force to protect themselves or protect their mission, or, most troublingly, to
ensure the compliance of recalcitrant parties with peace accords? Is a ‗peace
enforcement‘ role for peacekeepers impossible? Is there a middle ground
between peacekeeping and enforcement or is there a stark ‗Mogadishu Line‘
across which peacekeeping should never stray? More recent UN operations in
East Timor and Sierra Leone have kept such issues at the forefront of
international concern16.
Satish Nambiar in his book entitled “For the Honour of India: A
History of UN Peace keeping” (2002), provides a comprehensive insight
into the history of India's involvement with peacekeeping operations from its
tentative beginnings in Korea in 1950, through the non-aligned phase of
15
Indian foreign policy in Indo-China and Gaza, to the heavy employment of
the post-Cold War period. Apart from regular UN peacekeeping operations,
missions such as the Indian Custodian Force in Korea which functioned under
the Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission, of which India was Chairman;
and the International Commissions of Supervision and Control in Indo-China
are also covered, as is the employment of Indian military observers and staff
officers, and civilian police agencies on UN peacekeeping missions. Senior
Indian leadership involved with UN Peacekeeping operations and Indian
involvement in regional peacekeeping missions in Sri Lanka and the
Maldives, have been broadly dealt with. The book rounds off with a section
on how the enormous experience garnered by Indian peacekeepers is
harnessed for training and preparation of future generations both at home and
abroad. Finally, a section is devoted to distilling thoughts about the challenges
facing India in the arena of international peacekeeping in the years to come17.
As stated by Vimal Kaushik and Anita Aggrawal in their research
paper “United Nations: Peace-keeping and Humanitarian Activities”
(2003) published in „The Indian Journal of Political Science‟, the idea of
UN was born in the painful days of the Second World War, when millions of
people were dying, millions more had become displaced, cities lay in ruins,
world leaders, who had joined hands to stop the war strongly felt the need for
a mechanism that would help bring peace and stop future wars. They realized
that this was possible only if all nations worked together through a Global
Organization, i.e., The United Nations. Peace keeping emerged primarily as a
response to the failure of Security Council to enforce peace18.
Nurul Islam in his paper “The Army, UN Peacekeeping Mission
and Democracy in Bangladesh” (2009) published in „Economic & Political
Weekly‟, examines the role of the United Nations peacekeeping mission in
Bangladesh in pushing the army in a certain direction with regard to holding
16
elections and supporting political parties. It analyses the reasons why the UN
peacekeeping mission has such a strong influence on the Bangladesh army
and assesses the implications for future political developments of such foreign
involvement. It further argues that whatever the limitations and excesses of
democracy, army rule is no solution, rather it is necessary to strengthen
democractic institutions and let democratic processes play themselves out. In
this sense, the recourse to the army to bring in democracy in Bangladesh was
not the best solution to the political impasse witnessed in 200719.
Peacekeeping operation is amongst the volatile issues in the
contemporary debate on the role and activities of United Nations as stated by
Yeshi Choedon in his article “India and the Current Concerns of UN
Peacekeeping: Issues and Prospects” (2007) published in „India
Quarterly‟. India has an inherent bonding with the peacekeeping system as it
has played a pioneering role in conceptualization and operationalization at its
formative stage. The author gave the list of UN peacekeeping operations in
which Indian troops are most actively participated and participating since
1988. India has participated in some of the most challenging peacekeeping
operations and displayed its unique capacity to sustain large troop
commitments over prolonged periods. Further, more importantly, it has the
'staying power' even in the most difficult situation. Even in the incidents
where its personnel were forced to withdraw, it was done under compelling
circumstances and did so on the basis of certain principles. In recent years,
question has been raised frequently as to why Indian soldiers' life should be
put to risk by sending them for UN operations. The argument is premise on
the ground that Indian men in uniform joined the service to defend the
territorial integrity and sovereignty of the country and did not volunteer to be
exposed to tasks to maintain peace in some distant country. The objection
becomes more acute when India's national interests are not directly involved
17
in many of these operations. The problems and drawbacks of the India‘s
participation in UN peacekeeping operations are discussed20.
Satyanarayana published his research study “United Nations
Peacekeeping Operations: India‟s Participation” (2012). India actively
participated in most of the United Nations peacekeeping operations till date.
For India, the peacekeeping activities of the UN are viewed from the point of
her foreign policy. The study is an attempt to understand India‘s role in the
peacekeeping operations of the UN during the post-cold war and confines
only to the completed missions. The book covered peacekeeping missionsUnited Nations Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group (UNIIMOG), United
Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador (ONUSAL), United Nations
Advanced Mission in Cambodia (UNAMIC), United Nations Protection Force
(UNPROFOR) and United Nations Operation Mission in Mozambique
(ONUMOZ)21.
The book entitled “Peacekeeping and the International System”
(2006) written by Norrie MacQueen is concerned with peacekeeping
undertaken by the UN since the end of the Second World War. The author
described the historical events that lead to peacekeeping operations in
different countries. The author made deliberate effort to provide as extensive
as possible an account of the historical origins and underlying dynamics of
conflicts that has led to the peacekeeping operations22.
“Peacekeeping in International Politics” written by Alan James
discusses broad political circumstances which have given rise to
peacekeeping operations. The book is set in five parts and each part is devoted
to the different kinds of peacekeeping operations. The first category outlines
the ‗backyard operations‘, i.e. those which take place within the sphere of
influence of a major power. The second category deals with peacekeeping
operations arranged by a group of states to deal with an 'intra-group problem'.
18
Thirdly comes the category of ‗neighbourhood quarrels‘. Fourthly, in some
cases, the concerned state, instead of resolving the issue internally, takes the
matter to the United Nations. Finally, there arises the possibility of a minor
accident to become a major conflagration23.
William J Durch, et al, edited book entitled “The Evolution of
United Nations Peacekeeping” (1992), the author describes peacekeeping
through a number of specific case studies and then goes on to do a
comparative analysis of the cases. He made a study of twenty structured
operations from 1947 to 1991. Between 1990 and 1992, he conducted nearly a
hundred interviews which formed the basis of a policy report which was
released in March 1992. This study is closely focused on peacekeeping and
does not address peace enforcement24.
Max Jakobson written a book entitled “The United Nations in the
1990‟s: A Second Chance” (1991), and gives a detailed narrative of the birth
of peacekeeping, an overview is also given in this book regarding the
dynamics of international security in the post-cold war period. The author
clearly defines the concepts of peace-keeping and peace-making. The book
traces the traditional peacekeeping developed into peace-making in the twenty
first century25.
Indrajit Rikhye published a book entitled “The Politics and Practice
of United Nations Peacekeeping: Past, Present and Future” (1984). This
book is divided into five chapters, beginning with the overview of the
evaluation of peacekeeping operations. The book deals with theoretical and
practical dimensions of peace-keeping. It also describes the changing nature
of peace-keeping operations before and after cold war26.
Mohammad Bulbul Ahmed published a research paper entitled “The
Role of United Nations Peacekeeping Operation in Maintaining
19
International Peace and Security: The Challenges Ahead” (2009), in
„Bangladesh
Research
Publications
Journal‟.
United
Nations
peacekeeping is a unique and dynamic instrument developed by the
Organization as a way to help countries torn by conflict creates the conditions
for lasting peace. The UN may engage in conflicts between states as well as
in struggles within states. The UN as an impartial third party in order to
prepare the ground for a settlement of the issues that have provoked armed
conflict. The term "peacekeeping" is not found in the United Nations Charter
and defies simple definition. Dag Hammarskjöld, the second UN SecretaryGeneral, referred to it as belonging to "Chapter Six and a Half" of the Charter,
placing it between traditional methods of resolving disputes peacefully, such
as negotiation and mediation under Chapter VI, and more forceful action as
authorized under Chapter VII. Over the years, UN peacekeeping has evolved
to meet the demands of different conflicts and a changing political landscape.
Born at the time when the Cold War rivalries frequently paralyzed the
Security Council, UN peacekeeping goals were primarily limited to
maintaining ceasefires and stabilizing situations on the ground, so that efforts
could be made at the political level to resolve the conflict by peaceful means.
Those missions consisted of military observers and lightly armed troops with
monitoring, reporting and confidence-building roles in support of ceasefires
and limited peace agreements. In operational and financial terms, however,
the United Nations is the largest and most visible engagement in peace
operations in peace keeping27.
Marjorie Ann Browne published a report on “United Nations
Peacekeeping: Issues for Congress” (2011).
A major issue facing the
United Nations, the United States, and the 111th Congress is the extent to
which the United Nations has the capacity to restore or keep the peace in the
changing world environment. Associated with this issue is the expressed need
for a reliable source of funding and other resources for peacekeeping and
20
improved efficiencies of operation.
For the United States, major
congressional considerations on U.N. peacekeeping stem from executive
branch commitments made in the U.N. Security Council. The concern with
these commitments, made through votes in the Council, is the extent to which
they bind the United States to fund and to participate in some way in an
operation. This includes placing U.S. military personnel under the control of
foreign commanders. Peacekeeping has come to constitute more than just the
placement of military forces into a ceasefire situation with the consent of all
the parties. Military peacekeepers may be disarming or seizing weapons,
aggressively protecting humanitarian assistance, and clearing land mines.
Peacekeeping operations also now involve more non-military personnel and
tasks such as maintaining law and order, election monitoring, and human
rights monitoring. Proposals for strengthening U.N. peacekeeping and other
aspects of U.N. peace and security capacities have been adopted in the United
Nations, by the U.S. executive branch and by Congress. Some are being
implemented. Most authorities have agreed that if the United Nations is to be
responsive to 21st century world challenges, both U.N. member states and the
appropriate U.N. organs will have to continue to improve U.N. structures and
procedures in the peace and security area. This report serves as a tracking
report for action by Congress on United Nations peacekeeping28.
These are the few books, research papers, articles and reports which are
reviewed here. All these are very much relevant to the present study and of
course, the present work is definitely different from the above reviewed one.
As many of the above studies are not highlighted the international recognition
gained by India due to its contribution in UN peacekeeping operations and the
drawbacks, disadvantages, problems and challenges of India‘s participation in
these operations.
Hence, the present study is unique and significant in
revealing these issues exhaustively.
21
1.9. Research Design:
The present study is structured and presented in the following chapters;
Chapter. I. Background of the Study:
As stated in the title, first chapter deals with the significance of the UN
peacekeeping operations and participation of India in peacekeeping
operations. The significance of the present study is examined. The objectives
and hypotheses are stated in the chapter.
The details of the research
methodology followed for the present study is discussed and limitations of the
study are outlined. Review of related literature is made so as to find out the
research gap in the present study.
Chapter. II. Origin and Development of United Nations:
The US then President Wilson took initiation to establish a world level
organization to establish peace and cooperation across the world and
established ‗League of Nations‘ in 1920. Due to its incapability of preventing
aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s, the League of Nations has
become ineffective.
United Nations (UN), the second international
organization established on October 24, 1945 with the initiation by Franklin
D. Roosvelt. The United Nations was the second multipurpose international
organization established in the 20th century that was worldwide in scope and
membership. Now, the different organs of the United Nations are functioning
in the areas of social, economic, human rights, peace building, peacekeeping,
nuclear disarmament, counter terrorism, international justice and such other
activities all over the world.
Chapter. III. India and the United Nations:
India is among the original members of the United Nations that signed
the Declaration of United Nations at Washington on 1st January 1942 and also
22
participated in the historic UN Conference of International Organization at
San Francisco from 25th April to 26th June 1945.
India is actively
participating in UN activities and programmes that include nuclear
disarmament, peace, human rights, development aid and peacekeeping
operations.
Chapter. IV. History of UN Peacekeeping Operations Across the World
(1945-2011):
There are more than 71 UN peacekeeping operations since 1945 (to
2014) across the world. Of which 15 missions are still operating and 56 have
been already completed. The present chapter has given exhaustive account of
peacekeeping operations across the world.
Chapter. V. Role of India in the UN Peacekeeping Operations:
India has been the largest troop contributor to UN missions since
inception. So far, India has taken part in 43 peacekeeping missions with a
total contribution exceeding 1,60,000 troops and a significant number of
police personnel having been deployed. The first all women contingent in
peacekeeping mission, a Formed Police Unit (FPU) from India was deployed
in 2007 to the UN operations in Liberia (UNMIL). Many gallant Indian
soldiers have laid their life to bring peace and harmony to the world. While
serving under the blue flag, more than 145 Indian soldiers have, so far made
the supreme sacrifice. Many of the gallantry awards have been won by Indian
soldiers in UN missions.
But there are several problems, barriers,
disadvantages and challenges for Indian role in peacekeeping operations. A
few of them include lack of decision making authority for India in UN, lack
of international recognition for Indian troops in UN, etc. In some of the UN
missions, Indian troops found themselves in difficult situations because of the
lack of knowledge of the socio-cultural and ethnic milieu and actual ground
reality of the conflict situation with which they have to manage. In spite of
23
these difficulties and challenges, India has proved well in United Nations
peacekeeping operations.
Chapter. VI. Summaries, Suggestions and Conclusion:
The UN peacekeeping operation is the most visible form of UN activity
in the maintenance of international peace and security. India has played an
active role in conceptualization and concretization of the UN peacekeeping
operation system. In order to improve the performance of India still more in
the UN peacekeeping operations and to present holistic perspective of India‘s
contribution, the concerned authorities in India should address the lacunas and
drawbacks faced by the Indian troops.
Safety and security of the
peacekeepers is a problem at different nations as many Indian soldiers lost
their lives during the operations.
Suggestions are made to improve
peacekeeping operations by allocating more budget for security and safety of
soldiers in the missions, to bring transparency, more authority is needed to
troops sent by developing countries like India.
Apart from the above stated chapters, an appendix is given for listing of
the references of the books, research papers, and such other publications, that
are referred for the study under the title “Bibliography”.
References:
1. Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to the statement adopted by
the Summit Meeting of the Security Council on 31 January 1992, An
Agenda for Peace Preventive diplomacy, peacemaking and peacekeeping, (Report No. A/47/277 - S/24111, 17th June 1992), p. 4.
2. David S Sorenson and Pia Christina Wood, ―The Politics of
Peacekeeping in the Post- Cold War Era,‖ (NY: Psychology Press,
2005), pp. 203-204.
3. UN Web site:
http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/factsheet.shtml
4. Rajan, ―United Nations and World Politics‖, New Delhi, Har Anand
Publications, 1995, p. 87.
24
5. Varun Vira, ―India and UN Peacekeeping: Declining Interest with
Grave Implications‖, Small Wars Journal, July 13, 2012.
http://smallwarsjournals.com/jrnl
6. United Nations, UN Charter, http://www.un.org
7. David S Sorenson and Pia Christina Wood, ―The Politics of
Peacekeeping in the Post- Cold War Era,‖ (NY: Psychology Press,
2005), pp. 203-204.
8. India and United Nations: India‘s Contributions to UN Peacekeeping
Missions: http://www.un.int/india/india%20&%20un/peacekeeping.pdf
9. Faridi, MH, ―India‘s Role in the United Nations Peace-Keeping
Operations Since 1990s‖, The Indian Journal of Political Science,
Vol. 69, No. 3, July-September 2008, P. 577-584.
10. Durch, William, ―The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping: Case Studies
and Comparative Analysis‖, New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
11. Alan Bullion, ―India and UN peacekeeping operations‖, International
Peacekeeping, Vol. 4, No.1, November 2007, P. 98-114.
12. Kesavan, KV, ―Japan‘s Security Policy in the Asia-Pacific during the
Post-Cold War Period‖, Occasional Paper, New Delhi, Observer
Research Foundation, 2010.
13. Ramesh Thakur and Dipankar Banerjee, ―India, Democratic, Poor,
Internationalist‖, IN: Democratic Accountability and the Use of Force
in the International Law, Edited by Charlotte Ku, Washington. DC,
American Society of International Law, 2009, p. 176-204.
14. Dipankar Banerjee and Ramesh Thakur, ―Emerging Challenges in UN
Peace keeping Operations‖, New Delhi, Samskriti Book Shelf, 2005.
15. Bimal N Patel, ―India and International law‖, Vol. 2. Martinus Nijhoff
Publishers, 2005.
16. Trevor Findlay, ―The Use of Force in UN Peace Operations‖, Oxford
University Press, Oxford, 2002.
17. Satish Nambiar, ―For the Honour of India: A History of Indian Peace
Keeping‖, New Delhi, The United Service Institution of India, 2009.
18. Vimal Kaushik and Anita Aggrawal, ―United Nations: Peace-keeping
and Humanitarian Activities‖, The Indian Journal of Political
Science, Vol. 64, No. 1-2, January-June 2003, p. 117-134.
19. Nurul Islam, ―The Army, UN Peacekeeping Mission and Democracy in
Bangladesh‖, Economic & Political Weekly, Vol. 45, No. 29, July 17,
2009, P. 77-85.
20. Yeshi Choedon, India and the Current Concerns of UN Peacekeeping:
Issues and Prospects, India Quarterly, Vol. 63, No. 2, April-June
2007, pp. 150-184.
21. Satyanarayana, R, ―United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: India‘s
Participation-Select and Completed Missions: Post-Cold War Period‖,
New Delhi: Akansha Publishing House, 2012.
25
22. Norrie MacQueen, ―Peacekeeping and the International System‖,
London, Routledge, 2006.
23. Alan James, ―The Politics of Peacekeeping‖, London, Chatto and
Vindus Ltd, 1997.
24. William J Durch, et al, ―Keeping the Peace: The United Nations in the
Emerging World Order‖, Report No. 2, Washington D.C, The Henry L
Stimson Centre, 1992.
25. Max Jakobson, ―The United Nations in the 1990s: A Second Chance?‖,
UNITAR, A Twentieth Century Fund Book, 1991.
26. Indrajit Rikhye, ―The Politics and Practice of United Nations
Peacekeeping: Past, Present and Future‖, London, International
Academy by C. Hurst & Co. Ltd, 1984.
27. Mohammad Bulbul Ahmed, ―The Role of United Nations
Peacekeeping Operation in Maintaining International Peace and
Security: The Challenges Ahead‖, Bangladesh Research Publications
Journal, Vol. 3, No. 2, November-December 2009, pp. 982-997.
28. Marjorie Ann Browne, ―United Nations Peacekeeping: Issues for
Congress‖, Congressional Research Service, February 11, 2011.
26