PART III:
ANTE-, PERI-, and POST-MORTEM CONDITION
A Bibliography Related to Crime Scene Interpretation
with Emphases in
Forensic Geotaphonomic and Forensic Archaeological
Field Techniques
This part of the pdf file contains the following sections and sub-sections:
Taphonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Decomposition and Time Since Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Disease, Illness, and Physical Abnormalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thermal Alteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cold Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hot Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Scavenging and Bite Mark Evidence . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Scavenging/ Animal Bites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Human Bite Mark Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trauma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Edged, Incised, Hacking and Impaling Traumas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Blunt, Fracture, Crushing, and Asphyxial Traumas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ballistic Wounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Miscellaneous, General, and Other Traumas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General and Miscellaneous Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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The dessicated remains of an unidentified body found in an abandoned urban dwelling.
Taphonomy
Taphonomy has been defined as the study of the processes by which animal and plant remains
become fossilized. The discipline arose from the work of paleontologists to explain the contexts and conditions of
fossilized remains. Taphonomy, with its roots in the Greek “taphos” for tomb or burial, and “nomos”-laws, was
adapted by physical anthropologists to explain, and sometimes predict, the condition and contexts of more recent
and often forensically significant finds. In this respect, and especially as it applies to forensic situations, taphonomy
has come generally to refer to the science of examining transitions of remains from the biosphere to the lithosphere
as impacted by weather, animals, plants, biochemical reactions, and cultural factors. Haglund and Sorg (2002),
Tibbett and Carter (2006), and Schmidt and Symes (2007) serve as some of the most recent compilations of works
discussing the various forms those transitions might entail. They represent three of many source, offered below,
which demonstrates the multitude of areas currently being researched to explain reasons for, and the results of,
particular transitional events.
In this fourteenth edition The general Taphonomy section has been broken into individual sections
for topics of "Decomposition and Time Since Death", "Disease, Illness, and Physical Abnormalities", "Thermal
Alterations", "Scavenging and Bitemark Evidence", "Trauma" and "General or Miscellaneous Topics". References
in each of these sections may be related to other sections of the bibliography. For example, the topic of wounds
comprise part of the taphonomic record on a body or it's remains. As a result, one of the largest subsections under
Taphonomy is devoted to sharp, blunt, ballistic and other traumas. Researchers interested in this subarea of
taphonomy should also search Firearms and Toolmark Evidence in as much as resources on terminal ballistics or
wound ballistics may be included in that section of this bibliography. Another example may include the relationship
between bite marks and criminal behavior. As taphonomists, physical anthropologists are interested in both skeletal
and soft tissue injuries, as well as changes to those matrices and their injuries over time. One form of taphonomic
change which takes place over time is decomposition. Whether it be the formation of adipocere, diagenesis of bone,
or cremation as a form of further concealment, the condition of tissues can reflect changes in environment and/or the
length of time since disposal. In almost every environment where remains are disposed or concealed, animals, large
and small, feed or otherwise scavenge decomposing tissue. Such modifications are addressed in a subsection on
scavenging. Modifications of interest to anthropologists and pathologists can also be caused by insects, to which
they are refered to the section on Entomology. Another large grouping of references in this category consist of
312
those about diseases and illness. The antemortem health of victims as reflected in their remains is as important for
the forensic investigator as reflections of peri-and postmortem circumstances. Certain conditions such as bone
diseases, broken bones, or the use of prosthetics, can aid investigators in identifying victims or reconstructing a
victim's ability to perform certain actions associated with their deaths or disappearance.
Because of taphonomy’s roots in paleontology, many of the resources in this section deal exclusively with
paleontological theory and method. Prehistoric archaeological examples of taphonomy also constitute several
citations. It is important for researchers to understand the bases for theories and methodologies which have come to
be applied in forensic settings. Just as traditional physical anthropology and archaeology drew upon the earlier work
of paleontologists, much current work in forensic taphonomy relies upon discoveries made during the exhumation
of historic and prehistoric burials. The reader is referred back to the section on "Excavation and Recovery
Strategies" for additional archaeological site reports which may contain taphonomy related information. Likewise,
“General Crime Scene and Death Scene Investigation” may contain research regarding wound or trauma analysis
and pathology - topics which are inherently taphonomic. From wound, (or terminal), ballistics to transitional, or
(external), ballistics and ultimately to initial, (or internal), ballistics, the taphonomic record of gunshot wounds is
linked to the examination of firearms and ammunition. Readers interested in resources related to gunshot wounds
should also refer to the category of Firearms and Toolmark Evidence. Additionally categories such as Mass
Fatality and Human Rights Investigations should be reviewed for references which contain details of site
environments, (ie: mass graves, building collapses), or manners of death , (ie: torture, post-blast, or crash
conditions), which impact the taphonomy of remains.
Taphonomy – Decomposition and Time Since Death
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Disease, Illness, and Physical Abnormalities
We are defined, in part, by life experiences. Some of these experiences become part of our physical being.
Obviously, injuries which fracture bones or surgeries to install medical applicances, are used to uniquely identify
questioned remains. To narrow the population of possible identities, forensic anthropologists also examine remains
for evidence of disease or illness. Conditions such as osteoarthritis or tuberculosis typically leave skeletal lesions
which identify the afflictions long after death. More subtle may be patterns of wear or stress on skeletal elements
supporting possible dominant handedness, or repeated motions and loads required by different physically demanding
trades.
Articles on paleopathology are abundant in this section. In disciplines which rely predominantly on
surviving skeletal elements, archaeologists and physical anthropologists have originated or advanced the analyses of
diseases, illnesses, and physical abnormalities reflected in human remains. They have also advanced considerations
of diet and nutrition from the chemical composition of bones as well as their physical size and condition. For this
reason, the researcher interested in this section should also check out that on Stable Isotope Analyses. Just as the
isotopic record is stored in our skeleton, hinting at the locations we’ve lived throughout our lives, so does the
chemical composition of our remains suggest dietary deficiencies or access to more or better resources. Such
considerations should draw on interest into the decedent’s cultural background or influences. For this the reader is
directed to applicable citations within the Criminal and Cultural Behavior section of this bibliography.
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424
Shallow grave characteristics and aspects of victim clothing which support the cold climatic conditions under which the remains were concealed
Thermal Alteration
The citations in this section of the bibliography address the effects of temperature ante-, peri-, and postmortem. Hypo- and Hyperthermic reactions preceding death may account for the context of artifacts within a scene.
Most crime scene investigators are familiar with the phenomenon of paradoxical undressing in which a final
symptom, or reaction of hypothermia involves the afflicted feeling such a sensation of warmth that he sheds his
clothing. To the untrained, or unfamiliar, eye the discarded clothing might suggest a sex-related incident. The lack
of clothing on decomposed remains might also imply the death occurred on a hot day or night. In arson scenes the
position of the body may appear to be defensive when what is referred to as pugilistic posture is the result of the
constriction, but incomplete consumption, of muscles in the presence of extreme heat. Postmortem ambient
temperatures are the basis for establishing postmortem interval using insect succession. Citatons in this section may
cross-refeence to some under Entomology. Similarly, scene temperatures, over time, influence postmortem
characteristics such as lividity and rigor. In that continuum of decomposition temperature is foremost in its rate of
advancement. The condition under which a victim’s body might be disposed obviously influences the postmortem
context in which it, and associated evidence, is found. In a buried body case of which the compiler is familiar the
extremely shallow grave dug by the subject was the result of frozen soils the January night of the murder. Climate,
or temperature, impact both taphonomy and geotaphonomy.
Cold Environments
(40 citations)
Aghayev, Emin, Michael J. Thali, Christian Jackowski, Martin Sonnenschein, Richard Dirnhofer, and Kathrin Yen
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Taphonomy – Scavenging and Bitemark Evidence
This section of the bibliography includes references to the effects non-insect scavengers reflect on human
remains before, during, and after death. A Subcategory of bitemark evidence accompanies scavenging more
because they share the method than the motive. Although articles on cannibalism are included and might be
considered scavenging in some survival situations, most involve research into typically violent sexual encounters
between victims and attackers. Because such wound trauma is so often a signature of masochistic or
sadomasochistic encounters, references in Criminal and Cultural Behaviour should be considered toward
understanding motivations and contexts behind this and other taphonomic clues left on a body. The bitemark
citations herein do not focus on all topics of forensic odontology. Instead, those specifically addressing bitemark
evidence are included. The collection of DNA evidence should always be from possible bitemarks. Therefore, there
are cross-references between this category and DNA Evidence. Likewise, articles on trace evidence such as
lipstick/gloss and facial hair may be pertinent to a particular investigation in which bitemarks are found on skin or
food associated with a crime scene. If DNA should be considered a component of bitemark evidence, then so should
friction ridge detail. Latent and patent hand and finger prints may be recovered from a bitten victim’s skin or
substrates near or under the body.
Whether it is the family dog or mountain lion in the wild, animals will exploit available food sources and
human remains may be among them. What goes in, must come out; so this sub-category of the bibliography
dovetails with Fecal and Coprolite Evidence under Miscellaneous Trace Evidence. The most numerous and
voracious of any scavengers are among forensically significant insects. The volume of research and citations in
forensic entomology have justified a category of its own within this bibliography.
This section is divided into the following categories:
Scavenging/Animal Bites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bitemark Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
454
473
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The scene of an accidental death and the victim’s self-inflicted wound which caused it.
Taphonomy – Edged, Incised, Hacking, and Impaling Traumas
Among the more spectacular, or gruesome, injuries encountered within accidental or intended death scenes
are those classified under sharp or edged forces. The physical acts which cause such injuries are intimiate acts. In
interpersonal attacks they require the victim and subject to be in close physical contacts. Even more psychologically
intimate than distance is the requirement of edged weapon attacks that the subject, or victim in the case of suicide,
feel the impact the weapon has in creating the trauma. For this reason the reader is referred to citations under
Criminal and Cultural Behavior. As with ballistic wounds, topics of tool mark examination consider
characteristics of edged weapon wounds. Those marks may extend from the substrates of the victim’s outer
garments into that of bone. Because edged trauma, like blunt and ballistic wounding may generate patterned blood
stains, citations under Blood Stain Identification and Interpretation may aid researchers using this bibliography.
An interesting and perhaps unconsidered cross-reference to the instant section is to Fingerprint, Footprint,
Earprint, and Tatto Evidence or Other Body Modification Evidence in as much as scarification constitutes
healed edged wounds. Hacking trauma has been included within this category. Unlike other wounds created by
edged implements, the act of hacking imparts blunt trauma in addition to sharp force injury. Therefore, citations
included under Blunt, Fracture, and Crushing Traumas may include reference to hacking injury. Penetrating
wounds, like incised or stab wounds as well as bullet wounds, are often sites to which scavenging insects are first
attracted. Citations under Entomology may discuss same.
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Taphonomy – Blunt, Fracture, and Crushing Traumas
Unlike other types of trauma, blunt force injuries are typically attributable to a much wider array of causes.
General references to forensic pathology will contain chapters addressing each type of trauma including blunt
injuries. There may also be some overlap between blunt traumas and hacking traumas which have been categorized
518
in this bibliography with edged trauma – Edged, Incised, Hacking and Imapling Traumas. In hand to hand
combat the most basic implement may be the fist or the action of grabbing the victim’s head, arm, back, or other
body part and striking it against a solid surface. Innumerable objects can be used as weapons to create fracture and
crushing injuries. The most extreme force creating blunt traumas are generated in vehicular crashes or disasters.
For this reason the reader is invited to look through the section of the bibliography that addresses Mass Fatalities
…. All injuries to soft and skeletal tissues are, in effect, tool marks. Articles discussing tool marks left in synthetic
substrates may be encountered under the sub-section entitled general tool mark evidence. Crushing injuries may be
the result of being run over by a vehicle. One will find articles related to tire mark evidence on clothing and soft
tissue under Shoe, Foot and Tire Impression Evidence.
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Taphonomy – Hangings, Asphyxial Injuries and other Neck Traumas
This sub-section to trauma related to taphonomy concerns those injuries typically associated with
impediments, or trauma, to the airway. In the situation of suicidal, homicidal, or accidental hangings as well as
vehicular crashes, additional traumas may present in the cervical area of the spine. Bruising, echymosis, as well as
the presence of pettechia in various tissues throughout the body are also typical of such deaths. For these reasons
this bibliography’s user might want to look through those sections with Miscellaneous Topics in Taphonomy.
Perhaps one of the more often staged, or misinterpreted, types of death scenes are those involving handings. Autoerotic, versus suicidal, versus homicidal, situations may take on the appearance of the other or be posed to do so.
This bibliography’s sections on Criminal and Cultural Behavior and General Crime Scene and Death Scene
Investigation contain numerous case examples which may be of aid. For the crime scene reconstructionist a
subsection like Miscellaneous Trace Evidence might be useful in locating research which has been published or
presented on the analyses of knots. Extreme cervical and neck trauma may result in decapitation. For that reason
applicable citations could be found in the Taphonomy sub-section created for Edged, Incised, Hacking and
Impaling Traumas. Some of the titles in that sub-section, as well as Blunt, Fracture, and Crushing Traumas
may have not been specific enough to identify them as containing discussion of those types of trauma which could
result in asphyxial deaths. As examples of how other different evidence categories might impact this topic of neck
traumas or strangulation deaths, consider the examination of victims for fingerprints on their skin; or the use of
548
forensic light technology and photography in revealing evidence not visible under more ambient conditions.
(216 citations)
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Classic star pattern created by a contact wound to the forehead of an individual who committed suicide
Taphonomy – Ballistic Wounds
The largest sub-section of individual trauma references in this bibliography are categorized as ballistic
wounds. Approximately 760 references are cited in this edition. Naturally, this secton goes hand in hand with that
titled Firearms, Projectiles, and Tool Mark Evidence and specifically its sub-section of Firearms and Ballistic
Evidence. This mostly physiological-related sub-section within the Taphonomy sections usually represents the
final or terminal area of ballistic science. An understanding of wounds in the context of initial and transitional
ballistics is required to reconstruct a shooting or death scene. Additionally, a working familiarity with firearms and
ammunition characteristics and components is fundamental toward scene reconstruction. Beyond the weapons and
wounds, various substrates may be affected during the flight and impact(s) of a projectile. For this reason the
researcher is asked to consider the Fiber and Textile Evidence and Other Trace Evidence Topics sub-sections of
Miscellaneous Trace Evidence. Hejna and Šafr (2010b) is an example of a transitional or near-terminal ballistic
study which addresses the impact of the projectile and gunshot residues on clothing worn by the victim. Other
sections of this bibliography which should be considered when researching ballistic wounds include Criminal and
Cultural Behavior for possibly determining the decision process involved in the selection of particular weapons.
Circumstances surrounding a shooting incident might be reflected in case studies or accounts presented throughout
General Crime Scene and Death Scene Investigation and Nonfiction Accounts of Buried Body Cases. Even the
search for expended bullets or shell casings and/or secreted firearms might be aided through a review of
Geophysical/Remote Sensing Technology and Applications.
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