Vietnam War casualties
50 percent. Civilian deaths caused by communist forces,
which included the Viet Cong, North Vietnamese Army,
Pathet Lao and Khmer Rouge, mostly resulted from assassinations and terror tactics. Civilian deaths caused
by the armed forces of the governments of South Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, the United States, South Korea,
and other allies were primarily the consequence of extensive aerial bombing and the use of massive firepower in
military operations conducted in heavily populated areas.
The nature of the war often made it difficult to distinguish
The American War Memorial of the dead Vietnamese between combatants and non-combatants.
soldiers, Vietnam (Hanoi).
A number of incidents occurred during the war in which
civilians were deliberately targeted or killed. The bestknown are the Massacre at Huế and the My Lai massacre.
1 Total number of deaths
The Vietnam Veterans Memorial, USA (Washington,
D.C.).
Two major war memorials commemorating the dead
soldiers in the Second Indochina War (aka. the Vietnam
War and the American War).
Estimates of casualties in the Vietnam War vary widely.
The most extensive survey estimates deaths in the war
from 1954 to 1975 at between 1.5 and 3.6 million people.
This estimate includes both civilian and military deaths in
North and South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
The Second Indochina War (aka. the Vietnam War or
the American War) began in 1955 and ended in 1975
when North Vietnamese forces captured Saigon. During this period, the war escalated from an insurgency in
South Vietnam assisted by the North Vietnamese government to direct military intervention in the south by North
Vietnam to assist the insurgents and the intervention of
military forces of the United States and other countries
to assist South Vietnam. The war also spilled over into
the neighboring countries of Cambodia and Laos. An exhaustive reckoning of the total casualties must include statistical information available for each theater of the war.
Waiting to Lift Off by James Pollock, Vietnam Combat Artists
Most of the fighting took place in South Vietnam; accord- Program, CAT IV, 1967. Courtesy of National Museum of the
ingly it suffered the most casualties.
U.S. Army
Civilian deaths caused by both sides amounted to a significant percentage of total deaths, perhaps from 30 to nearly Estimates of the total number of deaths in the Vietnam
1
2
3
CIVILIAN DEATHS IN THE VIETNAM WAR
War vary widely depending upon the time period and area communists and 98,000 by South Vietnam and its allies.
covered by the data.
Deaths in Cambodia and Laos were estimated at 273,000
*
Guenter Lewy in 1978 estimated 1,313,000 total deaths and 62,000 respectively. [6]
in North and South Vietnam during the period 1965–
1974 in which the U.S. was most engaged in the war.
Lewy reduced the number of Viet Cong and North Vietnamese battle deaths claimed by the U.S. by 30 percent
(in accordance with the opinion of United States Department of Defense officials), and assumed that one third of
the battle deaths of the VC/NVA were actually civilians.
His estimate of total deaths is reflected in the table.* [1]
A detailed demographic study in 1995 calculated
791,000–1,141,000 war-related Vietnamese deaths, both
soldiers and civilians, for all of Vietnam from 1965 to
1975. The study came up with a most likely Vietnamese
death toll of 882,000, which included 655,000 adult
males (above 15 years of age), 143,000 adult females, and
84,000 children. Those totals include only Vietnamese
deaths, and do not include American and other allied military deaths which amounted to about 64,000.* [2] The
study has been criticized for its small sample size, the
imbalance in the sample between rural and urban areas,
and the possible overlooking of clusters of high mortality
rates.* [3]
Also in 1995, the Vietnamese government released its
estimate of war deaths for the more lengthy period of
1955 to 1975. According to the Vietnamese, Communist battle deaths totaled 1.1 million and civilian deaths
of Vietnamese totaled 2.0 million. These estimates
probably include battle deaths of Vietnamese soldiers in
Laos and Cambodia, but do not include deaths of South
Vietnamese and allied soldiers which would add nearly
300,000 for a grand total of 3.4 million military and civilian dead.* [4]
2 Major incidents
• 1968 Tet Offensive – Hanoi failed in its most ambitious goal of producing a general uprising in the
South, it suffered more than 45,267 (mainly Viet
Cong) deaths but gained a propaganda, political and
strategic victory.* [9]* [10]
• 1972 Easter Offensive – This saw 50,000 to 75,000
North Vietnamese combatants killed plus their loss
of over 250–700 tanks and APCs. The attack was
broken up mainly by US air power.* [11]
3 Civilian deaths in the Vietnam
War
Levy estimates that 40,000 South Vietnamese civilians were assassinated by the Viet Cong/North Vietnamese; 250,000 were killed as a result of combat
in South Vietnam, and 65,000 were killed in North
Vietnam. He suggests that another 222,000 civilians
were counted as military deaths by the U.S. in compiling its "body count.”His estimated total of civilian deaths is 587,000.* [12]* [13]* [14] It was difficult
to distinguish between civilians and military personnel
on the Viet Cong side as many persons were part-time
guerrillas or impressed laborers who did not wear uniforms.* [15]* [16]* [17]
A 2008 study by the BMJ (formerly British Medical Journal) came up with a higher toll of 3,812,000 dead in
Vietnam between 1955 and 2002. For the period of
the Vietnam War the totals are 1,310,000 between 1955
and 1964, 1,700,000 between 1965 and 1974 and 81,000
in 1975. (The estimates for 1955 to 1964 are much
higher than other estimates). The sum of those totals is
3.1
3,091,000 war deaths between 1955 and 1975.* [3]
Uppsala University in Sweden maintains the Armed Conflict Database. Their estimates for conflict deaths in Vietnam are 164,923 from 1955 to 1964 and 1,458,050 from
1965 to 1975 for a total of 1,622,973. The database also
estimates combat deaths in Cambodia for the years 1967
to 1975 to total 259,000. Data for deaths in Laos is incomplete.* [5]
R. J. Rummel's mid-range estimate in 1997 was that the
total deaths due to the Vietnam conflict totaled 2,450,000
from 1954 to 1975. Rummel calculated communist war
deaths at 1,062,000 and South Vietnamese and allied war
deaths of 741,000, both totals including civilians inadvertently killed. He estimated that victims of democide
(deliberate killing of civilians) included 214,000 by the
Deaths caused by North Vietnam/VC
forces
R. J. Rummel estimated that NVA/VC forces killed
around 164,000 civilians in democide between 1954 and
1975 in South and North Vietnam, from a range of between 106,000 and 227,000, plus another 50,000 killed
in North Vietnam.* [18] Rummel's summary has a midlevel estimate of 17,000 South Vietnamese civil servants (ARVN's local millitia) killed by North Vietnamese
forces (including the Viet Cong). In addition, at least
36,000 Southern civilians were executed for various reasons in the period 1967–1972.* [19] About 130 American and 16,000 South Vietnamese POWs died in captivity.* [20] During the peak war years, Lewy attributed
almost a third of civilian deaths to the Viet Cong.* [21]
3.3
Deaths caused by the American military
3
Burial of 300 unidentified victims from the Huế Massacre, killed
by communist forces and found after the ARVN and U.S. Marines
retook the area in March, 1968. U.S. Military photo* [27]* [28]
sprayed by the U.S. military over more than 10% of
Southern Vietnam,* [29] as part of the U.S. herbicidal
warfare program, Operation Ranch Hand, during the
Vietnam War from 1961 to 1971. Vietnam's government
claimed that 400,000 people were killed or maimed as
a result of after effects, and that 500,000 children were
born with birth defects.* [30]
Viet Cong massacred hundreds of Montagnard civilians at the
village of Dak Son, 1967
3.2
Deaths caused by South Vietnam
From 1964 to 1975, an estimated 1,500 people died during the forced relocations of 1,200,000 civilians, another
5,000 prisoners died from ill-treatment and about 30,000
suspected communists and fighters were executed. 6,000
civilians died in the more extensive shellings. In Quảng
Nam province 4,700 civilians were killed in 1969. This
totals, from a range of between 16,000 and 167,000
deaths caused by South Vietnam (Diệm-era), and 42,000
and 118,000 deaths caused by South Vietnam (post
Diệm-era), excluding North Vietnamese forces killed by
the ARVN in combat.* [22]
3.3
Deaths caused by the American military
German historian Bernd Greiner mentions the following
war crimes reported, and/or investigated by the Peers
Commission and the Vietnam War Crimes Working
Group, among other sources:* [31]
– Seven massacres officially confirmed by the American
side. My Lai (4) and My Khe (4) claimed the largest number of victims with 420 and 90 respectively, and in five
other places altogether about 100 civilians were executed.
– Two further massacres were reported by soldiers who
had taken part in them, one north of Đức Pho in Quảng
Ngãi Province in the summer of 1968 (14 victims), another in Bình Định Province on 20 July 1969 (25 victims).
– Tiger Force, a special operations force, murdered hundreds, possibly over a thousand, civilians.
– In the course of large-scale operations an unknown
number of non-combatants were killed either accidentally
or deliberately – with some estimating more than 5,000
allegedly died in the course of Operation Speedy Express.
Excluding deaths from artillery and air attacks, the total
number of dead may have reached tens of thousands during the entire war.
– According to the 'Information Bureau of the Provisional
Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam' (PRG),
between April 1968 and the end of 1970 American
ground troops killed about 6,500 civilians in the course
of twenty-one operations either on their own or alongside their allies. Three of the massacres reported on the
American side were not mentioned on the PRG list.
Rummel estimated that American forces committed
around 5,500 democidal killings between 1960 and 1972,
from a range of between 4,000 and 10,000.* [23] Estimates for the number of North Vietnamese civilian deaths
resulting from US bombing range from 50,000–65,000.
Although information is sparse, American bombing in
Cambodia is estimated to have killed between 40,000 and Nick Turse, in his 2013 book, Kill Anything that Moves,
150,000 civilians and combatants.* [24]* [25]* [26]
argues that a relentless drive toward higher body counts,
18.2 million gallons of Agent Orange (Dioxin) was a widespread use of free-fire zones, rules of engagement
4
5 NORTH VIETNAMESE AND VIET CONG MILITARY DEATHS
where civilians who ran from soldiers or helicopters could
be viewed as Viet Cong, and a widespread disdain for
Vietnamese civilians led to massive civilian casualties and
endemic war crimes inflicted by U.S. troops.* [32] One
example cited by Turse is Operation Speedy Express, an
operation by the 9th Infantry Division, which was described by John Paul Vann as, in effect,“many My Lais”
.* [32] In more detail,
Air force captain, Brian Wilson, who
carried out bomb-damage assessments in
free-fire zones throughout the delta, saw
the results firsthand. “It was the epitome of
immorality...One of the times I counted bodies
after an air strike�which always ended with two
napalm bombs which would just fry everything
that was left�I counted sixty-two bodies. In my
report I described them as so many women
between fifteen and twenty-five and so many
children �usually in their mothers' arms or
very close to them�and so many old people.”
When he later read the official tally of dead, he
found that it listed them as 130 VC killed.* [33]
3.4
4 Army of the Republic of Vietnam
The Army of the Republic of Vietnam suffered between
171,331 and 220,357 deaths during the war.* [43]* [44]
R.J. Rummel estimated that ARVN lost between 219,000
and 313,000 deaths during the war.* [18]
5 North Vietnamese and Viet Cong
Military deaths
Deaths caused by the South Korean
military
United States Marine recovered victim's bodies who were killed
by Korean Marines in Phong Nhi and Phong Nhat hamlets on
February 12, 1968.* [34]
According to the Vietnamese government, there were
1,100,000 North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong military personnel deaths during the Vietnam War (including the missing).* [45] Rummel reviewed the many casualty data sets, and this number is in keeping with his
mid-level estimate of 1,011,000 North Vietnamese combatant deaths.* [46] The official US Department of Defense figure was 950,765 communist forces killed in Vietnam from 1965 to 1974. Defense Department officials
believed that these body count figures need to be deflated by 30 percent. In addition, Guenter Lewy assumes that one-third of the reported“enemy”killed may
have been civilians, concluding that the actual number of
deaths of communist military forces was probably closer
to 444,000.* [43]
ROK Capital Division massacred Tây Vinh citizens between February and March 1966.* [35] ROK Capital
Division massacred Bình An citizens on 26 February
1966.* [36] In October 1966, Tịnh Sơn citizens were massacred.* [37] 2nd Marine Brigade massacred Binh Tai
citizens on 9 October 1966.* [38] In December 1966,
Blue Dragon Brigade massacred Bình Hòa citizens.* [39]
Second Marine Brigade massacred Phong Nhị citizens
on 12 February 1968.* [40]* [41] South Korean Marines The Phoenix Program, a counterinsurgency program exmassacred Hà My citizens on 25 February 1968.* [42]
ecuted by the United States Central Intelligence Agency
5
(CIA), United States special operations forces, and the from 23,300 in 1965 to 465,600 by the end of 1967. BeRepublic of Vietnam's security apparatus, killed 26,369 tween October 1966 and June 1969, 246,000 soldiers
suspected NLF operatives and informants.* [47]* [48]
were recruited through Project 100,000, of which 41%
only made up about 11% of the
For historian Christian Appy, "search and destroy was were black, while blacks
*
population
of
the
US.
[60]
Of the 27 million draft-age
the principal tactic; and the enemy body count was the
men
between
1964
and
1973,
40% were drafted into milprimary measure of progress”in Westmoreland's war of
itary
service,
and
only
10%
were
actually sent to Vietattrition. Search and destroy was coined as a phrase in
nam.
This
group
was
made
up
almost
entirely of either
1965 to describe missions aimed at flushing the Viet Cong
work-class or rural youth. College students who did not
out of hiding, while the body count was the measuring
stick for the success of any operation. Competitions were avoid the draft were generally sent to non-combat and
service roles or made officers, while high school dropheld between units for the highest number of Vietnamese
killed in action, or KIAs. U.S. Army and marine officers outs and the working class were sent into combat roles.
Blacks often made up a disproportionate 25% or more
knew that promotions were largely based on confirmed
units, while constituting only 12% of the milkills. The pressure to produce confirmed kills resulted in of combat
itary.* [58]* [62]
massive fraud. One study revealed that American commanders exaggerated body counts by 100 percent.* [49]
Civil rights leaders including Martin Luther King Jr.,
Malcolm X, John Lewis, Muhammad Ali, and others,
criticized the racial disparity in both casualties and representation in the entire military, prompting the Pentagon
6 United States armed forces
to order cutbacks in the number of African Americans
in combat positions. Commander George L. Jackson
Casualties as of 4 June 2015:
said, “In response to this criticism, the Department of
Defense took steps to readjust force levels in order to
• 58,307 KIA or non-combat deaths (including the achieve an equitable proportion and employment of Nemissing & deaths in captivity)* [50]
groes in Vietnam.”The army instigated myriad reforms,
• 153,303 WIA (excluding 150,332 persons not re- addressed issues of discrimination and prejudice from the
post exchanges to the lack of black officers, and introquiring hospital care)* [51]
duced“Mandatory Watch And Action Committees”into
• 1,627 MIA (originally 2,646)* [52]
each unit. The proportion of black casualties began to
decrease, and by late 1967, black casualties had fallen to
• 766–778
POW
(652–662 13%, and were below 10% in 1970 to 1972.* [60]* [63]
freed/escaped*,* [53]* [54] 114–116 died in Upon the war's completion, black casualties made up
captivity)* [53]* [55]
12.5% of US combat deaths, approximately equal to percentage of draft-eligible black men, though still slightly
During the Vietnam War, 30% of wounded service mem- higher than the 10% who served in the military.* [63]
bers died of their wounds.* [56]
Note: *One escapee died of wounds sustained during his rescue
15 days later.* [57]
6.1
Disproportion of African American casualties
Blacks were suffering disproportionately high casualty
rates in Vietnam, and in 1965 alone they comprised almost one out of every four combat deaths.* [58]* [59]
With the draft increasing due to the troop buildup in
South Vietnam, the military significantly lowered its admission standards. In October 1966, Defense Secretary
Robert McNamara initiated Project 100,000 which further lowered military standards for 100,000 additional
draftees per year. McNamara claimed this program
would provide valuable training, skills and opportunity
to America's poor – a promise that was never carried
out. Many black men who had previously been ineligible
could now be drafted, along with many poor and racially
intolerant white men from the southern states.* [60]* [61]
The number of US military personnel in Vietnam jumped
7 Specific incidents
• 2,800–6,000 civilians were killed by the Viet Cong
and North Vietnamese forces in the Massacre at Huế
throughout February 1968.* [66]
• 1,200 civilians were killed by South Korean forces
in Tây Vinh Massacre between February 12 – March
17, 1966.* [67]
• 380 civilians were killed by South Korean forces in
Gò Dài massacre on February 26, 1966.* [67]
• 66 civilians were killed by South Korean forces in
Binh Tai Massacre on October 9, 1966.* [68]
• 280 civilians were killed by South Korean forces in
Diên Niên – Phước Bình massacre on October 9,
1966.* [69]
• 430 civilians were killed by South Korean forces in
Bình Hòa massacre between December 3 and December 6, 1966.* [39]
6
8
DEATHS AFTER U.S. WITHDRAWAL
• At least 81 civilians were killed by American Forces,
Tiger Force 101st Airborne Division, during the
Song Ve Valley and Operation Wheeler military
campaigns.* [76]
8 Deaths after U.S. withdrawal
Vietnamese women and children in Mỹ Lai before being killed in
the massacre, March 16, 1968.* [64] They were killed seconds
after the photo was taken.* [65] Photo by Ronald L. Haeberle
• 79 civilians were killed by South Korean forces in
Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất massacre on February
12, 1968.
• 135 civilians were killed by South Korean forces in
Hà My massacre on February 25, 1968.
Vietnamese "Boat People" refugees waiting for rescue in the South
• More than 500 civilians were killed by an AmeriChina Sea, taken from the USS Blue Ridge in 1984. 2–3 milcan Army company during the My Lai Massacre on lion Vietnamese refugees fled Vietnam during the late 1970s and
*
*
March 16, 1968. [64] [70]
1980s.* [77]
• 19 civilians killed by American Forces Feb. 8, 1968
in Quảng Nam Province.* [71]
• 80–90 civilians killed by American Forces March
16, 1968 at My Khe.* [72]
• A Newsweek journalist claimed an unnamed official told him that an estimated 5,000 civilians died
as“collateral damage”from the American military
during Operation Speedy Express.* [73]
• Almost 252 Degar civilians were killed by the Viet
Cong in the Đắk Sơn massacre on December 5,
1967.* [74]
• More than 25,000 South Vietnamese civilians were
killed and almost a million become temporary
refugees, with over 600,000 interned in South Vietnamese Government camps as a result of North
Vietnam's 1972 Easter Offensive.* [75]
Up to 155,000 refugees fleeing the final NVA Spring
Offensive were killed or abducted on the road to Tuy
Hòa in 1975.* [78] Sources have estimated that 165,000
South Vietnamese died in the re-education camps out of
1–2.5 million sent,* [79]* [80] while somewhere between
50,000 and 250,000 were executed.* [79]* [81]* [82]* [83]
Rummel estimates that slave labor in the “New Economic Zones”caused 50,000 deaths (out of a total 1 million deported).* [79]* [81] According to the United Nations High Commission for Refugees, between 200,000
and 400,000 Vietnamese boat people died at sea,* [84] although Rummel cites estimates ranging from 100,000 to
1,000,000.* [81] Including Vietnam's foreign democide,
Rummel estimates that a minimum of 400,000 and a
maximum of slightly less than 2.5 million people died
of political violence from 1975–87 at the hands of
Hanoi.* [81] In 1988, Vietnam suffered a famine that afflicted millions.* [85]
7
Under the leadership of Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge killed
• 11,232 WIA
1–3 million Cambodians in the killing fields, out of
• 4 MIA* [104]
a population of around 8 million.* [86]* [87]* [88]* [89]
The Pathet Lao killed some 100,000 Hmong people in
Australia
Laos.* [90]* [91]
Unexploded ordnance especially bombs dropped by the
• 426 KIA, 74 died of other causes* [105]
United States, continue to detonate and kill people today.
The Vietnamese government claims that Unexploded ord• 3,129 WIA* [105]
nance has killed some 42,000 people since the war officially ended.* [92]* [93] In 2012 alone, unexploded bombs
• 6 MIA (all accounted for and repatriated)* [106]
and other ordnance claimed 500 casualties in Vietnam,
Laos and Cambodia, according to activists and governThailand
ment databases. The United States has spent over $65
*
million since 1998, trying to make Vietnam safe. [94]
• 351 KIA * [104]* [107]
Agent Orange and similar chemical substances, have also
caused a considerable number of deaths and injuries over
• 1,358 WIA
the years, including the US Air Force crew that handled
them. The government of Vietnam says that 4 million
New Zealand
of its citizens were exposed to Agent Orange, and as
many as 3 million have suffered illnesses because of it;
• 37 KIA + 2 Civilians* [108]* [109]
these figures include the children of people who were exposed.* [95] The Red Cross of Vietnam estimates that up
• 187 WIA
to 1 million people are disabled or have health problems
*
due to contaminated Agent Orange. [96]
Philippines
On 9 August 2012, the United States and Vietnam began
a cooperative cleaning up of the toxic chemical on part
• 9 KIA* [110]
of Da Nang International Airport, marking the first time
Washington has been involved in cleaning up Agent Or• 64 WIA* [110]
ange in Vietnam. Da Nang was the primary storage site of
the chemical. Two other cleanup sites the United States
Republic Of China (Taiwan)
and Vietnam are looking at is Biên Hòa, in the southern province of Đồng Nai – a 'hotspot' for dioxin – and
• 25 KIA
Phù Cát airport in the central province of Bình Định, says
U.S. Ambassador to Vietnam David Shear. According to
the Vietnamese newspaper Nhân Dân, the U.S. govern- People's Republic Of China
ment is providing $41 million to the project, which will
reduce the contamination level in 73,000 m3 of soil by
• 1,446 KIA
late 2016.* [97]
Soviet Union
9
Other nations' casualties
• ~16.* [111]
Cambodian Civil War
• 200,000–300,000 killed* [86]* [87]* [88]
Laotian Civil War
10 See also
• Lai Đại Hàn
• 20,000–200,000 killed* [98]* [99]* [100]* [101]* [102]* [103]
11 References
9.1
Military
South Korea
• 5,099 KIA
[1] Lewy, Guenter (1978), America in Vietnam, New York:
Oxford University Press, pp. 442–453
[2] Charles Hirschman et al., Vietnamese Casualties During
the American War: A New Estimate, Population and Development Review, December 1995.
8
[3] “fifty years of violent war deaths: data analysis from the
world health survey program: BMJ”. 23 April 2008. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
[4] Shenon, Philip, “20 Years After Victory, Vietnamese
Communists Ponder How to Celebrate, The New York
Times, 23 April 1995
[5]“UCDP/Prio Armed Conflict Database”, Uppsala University, http://www.pcr.uu.se/research/ucdp/datasets/ucdp_
prio_armed_conflict_dataset/, accessed 24 Nov 2014
[6] Rummel, R. J. “Statistics of Vietnamese Democide”,
Lines 777–785, http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.
TAB6.1B.GIF, accessed 24 Nov 2014
[7] https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/DBG.TAB9.1.GIF,
accessed 24 Nov 2014
[8] http://www.bmj.com/content/336/7659/1482
[9] Tran Van Tra, Tet, pp. 49, 50
[10] Gabriel Kolko, Anatomy of a War (New York: Pantheon
Books, 1985), pp. 327–37.
[11] web site (1997). “North Vietnamese Army's 1972 Eastertide Offensive”. Retrieved 2010-02-01.
[12] Lewy, Guenter (1978). America in Vietnam. New York:
Oxford University Press. Appendix 1, pp.450–453
11
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[25] Kiernan, Ben; Owen, Taylor. “Bombs over Cambodia”
(PDF). The Walrus (October 2006): 62–69.“Previously,
it was estimated that between 50,000 and 150,000 Cambodian civilians were killed by the bombing. “Given the
fivefold increase in tonnage revealed by the database, the
number of casualties is surely higher.”
[26] See also Heuveline, Patrick (2001). “The Demographic
Analysis of Mortality in Cambodia”, in Forced Migration
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Studies, for an overview of Cambodian civil war estimates.
[27] New York Times “Hue Massacre of 1968 Goes Beyond
Hearsay” September 22, 1987
[28] Time magazine“THE MASSACRE OF HUE”Oct. 31,
1969
[29] Agent orange victims day, Tuoitre news 2013/08/11
[30] History.com Operation Ranch Hand and Agent Orange
Retrieved 25/09/12
[31] Greiner, Bernd (2010). War Without Fronts: The USA in
Vietnam. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300168047.
[13] Thayer, Thomas C (1985). War Without Fronts: The
American Experience in Vietnam. Boulder: Westview
Press. Ch. 12.
[32] Turse 2013, p. 251.
[14] Wiesner, Louis A. (1988). Victims and Survivors Displaced Persons and Other War Victims in Viet-Nam. New
York: Greenwood Press. p.310
[34] Kim Chang-seok (2000-11-15). 편견인가, 꿰뚫어본
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Korean). Retrieved 2012-10-14.
[15] Willbanks, James H. (2008). The Tet Offensive: A Concise
History. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 32.
ISBN 0-231-12841-X.
[16] Rand Corporation SOME IMPRESSIONS OF VIET
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1965
[17] James J. F. Forest Countering Terrorism and Insurgency
in the 21st Century 2007 ISBN 978-0275990343
[33] Turse 2013, p. 212.
[35] “Words of Condemnation and Drinks of Reconciliation
Massacre in Vin Dinh Province All 380 People Turned
into Dead Bodies Within an Hour.”. Hankyoreh. 199909-02. Retrieved 2012-10-14.
[36] Ku Su Jeong. “Words of Condemnation and Drinks
of Reconciliation Massacre in Vin Dinh Province All
380 People Turned into Dead Bodies Within an Hour.”
. Hankyoreh. Retrieved 2012-10-14.
[18] Rummel 1997
[37] “Dien Nien-Phuoc Binh Massacre”. Quảng Ngãi government. Retrieved 2010-01-20.
[19] Michael Lee Lanning and Dan Cragg, Inside the VC and
the NVA, (Ballantine Books, 1993), pp. 186–188
[38] Armstrong, Charles (2001). “America's Korea, Korea's
Vietnam”. Critical Asian Studies (Routledge) 33 (4): 530.
[20] Rummel 1997, Lines 457 & 459.
[39] “On War extra – Vietnam's massacre survivors”. Al
Jazeera. 2009-01-04. Retrieved 2012-10-14.
[21] Lewy, Guentner (1978), America in Vietnam New York:
Oxford University Press., pp.272–3, 448–9.
[22] Rummel 1997 Lines 521, 540, 556, 563, 566, 569, 575
[40] Go Gyeong-tae (2001-04-24). 특집 " 그날의주검을어
찌잊으랴" 베트남전종전 26 돌, 퐁니·퐁넛촌의참
화를전하는사진을들고현장에가다. Hankyoreh (in
Korean). Retrieved 2012-10-14.
[23] Rummel 1997 Lines 613]
[24] Marek Sliwinski, Le Génocide Khmer Rouge: Une Analyse
Démographique (L'Harmattan, 1995), pp41-8.
[41] 여기한충격적인보고서가있다미국이기록한한국
군의베트남학살보고서발견. Ohmynews (in Korean).
2000-11-14. Retrieved 2012-10-14.
9
[42] Kwon, Heonik. After the massacre: commemoration and
consolation in Ha My and My Lai. University of California
Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-520-24797-0.
[43] Lewy, Guenter (1978). America in Vietnam. New York:
Oxford University Press. Appendix 1, pp.450–453
[44] Thayer, Thomas C (1985). War Without Fronts: The
American Experience in Vietnam. Boulder: Westview
Press. p.106.
[64] “Report of the Department of Army review of the preliminary investigations into the Mỹ Lai incident. Volume III,
Exhibits, Book 6�Photographs, 14 March 1970”. From
the Library of Congress, Military Legal Resources.
[65] “My Lai”, Original broadcast PBS American Experience,
9 pm, April 26, 2010 Time Index 00:35' into the first hour
(no commercials)
[66] Anderson, David L. The Columbia Guide to the Vietnam
War. 2004, page 98-9
[45] Associated Press, 3 April 1995.
[46] Rummel 1997, Line 102.
[67] Words of Condemnation and Drinks of Reconciliation
2/09/99 Retrieved 25/09/12
[47] McCoy, Alfred W. (2006). A question of torture: CIA
interrogation, from the Cold War to the War on Terror.
Macmillan. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-8050-8041-4.
[68] Armstrong, Charles (2001). Critical asian studies, Volume 33, Issue 4 Page 530: “America's Korea, Korea's
Vietnam”.
[48] Harbury, Jennifer (2005). Truth, torture, and the American way: the history and consequences of U.S. involvement
in torture. Beacon Press. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-8070-03077.
[69] Gerassi, John (1968). North Vietnam: a documentary.
p.148 Bobbs-Merrill.
[49] Harbury, Jennifer (2005). Truth, torture, and the American way: the history and consequences of U.S. involvement
in torture. Beacon Press. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-80700307-7.
[50] In Memory Day Ceremony to honor 165 Vietnam veterans
whose lives were cut short by their service
[51] US Military Operations: Casualty Breakdown
[52] “Vietnam-era unaccounted for statistical report”(PDF).
4 June 2015.
[53] Vietnam War Statistics
[54]
[55] American Vietnam War Casualty Statistics
[70] BBC News Murder in the name of war – My Lai 20 July
1998 Retrieved 25/09/12
[71] LA Times “Civilian Killings Went Unpunished” August
6, 2006 Retrieved 26/09/12
[72] LA Times “Verified Civilian Slayings” August 6, 2006
Retrieved 26/09/12
[73] Kevin Buckley,“Pacification's Deadly Price”, Newsweek
1972.
[74] Time "Đắk Sơn Massacre” Dec. 15, 1967
[75] Andrade, p. 529.
[76] Toledo Blade “Rogue GIs unleashed wave of terror in
Central Highlands” 10/19/2003, Retrieved 23/09/12
[77] Nghia M. Vo The Vietnamese Boat People, 1954 and
1975–1992,ISBN 978-0-7864-2345-3, 2006
[56] Scott McGaugh (16 September 2012). “Learning
from America's Wars, Past and Present U.S. Battlefield [78] Wiesner, Louis, Victims and Survivors: Displaced Persons
and Other War Victims in Viet-Nam, 1954–1975 (GreenMedicine Has Come a Long Way, from Antietam to Iraq”
wood Press, 1988), pp. 318–9.
. San Diego Union Tribune. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
[57] Vietnam Prisoners of War – Escapes and Attempts
[58] Fighting on Two Fronts: African Americans and the Vietnam War; Westheider, James E.; New York University
Press; 1997; pgs. 11–16
[59] African-Americans In Combat
[60] War within war; The Guardian; September 14, 2001;
James Maycock
[61] Working-Class War: American Combat Soldiers & Vietnam; Appy, Christian; University of North Carolina
Press; 2003; pgs. 31–33
[79] Desbarats, Jacqueline. “Repression in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam: Executions and Population Relocation”, from The Vietnam Debate (1990) by John Morton
Moore.“We know now from a 1985 statement by Nguyen
Co Tach that two and a half million, rather than one million, people went through reeducation....in fact, possibly
more than 100,000 Vietnamese people were victims of
extrajudicial executions in the last ten years....it is likely
that, overall, at least one million Vietnamese were the victims of forced population transfers.”
[80] Anh Do and Hieu Tran Phan, Camp Z30-D: The Survivors, Orange County Register, April 29, 2001.
[62] Vietnam: The Soldier's Revolt
[81] Rummel, Rudolph, Statistics of Vietnamese Democide, in
his Statistics of Democide.
[63] Working-Class War: American Combat Soldiers and
Vietnam: American Combat
[82] Al Santoli, ed., To Bear Any Burden (Indiana University
Press, 1999), pp272, 292–3.
10
12
EXTERNAL LINKS
[83] Morris, Stephen J. Glastnost and the Gulag: The Numbers [102] Taylor, Charles Lewis, The World Handbook of Political
Game, Vietnam Commentary, May–June 1988.
and Social Indicators, estimates 20,000 total.
[84] Associated Press, June 23, 1979, San Diego Union, July [103] Stuart-Fox, Martin, A History of Laos, estimates 200,000
20, 1986. See generally Nghia M. Vo, The Vietnamese
by 1973.
Boat People (2006), 1954 and 1975–1992, McFarland.
[104] KOREA military army official statistics, AUG 28, 2005
[85] Crossette, Barbara, Hanoi, Citing Famine Fears, Seeks
[105] “Vietnam War, 1962–72 – Statistics”. Australian War
Emergency Aid, The New York Times, May 15, 1988.
Memorial. 2003. Retrieved 2008-02-04.
[86] Heuveline, Patrick (2001). “The Demographic Analysis
of Mortality in Cambodia.”In Forced Migration and Mor- [106] “Australian servicemen listed as missing in action in Vietnam”. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 14 February
tality, eds. Holly E. Reed and Charles B. Keely. Washing2015.
ton, D.C.: National Academy Press. Heuveline suggests
that a range of 1.17–3.42 million people were killed.
[107] The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Po[87] Marek Sliwinski, Le Génocide Khmer Rouge: Une Analyse
litical, Social, and Military History By Spencer
Démographique (L'Harmattan, 1995).
C.
Tucker
"http://books.google.com.au/books?id=
qh5lffww-KsC&lpg=PA53&dq=the%20encyclopedia%
[88] Banister, Judith, and Paige Johnson (1993). “After
20of%20the%20vietnam%20war%20page%2064&pg=
the Nightmare: The Population of Cambodia.”In GenoPA176&output=embed"
cide and Democracy in Cambodia: The Khmer Rouge, the
United Nations and the International Community, ed. Ben [108] “New Zealand Rolls Of Honour – By Conflict”. FreepKiernan. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Southeast
ages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com. Retrieved 2012Asia Studies.
09-25.
[89] Craig Etcheson (2005), After the Killing Fields Praeger, p. [109] “Overview of the war in Vietnam | VietnamWar.govt.nz,
119, estimates over 2 million killed based on mass grave
New Zealand and the Vietnam War”.
Vietcount.
namwar.govt.nz. 1965-07-16. Retrieved 2012-09-25.
[90] Statistics of Democide Rudolph Rummel
[110] Asian Allies in Viet-Nam
[91] Forced Back and Forgotten (Lawyers’Committee for Hu- [111] James F. Dunnigan; Albert A. Nofi (2000). Dirty Little
man Rights, 1989), p8., gives the same estimate.
Secrets of the Vietnam War: Military Information You're
Not Supposed to Know. Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-25282[92] “Vietnam War Bomb Explodes Killing Four Children”.
X.
Huffington Post. 03.12.2012. Check date values in: |date=
(help)
[93] Vietnam war shell explodes, kills two fishermen The Australian (April 28, 2011)
[94]“Vietnam War Bombs Still Killing People 40 Years Later”
. The Huffington Post. 2013-08-14.
[95] Ben Stocking for AP, published in the Seattle Times May
22, 2010 [seattletimes.com/html/health/2011928849_
apasvietnamusagentorange.html Vietnam, US still in conflict over Agent Orange]
[96] Jessica King (2012-08-10). “U.S. in first effort to clean
up Agent Orange in Vietnam”. CNN. Retrieved 201208-11.
[97] “U.S. starts its first Agent Orange cleanup in Vietnam”.
Reuters. Aug 9, 2012.
[98] Warner, Roger, Shooting at the Moon (1996), pp366, estimates 30,000 Hmong.
[99] Obermeyer,“Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia”, British Medical Journal, 2008, estimates
60,000 total.
[100] T. Lomperis, From People's War to People's Rule, (1996),
estimates 35,000 total.
[101] Small, Melvin & Joel David Singer, Resort to Arms: International and Civil Wars 1816–1980, (1982), estimates
20,000 total.
12 External links
• National Archives AAD Searchable database.
• The Vietnam Center and Archive. Texas Tech University.
• Vietnam War Casualties Records search by names
and/or dates .
• Vietnamese Casualties During the American war
11
13
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