P A
R
T
I
Basic Techniques
C H A P T E R
1
Getting Started
Edward Steichen, Lotus, Mount Kisco, New York, 1915.
Reprinted with permission of Joanna T. Steichen.
GETTING STARTED
It is not difficult to take photographs. Billions of photographs are made by the
public every year with successful results for their purposes. However, photography is a bit like sailing. With a little instruction it is not too hard to figure out how to get the boat to move, but it can take a lifetime to master all
the intricacies. This chapter will give you just enough information to get moving. Once you have started producing photographs, you will probably want
more information so that you can get even better results. Use the color edge
tab guide to the photographic process on the front endsheets and the chapter
references to locate more in-depth discussion of the steps covered in this
chapter.
If things do not turn out as well as you expected, chapter 7 can help you
with some possible cures for your problems. Mastering the technical details
that make up the craft of photography is only the beginning. To make photographs that communicate your ideas or feelings, you will also have to learn the
differences between human visual perception and the way photographs represent reality. The best way to do this is to start making photographs, but you
will find some helpful suggestions for improving your photographic seeing in
chapter 9.
Equipment and Materials
To begin making photographs you will need film, camera, and a light meter, either the one built into your camera or a separate meter.
Film
Photographic film is a material that is sensitive to light. When a pattern of light
falls on film, an image is produced. Chemical processing makes this image visible and useful for producing photographs. Any of the many types of film available, black and white or color, may be used for getting started. If you plan on
processing your own film, black and white is simpler to process.
On the film box you will see a number labeled ISO. The higher this number
is, the more sensitive the film is to light. A good starting film is one with an ISO
between 100/21° and 400/27°. Several black-and-white films are available in
this range:
ISO 100/21°
ISO 125/22°
ISO 400/27°
Kodak T-Max 100, Agfapan 100 Professional, Ilford Delta 100
Kodak Plus-X, Ilford FP4
Kodak Tri-X, Kodak T-Max 400, Agfapan 400 Professional,
Ilford HP5, Ilford Delta 400, Ilford XP2 Super, Kodak
Black and White 400
Color films for prints in this range are offered by Kodak, Konica, Agfa, and
Fuji, all available in ISO 100, 200, and 400.
See chapter 2 for complete film information.
See pages 16 and 33 for more on film
sensitivity.
Ilford XP2 Super and Kodak Black and White
400 are black-and-white films designed to be
processed in color print film developer (C-41).
For a more complete listing of films, see
appendix G.
Camera
A camera is basically a lighttight box that holds the film and has a lens that
gathers light from the subject, forming an image of the subject on the film.
Many different types, brands, and models of cameras are available. For the
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CHAPTER 1
See chapter 4 for information on camera
types.
purpose of discussing operation of the camera, we will use a basic 35mm camera, shown on page 5. This is a manual camera, meaning that you have complete control over all the settings. Other cameras may control some settings
automatically.
For high-quality images the film must receive the proper amount of light,
called the correct exposure. Two controls on the camera alter film exposure:
the aperture and the shutter speed.
Aperture The aperture is a variable-size opening in the lens, much like the
iris in the eye. It is adjusted with the aperture ring. The numbers on the ring
are an indication of the size of the opening and are called f-stop numbers. A
standard series of f-stop numbers has been established:
Aperture Control Ring Set at f/8.
For more on aperture see pages 30 and 81.
For more on shutters see pages 29 and
59–63.
1.4
2
2.8
4
More Exposure ←
5.6
8
11
16
22
→ Less Exposure
Contrary to what you might expect, larger f-stop numbers indicate smaller
apertures, which admit less light. Setting the aperture at f/8 will give less exposure than setting it at f/4.
Shutter Speed The shutter shields the film from the image formed by the
lens until you are ready to take a photograph. When the shutter release (see
“Locating Camera Parts,” page 5) is depressed, the shutter opens for the
amount of time indicated on the shutter speed control dial, which is marked
with a set of standard shutter speeds in seconds:
1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500 1/1000
More Exposure (Slower Speeds) ←
→ Less Exposure (Faster Speeds)
On the shutter speed dial these are indicated as whole numbers, but the actual
shutter speeds are fractions of a second. The longer shutter speeds give more
exposure to the film: 1/30 second will give more exposure than 1/125 second.
Some cameras may have longer or shorter shutter speeds in addition to the
ones given on this scale.
Shutter Speed Dial Set for 1/125 Second.
Light Meter
See pages 33–50 for complete information on
light meter types and their uses.
A reflective-type photographic light meter measures the amount of light
coming from a subject and gives settings for the aperture and shutter speed
to insure proper film exposure. Most small cameras made today have a light
meter built into them. Separate light meters in their own housings—handheld light meters—are also available. A typical hand-held light meter is
shown on page 9.
A Procedure for Taking Photographs
The following procedure explains how to make photographs with a manual
camera. All cameras utilize the same controls, but the location and operation
of those controls will vary, especially on cameras with automatic controls. If
your camera is not like the one discussed, refer to your operator’s manual to
see how the controls on your camera correspond to the controls shown here.
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GETTING STARTED
Chapters 3 and 4 also help explain the operation of different types of light
meters and cameras. If your camera can be set to completely manual operation, follow the procedures given here. Refer to the illustration below to locate controls.
Locating Camera Parts
Vivitar V4000s 35mm Camera.
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CHAPTER 1
Loading the Film into the Camera
A. Pull up on the back cover release—rewind
knob until the camera back pops open.
B. Leave the knob pulled up and insert the film
cassette into the camera. The end with the
spindle projecting should be toward the
bottom of the camera. Do not expose the film
cassette to direct sunlight.
C. Push the back cover release—rewind knob
all the way in, rotating it slightly if necessary.
Insert the end of the narrow film leader firmly
into one of the slots on the take-up spool.
D. Operate the film-advance lever until the film
is securely wrapped around the take-up spool
and both edges of the film are engaged with
the sprockets. If the film-advance lever will not
move at any time during this procedure, press
the shutter release and continue.
E. Close the camera back and press gently
until it latches. Repeatedly press the shutter
release and operate the film-advance lever
until the frame counter reads 1.
Developing Ideas for Photographs
Most photographs are taken as a record
of people, places, things, or events. Many
other reasons for making photographs
exist, and some of these are discussed in
chapters 9 and 10. For now, photograph
anything that interests you.
6
GETTING STARTED
Framing and Composing Your Photograph
A. When you take a photograph, only part of
what you see of the subject with your eyes will
be included within the borders—the “frame”—
of the photograph. To see what you are going
to get in your photograph, look through the
viewfinder of the camera.
B. If you have one central subject, move
backward or forward until you have it framed
as you want it. Make sure that other objects
appearing in the viewfinder do not distract
from the main subject. Unattractive
backgrounds or strong shapes or patterns may
draw attention from the subject. Move the
subject to a better place if possible, or change
your position for a different point of view.
C. Most cameras take a rectangular picture,
so you can also turn the camera on end to get
a different framing. This view shows the subject
closer up with vertical framing.
Evaluating the Light on Your Subject
Flex the book and look for red and orange
edge tabs for information throughout the book
on composing and lighting the subject. A
complete guide to the color edge tabs can be
found inside the front cover.
A. Start thinking about how the light falls on
your subject, the quality of the light, the
direction the light comes from, and the resulting
pattern of light and shade on your subject.
B. The easiest way to control the light on your
subject is to simply move the subject so that the
light strikes it in a more desirable way. Other
ways of controlling light are discussed in
chapters 8 and 14.
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CHAPTER 1
Metering and Setting Camera Controls: In-Camera Meter
A. Setting the ISO. Set the number before the
slash of the ISO into the film speed window
labeled ISO by lifting up on the outer rim of
the shutter speed ring and rotating it. On some
cameras the film speed window may be
labeled ASA, but the procedures are the same.
B. This dial is set for a film labeled ISO
125/22°. Note that not all numbers are
marked on the scale. The two dots between
the 100 ISO mark and the 200 ISO mark
correspond to ISO 125 and ISO 160. (See
page 33 for a list of ISO numbers.) Some
cameras automatically set the ISO if DX coding
is indicated in the film labeling.
C. Taking the Meter Reading. Point the
camera just as you will when you take the
photograph. In this view through the
viewfinder, the needle on the right indicates the
amount of light coming from the subject, and it
will rise with increasing light and fall with
decreasing light. The meter needle also moves
as the aperture ring and the shutter speed dial
are changed.
D. Setting the Camera Controls. Keeping the
camera pointed at the subject, change the
shutter speed or the aperture settings or both
until the needle is centered between the and
signs. You will discover that several shutter
speed and f-stop pairs will center the needle.
All of these pairs give the same exposure to the
film.
E. Choosing Camera Settings. The controls are
now set for a shutter speed and f-stop pair of
f/8 at 1/125 second. Reasons for choosing
one pair over another are discussed in later
chapters. For now stay with shutter speeds of
1/60 second or faster—for example, 1/125,
1/250, and so on—to reduce the possibility
of image blurring due to camera movement.
NOTE: You can set the aperture ring between
f-stops to make the meter balance, but the
shutter operates only at the marked speeds.
8
GETTING STARTED
Metering and Setting Camera Controls: Hand-Held Reflected-Light Meter
Flex the book and look for yellow and green
edge tabs for information throughout the book
on measuring and controlling exposure.
A. Setting the ISO. Set the number before the
slash of the ISO into the window labeled ASA
by rotating the inner dial of the meter calculator.
Note that ASA has been superceded by ISO,
but many meters are still marked ASA.
Procedures are the same in either case. This dial
is set for a film labeled ISO 125/22°. Note
that not all numbers are marked on the scale.
The two dots between the 100 ISO mark and
the 200 ISO mark correspond to ISO 125 and
ISO 160. (See page 33 for a list of ISO
numbers.)
B. Taking the Meter Reading. Slide the white
plastic incident dome to one side so that the
light receptor is not covered. Holding the meter
at the camera position, point the light receptor
end of the meter in the same direction the
camera will be pointing when the photograph
is taken and push the metering switch to
activate the meter. A common tendency is to
tip the meter up to read the dial, in which case
you are no longer metering the subject.
C. Setting the Calculator. The needle will
move when the metering switch is pressed.
While keeping the meter button depressed and
the meter pointed at the subject, move the
outer ring of the calculator dial as shown and
you will see the needle moving with the dial.
Adjust the ring until the meter needle is
centered on zero. (Other types of light meters
are discussed in chapter 3.)
continued
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CHAPTER 1
D. Choosing Camera Settings. Once the
calculator dial has been set, you may choose
any pair of shutter speed and f-stop that are
matched on the calculator dial. Here f/11 is
matched with 1/250 second. Set f/11 on the
aperture scale of the camera and 1/250
second on the shutter speed dial. You could
also set the camera for f/16 at 1/125
second or f/8 at 1/500 second or any other
matching pair. The result in terms of the
exposure will be the same. Choose a shutter
speed of 1/60 second or faster to avoid
image blur from camera movement.
E. If the shutter speeds and f-stops do not
match up perfectly, choose a shutter speed
and then set the aperture at the value indicated
between the two f-stops. In this case, if the
shutter speed is set at 1/250 second, then the
f-stop should be set between f/8 and f/11.
NOTE: You can set the aperture between fstops, but the shutter operates only at the
marked speeds.
B. The distance at which the subject is in focus
can be changed by turning the focus ring. You
will be able to see the focus change if you
watch through the viewfinder. Turn the focus
ring until the part of the subject you think is
most important looks sharp and clear in the
viewfinder. Now the people are in focus and
the background is not. (See chapter 4 for
focusing methods on other camera types.)
C. The focus ring has a distance scale on it
with a pointer, to tell you what distance will be
in focus. Most cameras give this distance in
both feet and meters, so be sure to read the
correct scale. This camera is focused on 12
feet—a little less than 4 meters.
Focusing the Camera
A. In the viewfinder, parts of your subject look
sharp and clear, while other parts look blurred
or fuzzy. This effect depends on the distance of
the objects from the camera. The part of the
subject that is sharp and clear is said to be in
focus. Here the background is in focus and the
people are not.
10
GETTING STARTED
Exposing the Photograph
Check the focus and the framing of the subject.
When you feel the moment is right, gently
squeeze down on the shutter release to make
the exposure on the film. To avoid blurring the
image, steady the camera by holding your
arms against your body and the camera
against your face. After taking the photo,
advance the film to the next frame with the filmadvance lever.
Flex the book and look for blue edge tabs for
information throughout the book on controlling
the appearance of the image on your film by
focus, filters, and other techniques.
Rewinding the Film and Removing It from the Camera
A. The number of exposures available on each
roll of film is listed on its box. The film counter
indicates the number of exposures you have
made. After you have taken the last frame on a
roll, you will be unable to advance the film.
Do not force the film-advance lever.
■ CAUTION Do not open the back of the
camera until the film has been rewound.
B. Turn the camera over and press the rewind
release button on the bottom. If it does not stay
in, hold it in with one finger while you perform
the next steps.
C. Flip open the small crank on the back cover
release–rewind knob.
■ CAUTION Do not pull up on the back
cover release–rewind knob.
Slowly wind in the direction of the arrow until
you feel the film release from the take-up
spindle. If you listen carefully you can also
hear the end of the film as it releases and
winds into the cassette.
D. Pull up on the back cover release–rewind
knob until the back pops open and remove the
film cassette from the camera. Protect the film
cassette from direct sunlight, heat, and moisture
until you have it processed.
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CHAPTER 1
Processing and Printing the Exposed Film
You can take your exposed film to a commercial photo finisher for processing
and printing, or you can process and print the film yourself. If you plan to do
your own processing and printing with black-and-white film, the procedures
are given in detail in chapters 5 and 6. If you take the film to a photo finisher,
it is more convenient to work with color film, since black-and-white processing and printing services are difficult to find.
Evaluating Your First Results
If you have been careful in following directions, your first roll of film should
give you good results. Look for technical quality in the prints: Are they sharp
and clear? Do the tones or colors look as you expected? Now look for aesthetic
qualities of each photograph: Is the subject framed in a way you like? Do extraneous distracting details appear in the print? Are the expressions of people
in the photograph interesting or attractive? Do you like the way light illuminates the subject? Have you recorded an interesting moment of time? What
kind of feelings or ideas do you get from the photograph? You will probably
also like to find out what other people think of your images. The remaining
chapters in this text will help guide you through the process of learning to
make more interesting and exciting photographs.
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