The History of Alabama Two-Year
Colleges and Its Relevance Today
Presentation to the 2013
Alabama Community College Leadership Academy
by
Dustin Smith
Snead State Community College
July 15, 2013
What we'll talk about today
• The establishment of community
colleges nationally
• The establishment of community
colleges in Alabama
• How community college establishment
differed in Alabama as compared to
other states
• The relevance of establishment today.
The Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama
The Traditional Narrative
• Almost every book about community colleges
list a common path to their creation.
• Typically the story is a national, grassroots
movement created by the efforts of prominent
educators.
• By relying solely on these narratives one
would conclude that junior college
establishment was top-down and very
standardized across the nation.
Problems with the Traditional
Narrative
• No evidence in the literature.
– Especially in Alabama
• Not logical to assume all motives the
same.
• Ignores differences in location.
Establishment of JCs was a VERY
INCONSISTENT process prior to 1950
• The very idea was new: to extend universal access
to 13/14th years to all citizens (Truman Comm., 1947)
• Diverse governance: Of the 260, 74 (28%) governed
by Us; 52 (58%) by K-12 bds, 34 (13%) independ bds.
• Diverse functions: Process was bottom-up prior to
1950, with accreditation and state enabling laws.
• Achieving geographic access: was a major goal of
education planners and political leaders.
• Two-Year College planning did not occur in a
vacuum: Major changes were also occurring in the
four year sector. Then there was federal help for
K-12 school construction, Sputnik/NDEA, and race.
The Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama
NUMBER OF JUNIOR COLLEGES AND
ENROLLMENTS BY REGION, 1950
Region
New England
Middle States
North Central
Southern
Northwest
Western
Number
42
80
206
204
23
80
Enrollment
19,314
52,493
110,354
92,599
24,477
162,059
Source: J.P. Bogue and Shirley Sanders, "Junior College Director, 1950," Junior College Journal, XX (January,
1950, p 319), in Young, 1950. p. 60.
The Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama
2. ESTABLISHMENT OF
COMMUNITY COLLEGES IN
ALABAMA
The Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama
Private Two-Year Colleges in
Alabama
• The first two-year colleges in Alabama were private,
denominational colleges.
• At least nine private junior colleges were operating in
Alabama before the start of World War II.
• Three of the earliest institutions, (Selma University,
Lomax-Hanon Junior College, and Concordia College)
were historically black colleges started to educate black
ministers and teachers.
• The return of White Bourbon Democrats to power during
the 1870’s eliminated most public educational
opportunities for African-Americans in the South.
– Abolished State Board of Education
– Draconian Cuts to Education Funding (Flynt, 2006)
Private Two-Year Colleges in
Alabama
• White Southern denominations
had sought to educate slaves
prior to the Civil War, but lost
interest after the War.
• With few public options and little
support from Southern Whites,
African-American churches in
Alabama started their own
institutions with help from
Northern religious groups.
• Northern aid was also essential
in helping start white
denominational colleges as well.
Selma University, 1st Two-Year
HBCU in Alabama
Private Two-Year Colleges in
Alabama
• Snead Seminary in Boaz (Methodist), St. Bernard and
Sacred Heart Junior Colleges in Cullman (Catholic), and
Southern Union Junior College (Disciples of Christ) all
received substantial support from outside of the South.
• Private two-year colleges in Alabama prior to World War
II filled in the gap in public education.
• Many offered what would now be considered
remediation courses and most included high schools
because there were no public high schools in the area.
• If not for determined Alabama citizens and Northern
philanthropy, the educational situation of Alabama prior
to World War II would have truly been abysmal.
LACK OF PUBLIC JUNIOR COLLEGE
ESTABLISHMENT IN ALABAMA
• Public experiments with junior colleges began as early
as 1901, but the first public junior college in Alabama
was established in 1961.
• By World War II, many Southern states including
Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida, and Texas had some
form of public junior college usually started by local K-12
Board.
• Prior to World War II, Alabama had only one public twoyear educational institution.
• Two key elements of the 1901 Constitution directly relate
to the lack of “bottom-up” junior college establishment in
Alabama.
1901 Constitution
• In Alabama in the Twentieth
Century, Auburn historian
Wayne Flynt listed three goals
for the delegates to the 1901
Constitutional Convention:
• 1. To disenfranchise blacks and
poor whites.
2. To keep property taxes
artificially low.
3. To remove power from local
governments.
•
Signers of the 1901 Constitution
1901 Constitution: Lack of Local
Governance
• The principle of limited local governance was established
by the 1901 Constitution as a reaction to the “Populist
Revolt” of the 1890’s during which Populist candidates
won many local elections and would have won the
Governor’s race if not for widespread election fraud.
• In order to reign in the people, the 1901 Constitution
stripped virtually all power from county and municipal
governments.
• Almost every local decision had to have the Legislature’s
approval before being put to the vote of the people, and
if one “No” vote was cast in the Legislature, the issue
appeared on the statewide ballot.
1901 Constitution: Lack of Local
Governance
• This set-up gave the “Big Mule” planters and industrialists the
power to control virtually every area of the State by controlling
the key state elections.
• The consequence of this was that local innovation and
initiative were replaced by the leadership of politicians in
Montgomery.
• This prevented local communities from establishing public
junior colleges. (This was the predominant method of
establishment in other states.)
• When Cullman County wanted to start a public junior college
in 1928, they contacted Montgomery for permission. This
request was denied and no public junior college was opened.
(Many cities in other states started colleges with no legislation
or permission.)
1901 Constitution: Permanently
Low-Taxes
• The 1901 Constitutional Convention was dominated by
wealthy planters and businessmen who wanted property
taxes low and a strict limit on raising them.
• Property taxes were capped at five mills and no local taxes
(except sales taxes) could be raised locally without a
statewide Constitutional Amendment.
• This means that local educational programs must rely on
regressive, unpredictable sales taxes for the bulk of their
budget.
• This situation leads to a “boom” or “bust” budget that does
not provide any certainty or security and is very sensitive to
overall economic conditions.
1901 Constitution: Permanently
Low-Taxes
• State funding of education in Alabama prior to World
War II was very limited.
• Without the ability to raise local taxes and with little
support from the State, municipalities and counties could
not risk starting a new educational institution especially
when they didn’t have the funds to operate the ones
already present.
• It’s clear that some cities and counties in Alabama
wanted public junior colleges long before 1961, but
without stable funding, they took the common Alabama
approach- Wait on Montgomery.
1901 Constitution: Summary
• By restricting local governance in 1901, a culture of
helplessness and dependence on Montgomery was
ingrained in local governments the mid-1920’s.
• The scarcity of revenue and the inability to generate
more revenue mean that local school districts were in a
constant struggle to make ends meet.
• However when times were good, the memories proration
and the demands of neglected projects prevented
educational expansion on the part of K-12 Boards.
• The 1901 Constitution virtually guaranteed that TwoYear Colleges in Alabama could not be started from the
“bottom-up” as they were in many other states.
1901 Constitution: Summary
• Nor could they be locally controlled and funded
without Constitutional reform or extensive
amending which would require broad public
support.
• The most practical method of governance and
funding under the 1901 Constitution was through
Montgomery.
• The 1901 Constitution created as many (if not
more) of today’s governance and coordination
problems as George C. Wallace.
Trade School Establishment in
Alabama Prior WWII
• Two public trade schools were
established in Alabama prior to
World War II.
• The Alabama School of Trades
at Gadsden was established in
1925 after being authorized by
the Legislature in 1919.
• This institution was started
through efforts of Senator Watt
Brown and the people of the
Gadsden area for the
education of “poor white boys.”
Sen. Watt Brown, Ragland,
AL in St. Clair County
Trade School Establishment in
Alabama Prior WWII
• The Decatur Trade School
was opened in 1940 as a
result of World War II.
• The institution trained badly
needed workers for the
shipyards in Decatur during
the duration of the War.
• Workers in the Decatur
shipyards built at least 139
vessels for the US Military
during this time.
Army barge launched into TN River
at Decatur, AL. Built by Ingalls
Decatur July 1942,
Post WWII to Wallace Era
(1963-87)
• Demands of the returning G.I.’s
threatened to overload Alabama’s
educational system.
• The state had at least 17 fouryear institutions, but only 2 trade
schools.
• In order to accommodate veterans
who did not desire a four-year
degree, Freshman Representative
and WWII Veteran George C.
Wallace introduced the Regional
Vocational and Trade School Act
of 1947.
George, Lurleen, and
Bobbi Jo Wallace c. 1945
Post WWII to Wallace Era
(1963-87)
• With the support of Governor
James “Big Jim” Folsom the
legislation passed and created
four additional trade schools in
Alabama.
• The institutions were located at
Dothan, Wenonah (Black),
Mobile, and Tuscaloosa.
• A statewide study on the
locations was ignored for
Tuscaloosa mainly because of
politics on the SBOE which
had 3 current legislators as
members.
James “Big Jim” Folsom c. 1947
Post WWII to Wallace Era
(1963-87)
• The addition of the Decatur Trade School and the
Alabama School of Trades into this “system” brought the
number of trade schools to six.
• In 1955, (Jim Folsom was in his 2nd term as Governor) a
bill passed the legislature authorizing three additional
trade schools.
• These institutions were established in Huntsville (Black),
Mobile (Black), and Montgomery (White).
• Also during this time, Gadsden and Ozark operated
municipal trade schools or technical colleges that would
eventually be placed under state-control.
Publicly Controlled Technical Colleges in
Alabama, Pre-1961
NO STATE OR MUNICIPAL PUBLIC JUNIOR COLLEGES
PRE-1947 Alabama School of Trades, Gadsden, 1925
Tennessee Valley State Technical School, 1941
REGIONAL TRADE SCHOOL ACT, 1947 (written by freshman State
Representative George C. Wallace)
• George C. Wallace State Technical Trade School (Dothan), 1947
• Wenonah State Technical Institute, 1949 (B)
• Shelton State Technical Institute, 1952
• Southwest State Technical Institute (Mobile), 1953
• Carver State Technical Institute (Mobile), 1960 (B)
• Huntsville State Vocational Technical School, 1961
• Patterson State Technical College (Montgomery), 1961
• Alabama Aviation and Technical College (Ozark), 1962
• Gadsden Vocational Trade School, (B) 1962
The Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama
Public Junior College
Establishment in Alabama
• In September 1961, two bills passed the Alabama
Legislature creating junior colleges in Northwest
(Franklin, Marion, and Winston Counties) and Northeast
Alabama (Jackson and Dekalb Counties).
• These colleges were controlled by a local board and
received most of their funds from local governments.
• Because of the local funding requirement, the college in
Northeast Alabama did not open because of the financial
conditions of local K-12 systems did not permit the
transfer of any funds.
• The college in Northwest Alabama was established as
Northwest Alabama State Junior College.
Summary of Two-Year Colleges
Pre-Wallace
• When Wallace took office there were:
– 6 White Private Junior Colleges
– 3 Historically Black Private Junior Colleges
– 11 State Controlled Trade Schools
– 1 State Controlled Junior Colleges
• 14 of these institutions eventually became part of
the Alabama Community College System after 1963.
• Nearly 1/3 of the institutions that came into the
system during the Wallace era were in operating
prior his inauguration.
A couple of key points about
George C. Wallace
• In the second half of the
20th century, George
Wallace was the towering
figure in Alabama.
• His 4 four-year terms and
the two years of Lurleen
Wallace-18 of 24 yearsmight be the longest tenure
in office of any governor of
any state in our country in
the 20th century.
Wallace stands in the “school
house door” at UA 1963.
The Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama
A couple of key points about
George C. Wallace
• Rural Alabama was his
home, his political power
base, and truly cared about
its people
• This is why it is important
to examine the landscape
facing this master politician
prior to assuming his first
term in 1963, as this has
important implications for
governance and
coordination for the
colleges that emerged.
The “fightin’ little judge” giving a speech.
Wallace earned the nickname because
of his boxing days, size, and early
political career as judge in rural SE
Alabama.
APRIL 1963: "Governor, I've got
something here that will make you
famous"
• Rankin Fite, Speaker ProTemp, presented plan to
Wallace.
• Former Governor Albert
Brewer, Speaker of the
House at the time,
recalled that “it was the
most casual thing you
ever saw. The whole
conversation took less
than 5 minutes”
Rankin Fite
Albert Brewer
The Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama
APRIL 1963: "Governor, I've got
something here that will make you
famous"
• Wallace's 1958 & 1962 platforms called for "a
breakthrough in education funding," more trade schools,
AND strong opposition to integration.
BUT…
• No statewide studies/statewide plans for CCs had ever
been conducted in Alabama.
• Few nationally recognized experts on CCs from other
states were ever brought to Alabama.
• Inherent flaws in the planning from the early years are
sadly reflected decades later.
The Alabama Junior College and
Trade School Authority Act of 1963
• Passed after the second longest filibuster in
Alabama State Senate history (109 hrs) the
opposition mainly focused on financing the colleges.
• Created a public authority to build new JCs/trade
schools, controlled by Wallace.
• Alabama State Board of Education would operate
and locate the institutions (not UA or AU).
• Because the State Board of Education was
appointed by the Governor, Wallace would play a
pivotal role in locating the new institutions, naming
them, and selecting the founding presidents.
The Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama
Wallace’s Control of the Early
System
• "It was a Wallace system," said one president in 2006.
• The Administration Building on each campus was named after
Wallace.
• Wallace initially called for naming many Colleges after his
favorite Confederate war heroes (Nathan Bedford Forrest,
Jefferson Davis, etc.)
• Wallace’s control over personnel decisions was also
extensive. Each President and Dean was personally approved
by Wallace after consultation with supporters in the area.
• Wallace was even involved in selecting the Custodian at one
institution.
• One still hears rumors and stories of patronage (stuffing direct
mailings for the Wallace presidential campaigns, etc.).
With no planning at all, Alabama created
a "Baskin Robbins" of 2 Year Colleges
• Expansion of the system began almost immediately.
• The Legislature authorized 5 Junior Colleges and 5 Trade
Schools, but the SBOE authorized 10 Junior Colleges and
10 Trade Schools.
• This expansion was done with little planning and no
statewide study.
• By Lurleen Wallace's death in 1968, the process (with all
its flaws) for establishing Alabama's 2 year colleges was in
place.
• The system continued expansion in 2nd and 3rd Wallace
Administrations (1971-1979) eventually reaching 44
separate institutions.
The Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama
PRIVATE TWO-YEAR COLLEGES
THAT BECAME PUBLIC
• John H. Snead Seminary Methodist
School, 1906, later, Snead State Junior
College, 1967, and SSCC in 1992
• Bethlehem College, 1923; later in 1964,
Southern Union College; in 1965,
Southern Union State Junior College,
SUSCC in 1993.
No private HBCU ever was asked to join
the system
The Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama
3. How community
colleges established in
Alabama differed as
compared
to other states
The Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama
A TYPOLOGY OF STATE-LEVEL COMMUNITY COLLEGE
GOVERNANCE AND COORDINATION (1/2009)
LOCAL GOVERNANCE FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGES, WITH...
--State Coordination for CCs under Board
separate from K-12 & 4Year Universities……………… 13 states
--State Coordination under same Board as K-12,
but separate from 4 Year Universities…………………
3 states
--State Coordination under SAME board
for CCs and 4-Year Universities………………………..
17 states
--no State Coordination for CCs……………………………..
3 states
NO LOCAL GOVERNANCE FOR CCs, WITH SAME STATE BOARD THAT...
--governs and coordinates both CCs and Universities…
6 states
--governs and coordinates CCs, separate from
both K-12 and 4-Year Universities…………………..
7 states
--governs CCs and coordinates BOTH
CCs and K-12…………………………………………
1 state-AL
The Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama
In Alabama...
• No comprehensive statewide planning studies, to
(1) tie the new institutions into both K-12 and
emerging 4 year colleges and universities.
– No significant statewide coordinating board exists.
• (2) encourage communities to take ownership of
the challenge to develop coalitions of support.
– No local governing boards.
• Failure to plan means expensive duplication, and
serious gaps in services which exist now.
– Racial factors also contributed to this.
The Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama
4. Relevance of
Establishment Today
The Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama
INHERENT FLAWS INCLUDED
• For rural Alabama, while the system delivered on
the promise of extending geographic access in
most areas, it failed to deliver programmatic
access.
– One had to be born in the right part of the state to easily
benefit from public postsecondary programs and
services.
• In urban/suburban Alabama, no metropolitan
community college districts were created.
– This dilutes marketing dollars
– Causes Duplication of Services
– Discourages local funding.
The Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama
INHERENT FLAWS INCLUDED
• The lack of local governance means no local
taxes go to community colleges. This has
benefits…and disadvantages.
• Advantages include passing regulations that are
fair statewide, so that faculty in poorer high
poverty rural areas are paid fairly.
• Disadvantages include tendency for state offices
to promote "one size fits all" policies for
promotion, tenure, hiring of adjunct faculty,
workforce training, etc., that may not account for
geography/local differences.
The Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama
Conclusion
• George Wallace has been dead for nearly 20 years,
and has not been Governor for a generation, but
system that caused these problems is still in place.
• Constitutional reform and a new, fairer, and more
efficient and effective tax system is essential for
Alabama to move forward.
– Provide consistent funds.
– Foster local initiative, funding, and ownership.\
• Alabama must figure out how to build sustainable
political coalitions move the entire state FORWARD.
The Education Policy Center at the University of Alabama