THE BEDAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2016 | VOLUME I
Effectiveness of Nonverbal Communication Modification
on the Leadership Performance of Introverts
Mariano, Anthony Miguel C.
Ocampo, Rodelando
ABSTRACT
This study examined if changes in an introvert individual’s nonverbal communication could
affect their performance as a leader in a group. Using a list of tips by Carol Kinsey Goman
called “12 Body Language Tips For Career Success,” college introverts participated (n=30) to
become leaders in a group of three (n=90) which included them. a pre-test and post-test design
with paired samples was utilized and compared the mean scores of a group activity called “All
Tied Up” where the leader and their two members had their wrists tied and folded as much
paper planes as they can in 15 minutes. A two tailed T-Test was used with a 95% degree of
freedom. As a result, there is a significant change between the pre-test and the post-test scores
(p=0.00000003) at 0.01 level of significance due to making changes in how the leader
communicates with group having changes in their body language.
Keywords: leadership, nonverbal communication, introversion, communication, leadership
intervention, training
Leaders are vital in society since leaders pave the way for the people who follow them to
achieve the goal that they aim for. Leaders in history are perceived as individuals with strong
personalities that assume their seat in government by their mere strength in overpowering the
opposition whether it was warfare or politics. Meta-analyses of researches shows that extroverts
and their traits like assertiveness (Ames, 2007, 2009) were more perceived and showed better
performance in leadership. Bakker, Tims, and Derks (2012) also stated that being more proactive
towards people you work with will increase engagement at work which will result to better
performance. This results in 65% of executives in major companies thinking that introverts
themselves are a hindrance to leadership (Time, 2006)
Ineffective leadership has many effects that reverberate throughout the ranks of the
people working with a leader. According to a study made by Right Management (2008), poor
leadership results to employees leaving their jobs. From the 1308 respondents they’ve given the
survey, 30% looked for new jobs that could provide opportunities and 25% resigned because of
their leader’s ineffectiveness. More so, 22% of the respondents said that they had didn’t develop
rapport with their managers and 21% felt that the efforts they made were not appropriately taken
note. Ineffective leaders will have employees with low morale which means that they will not be
as motivated to do work which will result in poor productivity and overall an ineffective
organization or company. Poor leadership also creates a negative organizational culture. An
example would be the Enron scandal of 2001 with their Ponzi scheme when they notoriously
falsified their accounting records in order for them to appear to be making huge amounts of
profit but actually were in huge debt. This was due to leaders and executives who instigated such
acts created a company full of liars and swindlers who bullied those who tried to inform the
world of the truth and even bribed them to keep their mouth shut about how their operations.
Despite the extrovert advantage in today’s world, introverts need to learn how to match this with
something that is easy and inexpensive without the need to spend money for pricey trainings like
“The Leadership Challenge”. There is a way of doing so that is just simple that does not even
cost anything at all: adjusting one’s body language or also known as nonverbal communication.
Smiling (Beukeboom, 2009), eye contact (Frischen, Bayliss, Tipper, 2007) vocal pitch and tone
115
THE BEDAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2016 | VOLUME I
(Locke, C., & Anderson, C., 2015), hand gestures (Talley and Temple, 2015), and posture
(Carney et al, 2010) are effective in modifying how people perceive us and even change our own
abilities for the better (Koch, Holland, Hengstler, & van Knippenberg, 2009).
The purpose of this research is to measure the effectiveness of using nonverbal
communication as an inexpensive and easy to do method of increasing one’s leadership ability
with something as quick and easy as changing how you stand and communicate with people
using your body. Doing so would change many introverts who have difficulty in developing their
leadership skills in a positive way and would remove biases on leadership that is based on
personality predisposition.
Body Language
Posture and nonverbal communication is also one of the quickest ways of being a leader.
The saying “Fake it ‘til you make it” is actually quite true. Carney, Cuddy and Yap (2010) stated
in the results of their study that doing “power poses” for 2 minutes can increase an individual’s
testosterone and endocrine levels which result in better confidence. Koch et al, (2009) and their
study about cognitive processes and body locomotion found out that stepping backwards when
faced with a problem can help increase cognitive abilities which can help in dealing with tasks
and being able to solve them effectively.
More information on the effects of nonverbal communication according to Locke et al,
(2015), is that the voice of a leader affects the members’ performance. Possessing a powerful
voice as well helps in being a leader and helps to be identified by the group with the only
downside being able to stifle the other voices of the group members. Sanchez-Cortes, D., Aran,
O., Mast, M., & Gatica-Perez, D. (2012) said in their study of leaders who emerged in newly
small groups were perceived by their groupmates as an active and competent person which was
aided by the leader’s nonverbal communication in relation with the proper tone and intonation of
the voice.
In addition, Tsukiura and Cabeza (2008) discovered how important smiling to people
based on their research. Their results showed that smiling faces were more memorable and
seemed as more approachable and easier to work with compared to people with neutral facial
expressions which is important because as a leader one would want their members to have trust
in them. Rauchbauer, Majdandzic, Hummer, Windischberger, and Lamm (2015) noted that the
Chameleon Effect can be used in order to amplify the positive effects of smiling by increasing
feelings of affiliation and likeability towards members thus providing a more positive chemistry.
Beukeboom C. (2009) suggested that listening to someone who’s talking showing positive body
language (e.g. smiling), the person talking would be more abstract and be more visual with their
explanation as compared to listening to someone with negative body language (e.g. frowning)
which would result to the speaker being more literal with the words they say.
Similarly with the connection of facial expressions, Kelly, Kravitz, and Hopkins (2004)
made a study if there’s a neural connection between speech and body language in a person’s
comprehension. They found out that there is and that saying one thing with contradicting body
language limits communication with another person thus creating confusion therefore the proper
combination would yield the desired message such as use of hand gestures. The findings of
Meeren, van Heijnsbergen, & de Gelder, (2005) suggested that by combining the appropriate
body language with the correct facial expression augments the emotion that is expressed. Not
doing so can send mixed signals which can confuse followers.
Even more so concerning posture, Furley, Dicks, Memmert (2012) and their study
concerning football and posture supported the notion that by bearing more dominant body
language are perceived more positive and would perform better by goalkeepers. Talley and
Temple (2015) and their study about hand gestures said that speakers who use more are attractive
and easier to listen to compared to those who are not using hand gestures. Frischen, Bayliss, &
116
THE BEDAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2016 | VOLUME I
Tipper (2007) stated in their study how important the use of eye gaze or eye contact is in
communication and how it helps in making the one you’re talking to feel that you’re paying
attention to what is being said.
Leadership Performance of Introverts
Bakker, Tims, and Derks (2012) also stated that being more proactive towards people you
work with will increase engagement at work which will result to better performance. In addition,
Hong-Da, , Vivian,., Chin-Tien,., & Wu-Chen,. (2014) with their study of entrepreneurial leaders
having introverted qualities can be detrimental to their followers. Being passive and detached can
lower the morale and inhibit the capabilities of their employees to innovate.
In regards to that Klaang (2012) pointed out that in the field of sales and sales
management, introversion was looked down upon and was given lower ratings of importance as
opposed to having extrovert qualities such as assertiveness and proactivity. Grant (2013) also
supported this idea that extroverts earned more money than introverts do because of the
introvert’s lack of communication skills. Moreover Moss, Ritossa and Ngu (2006) made a study
about the preference of leaders in a hospital setting using the Big-Five model and their results
showed that introverted leaders had less preference among the subjects than extroverted leaders
who were considered as more motivating. Sieff and Carstens (2006) researched about focus in
the workplace and introverts scored lower than their extrovert counterparts. Introverts were seen
as less comfortable with the challenges of leadership. Added to the prior researches, Brandt and
Laiho (2013) examined leadership performance and transformational leader aspect of leaders by
making a survey given to leaders (n=459) and their employees (n=378) and found out that male
extroverted leaders found themselves more challenging which was also supported by the
employees’ answers.
To illustrate the prior facts, the study of de Vries (2008) about leadership and personality
in the workplace suggests that introverts are at a disadvantage as leaders. Introverts are seen as
passive and non-confrontational which is a downside especially when most, if not all careers,
require leaders to spark communication among the people in the office. Riggio and Rechard
(2008) suggested that people skills are a huge help in being an effective leader. Madlock. (2008)
conducted with supervisors and their employees concerning their communication skills and job
satisfaction. The results showed that there is a strong relationship with having strong
communication skills and job satisfaction by the employees and in turn produced better job
performance.
Including to the previous fact that one such problem for Introverts in being leaders is that
they have difficulty in maintaining Leader-Member Exchanges (LMX). Introverts are then
considered as more likely to be removed or let go in their positions of work whether they are
leaders or followers because of poor performance due to a lack of communication with their
workmates and mentors which also turned into minimal development performance (Bauer,
Lauden, Edrogan, 2006). Schyns, Maslyn, and van Veldhoven, (2012) made another study
concerning Leader-Member Exchanges and also supported the disadvantage Introverts have by
saying that Introverted leaders have a much more difficult time managing their inter-personal
relationships with their employees. As you go upward the corporate ladder and you manage more
people and that will lead to more difficulty to the introvert as a leader with their passive nature.
Lastly, meta-analyses of researches shows that extroverts and their traits like
assertiveness (Ames, 2007, 2009) were more perceived and showed better performance in
leadership.
Synthesis
The studies about nonverbal communication have opened eyes of its effects. Adjusting
posture can increase confidence (Carney et al, 2010) and even stepping backwards can help think
better (Koch et al, 2009). Voice can change the perception of members towards their leader
117
THE BEDAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2016 | VOLUME I
(Sanchez-Cortes et al, 2012) and then affect their performance as well (Locke et al, 2015). Facial
expressions are an important part in nonverbal communication and have strong effects as well.
Smiling can help a person be more memorable and be perceived as approachable, easy to work
with and more trustworthy (Tskukiura and Cabeza, 2008). Giving the right amount (and proper
duration) of smiles during conversations can increase feelings of likeability and affirmation
towards group members (Rauchbauer et al 2015) and can also increase prosocial behavior in
groups (Baarren et al, 2009). Listening to someone talking and smiling at them will result in the
speaker feeling more encouraged and motivated to speak better. By combining the body
language with the correct hand gestures (Kelly et al, 2004) and even facial expressions (Mereen
et al, 2005) the emotion that is shown will be more felt and be augmented as compared to
contradicting ones will result to confusion. Using hand gestures make a person more appealing
as well (Talley and Temple, 2015). Correct eye contact helps in being a better listener and paired
with proper responses results to positive interactions (Frischen et al, 2007). All in all, dominant
body language and posture makes people perceive that they are more positive and performs well.
There are a number of reasons as to why introverts are not as regarded as their extrovert
counterparts. Introverts are less proactive (Bakker et al, 2012) and have submissive personalities
which have an effect on their performance as leaders and even just becoming one. Having
introverted traits can also be detrimental to their followers and hinder their development and
performance (Hong-Da et al 2014). Introversion is also a problem in job fields such as sales
(Klaang, 2012) where they earn the least as compared to extroverts and even ambiverts (Grant,
2013). Introverted leaders were seen as less motivating (Moss et al, 2006) and less focused and
were perceived as incapable of handling the pressure (Sieff and Carstens, 2006). Extroverted
leaders were perceived by themselves and by their employees as more challenging ( Brandt and
Laiho, 2013). The passivity and non-confrontational trait of introverts is a problem (de Vries,
2008) because having people skills is an important trait to be an effective leader (Riggio and
Rechard, 2008) which is sadly what introverts are lacking in. Lastly, introverts can sometimes
give employees a less satisfying time at work. Communication skills are a vital aspect of a leader
and underperforming in it can result to bad relationships with employees and them being less
effective.
This study aims to answer the following questions: (1) What is the level of leadership
performance in the pretest and posttest results? (2) What is the effect of the “12 Body Language
Tips for Career Success” intervention?
Method
Research Design
The researcher employed a quasi-experimental design for this study because the goal was
to find out the effectiveness of the intervention. In order to find out if the intervention applied
was successful, the researcher would have to do an experiment where in the researcher would
measure the changes by applying an independent variable to the people involved in the
experiment and will observe for changes in the researcher’s chosen dependent variable. A
Within-Subjects Design was used by the researcher because it is the simplest design for this
study and is the best method to use in order to measure if there is a genuine effect in the person
before and after the intervention (Shuttleworth, 2009). A pre-test was done to establish a baseline
for the participants and after the intervention was given which was then followed by the post-test
and checked if there was a significant difference after the independent variable was applied.
Participants
The chosen participants for this study were introvert college students (n=30) using
purposive sampling since the required individuals to take part are strictly introverts. These 30
introverts were then assigned as leaders of groups of 3 including them and the other 2 members
118
THE BEDAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2016 | VOLUME I
who are not included in the sample size of 30. In order for them to be qualified in the study, they
needed to have a score of less than or equal to 5 or below on the introversion factors of the online
16 PF test.
Instruments
16 Personality Factor Questionnaires. The 16PF is a self-report (Q-data) personality
questionnaire developed over several decades of empirical research by Raymond B. Cattell,
Maurice Tatsuoka and Herbert Eber. Even though the 16PF provides a measure of normal
personality trait constructs, it can also used be used as a clinical instrument (since clinical
patients may obtain extreme scores - "standard ten" or "sten" scores of 1-2 and/or 9-10 on a
number of the trait dimensions), as well as being widely used within other areas of psychology,
such as occupational selection both within civilian and military contexts. Beginning in the 1940s,
Cattell used the new statistical technique of common factor analysis which takes as its starting
point the matrix of intercorrelations between all the variables (see correlation coefficient) in an
attempt to elucidate the underlying source traits of human personality. The traits that were
chosen to be the basis for introversion were the following: A. Reserved/Warm, F. Serious/Lively,
G. Shy/Bold, N. Private/Forthright, and Q2. Self-Reliant/ Group-Oriented.
12 Body Language Tips For Career Success by Carol Kinsey Goman, Ph. D. The body
language tips that was used in the study was made by Carol Kinsey Goman who is an expert in
body language, leadership and success in careers. In order to be a more successful leader, a
person should stand tall and take up space, have wider stance, have an optimal vocal pitch when
talking, try power priming, practice power posing, maintain positive eye contact, use your hands
when delivering a presentation, use open gestures, practice doing the steeple hand gesture, learn
to reduce nervous gestures, smile appropriately, and also perfect your handshake.
Procedure
The main criteria for the participants was that they were required to be introverts since
the purpose of this study was to identify significant change in their leadership performance. In
order to verify the introverted qualities of the participants, they were given the 16 Personality
Factor questionnaires which were developed by Raymond Cattell. Those who scored a mean
score towards the left or between 0-2 on the scale is allowed to proceed to the second phase of
the study. The introverts were then required to bring 2 people with them (introverts or extroverts
regardless) for the following activity which is a common team-building activity called “All Tied
Up”. The introverts were then named the designated leaders for the activity to come. The
participants and their group were given a task to be succeeded in a given amount of time but with
a twist, they are to do the task with their wrists tied to each others’. Their objective was to make
as much paper planes as they can in 10 minutes for two rounds which shall be the pre-test and
the post-test. After each round the members asked on any observations on how their grouped
performed and their leader. After the first pre-test, the leaders/introverts were then separated
from the group and brought into a different room to wait for their intervention. As the leaders
waited, the members were asked for observations on how their group performed and how their
leader performed as well.
The leaders, who were now in a separate room, were given intervention which was the
guide made by Carol Kinsey Goman on how to become better leaders. The guide is mainly about
body-language modification which includes tips like positive eye-contact, proper use of hands,
posture, smiling, and gestures towards other people. After the administration of the intervention,
the designated leaders were then returned to their respective groups and were to apply what they
learned in order to motivate their group to increase productivity output. The final round was then
done and that was considered the post-test. The number of planes produced during the post-test
were then compared to the number of planes produced in the pre-test. The groups were then
asked again how their team fared in the post-test design. They were also asked whether there was
119
THE BEDAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2016 | VOLUME I
a change in the leader of each group and was there a difference in how he/she performed. The
participants afterwards were given tokens/rewards for their participation in the experiment.
Statistical Treatment of Data
In order to analyze the results of the pretest and posttest numbers, using T-test for paired
samples was utilized to check for significant difference. The purpose of the T-test was to
properly identify if there was a significant statistical difference between the quantities of the
planes made in the pre-test and the post-test which will determine the effectiveness of the
intervention.
Results and Discussions
Research Question 1. What is the level of leadership performance in the pretest and posttest
results?
Table 1
The results of the pretest resulted with level of performance that is normal (M=18.4667)
meaning that the average productivity of the groups led by the introverted leaders were around
18. This value was the baseline on which the posttest was compared to. The Pre-test of the
groups provided the score as to which the leaders would be judged in the post-test. The average
of the scores were 18 planes (SD = 9.10753). The post-test’s outcome displayed improvements
from the activity prior. The mean scores of the post-test(M = 26.7333) were higher by 8.26667
than the pre-test. The Pre-test of the groups provided the score as to which the leaders would be
judged in the post-test. The average of the scores were 18 planes (SD = 9.10753). The post-test’s
outcome displayed improvements from the activity prior. The mean scores of the post-test(M =
26.7333) were higher by 8.26667 than the pre-test. The amount made in 15 minutes during
pretest was that amount which was due to the leaders not yet capable of acting as leaders. Most
of them were unsure of what to say or do and only relied on their members and stayed silent.
Some leaders chose to not move at all and let the other two to move instead thinking that they are
not as capable as folding paper planes. The introversion was very evident among the leaders
during the pretest. in when the introvert leaders didn’t really talk much to their members. Most of
them were just doing the task they were given and were quite serious about it not talking much
and when they were it was very minimal.
Some members of the leaders on the other hand were more talkative than the leaders.
They talked more casually and sometimes talked about the task at hand. Some were giving
suggestions but some leaders were just simple and agreed silently. Some groups also had
members who were silent as their leaders as well. Also doing the task as it is and having little to
no communication at all. They didn’t ask about how they were doing or if they were making
progress with their designs, they just went on with it. When other group members were feeling
discomfort with their position. Groups didn’t talk about changing their positioning at all and just
moved autonomously without asking their fellow members permission for shifting their arms.
There were also other leaders who didn’t bother moving at all and just let their members make
planes and considered it as a strategy. The members unfortunately didn’t enjoy that because it
just showed some laziness or detachment from the leader in working with them in the task. The
120
THE BEDAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2016 | VOLUME I
leaders during the posttest were more vocal and more involved. Most of them asked their groups
on how to improve productivity and which design would have a balance of quality and quantity.
During the planning stage prior to the posttest itself, the body language of the leaders
significantly improved including their stances which were now open as compared to having
folded arms when talking. The leaders adjusted their voices and the rest of their nonverbal
communication as well which aided in the group focusing on them as leaders and worked
together harmoniously (Sanches-Cortez et al, 2010)
The results showed that there was an increase in the performance of the leaders from the
pre-test to the post-test. The mean number of planes in the pre-test increased by 8.2666. One of
Katz’s(2007) approach in his Leadership Skills Approach is “Technical Skill” in which how the
leader performs the task and how proficient the leader is. The Technical Skill of the leaders
increased and learned on how to make planes better throughout the activity. “Human Skill” also
was in action during this activity on how the leaders briefed their members on how they should
tackle the post test. During the activity they also encouraged and got along better with their
groupmates by encouraging them and motivating them as well. “Conceptual Skill” also was
present in terms of how the leaders innovated on their designs and how they managed their
members. They weren’t deterred when they had a plan and one of their members gave
suggestions showing that the leaders showed openness to their members and put the goals of the
group in front of his/her own.
Research Question 2. What is the effect of “12 Body Language Tips For Career Success” in the
level of leadership performance of the participants?
The t-test results showed that t=7.547 and p=0.00000003 which means that the body
language modification intervention had a highly significant effect on the leadership performance
of the introvert leaders since p < 0.05. The increase in the amount of planes during the post-test
meant that leadership performance can be increased by simply modifying the body language of
an individual.
The effects of changing the body language of the participants to improve their leadership
performance were statistically evident. During the post-test, the leaders were more participative
in the activity. They were talking to the members more by motivating them to be better
(Servátka, Tucker and Vadovič’s, 2011) and asking them if they’re having problems or feeling
uncomfortable with the position they were standing/sitting in or with the design of the plane they
were making, or the method of how they were making them. One of the factors that contributed
to better leadership performance was how the leaders modified their leadership style depending
on their members (Grant A., Gino F., and Hoffman D., 2011). Some leaders had introverted
members and some leaders had more extroverted ones. The leaders with introverted leaders
became more assertive because they realized that the members needed someone to direct the
members in order for them to know their roles and the importance of the task. The leaders with
extroverted members were more permissive and accepting of their members’ suggestions.
Letting members give their suggestions and ideas and those being incorporated to the group’s
overall plan was rewarding for them and motivated them to produce better results.
Conclusion and Recommendation
121
THE BEDAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2016 | VOLUME I
The effects of the intervention affected the results of the post-test positively increasing
their leadership performance by showing an increased output of paper planes. Evidently, there
was a difference in leadership styles and communication among the leader and the members
which resulted in more synergy and a more fluid performance that still maintained optimal
performance and developed a good rapport among the teams. Being an effective leader is a good
quality to have. The behavior, skills, and traits of a successful leader does not only affect the
performance of the group or organization that they are in, but it transcends to the relationships
with people all around that individual. Being a good leader does not only mean being good on
paper, but also having good chemistry with their members and knowing their strengths. Making
changes to a person’s body language can help in these by being displaying positive and open
gestures to members. Communicating with members can build positive ties with the ones you
work with and bode well in the present and future. Providing a positive and challenging
workplace atmosphere makes members feel more encouraged and motivated to work with a
leader that is more collaborative and accepting of their ideas and suggestions.
To further this study, making use of actual employees would be very effective and would
yield a more “real-life” result since most of the related literature that were made by postgraduate
students asked for help from companies and used executives and managers instead of students.
The use of a between-subjects design is also a viable suggestion in recreating the study.
References
Ames, D. (2009). Pushing up to a point: Assertiveness and effectiveness in leadership and
interpersonal dynamics. Research In Organizational Behavior, 29, 111-133.
doi:10.1016/j.riob.2009.06.010
Ames, D., & Flynn, F. (2007). What breaks a leader: The curvilinear relation between
assertiveness and leadership. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 92(2), 307324. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.307
Bakker, A., Tims, M., & Derks, D. (2012). Proactive personality and job performance: The role
of job crafting and work engagement. Human Relations, 65(10), 1359-1378.
doi:10.1177/0018726712453471
Bauer, T., Erdogan, B., Liden, R., & Wayne, S. (2006). A longitudinal study of the moderating
role of extraversion: Leader-member exchange, performance, and turnover during new
executive development. Journal Of Applied Psychology, 91(2), 298-310. doi:10.1037/00219010.91.2.298
Beukeboom, C. (2009). When words feel right: How affective expressions of listeners change a
speaker's language use. European Journal Of Social Psychology, 39(5), 747-756.
doi:10.1002/ejsp.572
Brandt, T., & Laiho, M. (2013). Gender and personality in transformational leadership context.
Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 34(1), 44-66.
doi:10.1108/01437731311289965
Carney, D., Cuddy, A., & Yap, A. (2010). Power Posing: Brief Nonverbal Displays Affect
Neuroendocrine Levels and Risk Tolerance. Psychological Science, 21(10), 1363-1368.
doi:10.1177/0956797610383437
de Vries, R. (2008). What Are We Measuring? Convergence of Leadership with Interpersonal
and Non-interpersonal Personality. Leadership, 4(4), 403-417.
doi:10.1177/1742715008095188
Frischen, A., Bayliss, A., & Tipper, S. (2007). Gaze cueing of attention: Visual attention, social
cognition, and individual differences. Psychological Bulletin, 133(4), 694-724.
doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.4.694
Furley, P., Dicks, M., & Memmert, D. (2012). Nonverbal behavior in soccer: the influence of
122
THE BEDAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2016 | VOLUME I
dominant and submissive body language on the impression formation and expectancy of
success of soccer players, 34(1), 61-82.
Goman, C. (2013). 12 Body Language Tips For Career Success. Forbes. Retrieved 11 August
2015, from http://www.forbes.com/sites/carolkinseygoman/2013/08/21/12-body-languagetips-for-career-success/
Grant, A. (2013). Rethinking the Extraverted Sales Ideal: The Ambivert Advantage.
Psychological Science, 24(6), 1024-1030. doi:10.1177/0956797612463706
Grant, A., Gino, F., & Hofmann, D. (2011). Reversing the Extraverted Leadership Advantage:
The Role of Employee Proactivity. Academy Of Management Journal, 54(3), 528-550.
doi:10.5465/amj.2011.61968043
Hong-Da, L., Vivian, C., Chin-Tien, H., & Wu-Chen, F. (2014). Relationship between
Entrepreneurial Leadership and Innovative Behavior: The Mediating Effect of
Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy and the Moderating Effect of Openness to Experience and
Extraversion. Information Technology J., 13(6), 1035-1044. doi:10.3923/itj.2014.1035.1044
Kelly, S., Kravitz, C., & Hopkins, M. (2004). Neural correlates of bimodal speech and gesture
comprehension. Brain And Language, 89(1), 253-260. doi:10.1016/s0093-934x(03)00335-3
Klaang, A. (2012). The Relationship Between Personality and Job Performance in Sales:: A
Replication of Past Research and an Extension to a Swedish Context.
Koch, S., Holland, R., Hengstler, M., & van Knippenberg, A. (2009). Body Locomotion as
Regulatory Process: Stepping Backward Enhances Cognitive Control. Psychological
Science, 20(5), 549-550. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02342.x
Locke, C., & Anderson, C. (2015). The downside of looking like a leader: Power, nonverbal
confidence, and participative decision-making. Journal Of Experimental Social Psychology,
58, 42-47. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.12.004
Madlock, P. (2008). The Link Between Leadership Style, Communicator Competence, and
Employee Satisfaction. Journal Of Business Communication, 45(1), 61-78.
doi:10.1177/0021943607309351
Meeren, H., van Heijnsbergen, C., & de Gelder, B. (2005). Rapid perceptual integration of facial
expression and emotional body language. Proceedings Of The National Academy Of
Sciences, 102(45), 16518-16523. doi:10.1073/pnas.0507650102
Moss, S., Ritossa, D., & Ngu, S. (2006). The Effect of Follower Regulatory Focus and
Extraversion on Leadership Behavior. Journal Of Individual Differences, 27(2), 93-107.
Rauchbauer, B., Majdandžić, J., Hummer, A., Windischberger, C., & Lamm, C. (2015).
Distinct neural processes are engaged in the modulation of mimicry by social groupmembership and emotional expressions. Cortex. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.03.007
Riggio, R., & Reichard, R. (2008). The emotional and social intelligences of effective leadership.
Journal Of Managerial Psychology, 23(2), 169-185. doi:10.1108/02683940810850808
Sanchez-Cortes, D., Aran, O., Mast, M., & Gatica-Perez, D. (2012). A Nonverbal Behavior
Approach to Identify Emergent Leaders in Small Groups. IEEE Trans. Multimedia, 14(3),
816-832. doi:10.1109/tmm.2011.2181941
Schyns, B., Maslyn, J., & van Veldhoven, M. (2012). Can some leaders have a good relationship
with many followers?. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 33(6), 594-606.
doi:10.1108/01437731211253046
Servátka, M., Tucker, S., & Vadoviĕ, R. (2011). Words speak louder than money. Journal Of
Economic Psychology, 32(5), 700-709. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2011.04.003
Sieff, G., & Carstens, L. (2006). The Relationship Between Personality Type And Leadership
Focus. SA J. Hum. Resour. Manag., 4(1). doi:10.4102/sajhrm.v4i1.84
123