Shanghai European Model United Nations 2016 | Research Reports Forum:
Security Council
Issue:
Forestalling the militarization of the arctic
Student Officer: Kailin Xu
Position:
Deputy President
Introduction
The militarization of the Arctic is an issue of both regional and international importance. It may
seem to be solely restricted to its bordering countries, but in fact, the fate of the Arctic concerns many
nations. The Arctic is home to significant resources and serves as an important passage between the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans with the advent of global warming and improved icebreaking technology.
Some key issues to consider pertaining to this topic are whether the Arctic should be international
property or national property, the management of resources of the Arctic, and the regulation of military
activities in the Arctic.
Definition of Key Terms
The Arctic States
Eight nations bordering the Arctic region consisting of Canada, Denmark (Greenland and Faroe
Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and USA
Militarization
The process by which a society organizes itself for military conflict and violence
Background Information
The Arctic is the area surrounding the North Pole. It consists of the Arctic Ocean and parts of
Canada, Russia, Greenland, the United States, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland. Geographically,
the Arctic is defined as the area north of the Arctic Circle, which does not correspond to any physical
features of terrain but rather is the approximate limit of the midnight sun and the polar night.
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Shanghai Model United Nations 2015 | Research Reports Due to severe climate, the Arctic is largely uninhabited and all relatively major cities are at the southern
edges of the Arctic Circle.
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
UNCLOS was ratified in November 1994 and is the only international legislation currently
governing rights and responsibilities of all states regarding to world seas and oceans. It defines the rights
and responsibilities of the nations with respect to their use of the world’s oceans, establishing guidelines
for businesses, the environment, and the management of marine natural sources. It authorizes coastal
states to develop and administer special regulations when dealing with activities in ice covered regions.
UNCLOS allows countries possessing coastal borders to claim the sea and sea bed up to 200 nautical
miles from their coastline as an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and sovereign territory and further
permits extension of this territory depending upon extension of continental land mass.
According to UNCLOS, a country has ten years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond
it 200 nautical miles zone. With a difference in the time of ratification, countries such as Denmark
(ratified in 1996), Russia (1997), Canada (2003), and Denmark (2004) have launched projects to claim
certain sectors of the Arctic seabed to establish them as their own territory.
It is notable that while UNCLOS has been ratified by 158 countries, the United States has not ratified this
convention.
Territorial claims and militarization
All land, internal waters, territorial seas and exclusive economic zones (EEZ) are under the
jurisdiction of one of the five Arctic coastal states, Canada, Norway, Russia, Denmark (via Greenland)
and the United States. Regulations full under the jurisdiction of international law, meaning the high seas
including the North Pole and the regions of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it are not under the ownership
of any country. Exclusive economic zones are limited to 200 nautical miles, waters beyond that are
considered as “high seas” or international waters. Additionally, the sea bottom beyond the EEZs and the
confirmed extended continental shelf claims are proclaimed as “heritage to all mankind” and is thereby
administered by the United Nations International Seabed Authority.
The Ilulissat Declaration
The Ilulissat Declaration is the outcome of the Arctic Ocean Conference which was attended by
the five Arctic coastal states Canada, Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States. It
establishes the common position of these five nations on issues such as sovereign rights,
environmental change, and maritime security in the Arctic. It blocks any “new comprehensive
international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean” and pledges “the orderly settlement of any
possible overlapping claims”.
Arctic militarization
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Shanghai European Model United Nations 2016 | Research Reports Prior to World War II, there was no military conflict in the Arctic region. While there were several
minor battles during World War II, activity was at its height directly after it, during the Cold War.
With the development of nuclear weapons and long-range delivery system, the nearly
uninhabited Arctic served as an ideal location for a military base. It also happened to be the
shortest distance between the United States and the Soviet Union. With greater development of
the ballistic missile system by the 1980s, with the usage of a submarine deployed in the Arctic, all
strategic targets in the northern hemisphere would be in the range of a nuclear strike. Thus, the
sea and air defence system in that region has been strongly emphasised on in the years
following this realization. For instance due to a lack of large territory in the region the US has
relied on treaties and agreements with other Arctic States to protect this region, building a large
number of radar stations in the Arctic with cooperation of Iceland and Canada.
Current situation
While west-east relations have cooled down significantly ever since the Cold War, there has been
a steadily rising interest in the Arctic in the recent years. The Arctic is home to an unimaginable
abundance of natural resources. In 2008 the US Geological Survey stated that the Arctic accounts for
about 15% of the earth’s undiscovered oil and natural gas resources. It further suggests that around 90
billion barrels of oil reserves and 47 cubic metres of natural gas lie under the region. Additionally,
precious stones such as platinum, gold, silver, iron, and a potential future energy source, methane
hydrates can be found there.
With the major effects of climate change being most visible in the Arctic, land mass decreasing by size,
sea ice and permafrost melting rapidly, ships have been able to pass through the Northwest Passage
much more easily without help of icebreaking methods in the recent years. By that, a much shorter and
financially cheaper trading route is presented.
Based on these developments, the situation of the Arctic has exceeded the circle of Arctic States and
has roused major global interest.
The scramble for the Arctic is thus no longer a mere military matter, but raises a number of questions in
national and international, economic and political levels.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
The Arctic Council
The Arctic Council is an intergovernmental forum founded in 1996 through the Ottawa
Declaration. It seeks to promote cooperation, coordination, and interaction among the Arctic States,
Arctic Indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants on common Arctic issues, in particular on
issues of sustainable development and environmental protection of the Arctic.
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Shanghai Model United Nations 2015 | Research Reports Permanent participants
The council consists of eight permanent member states which include the Arctic States and
organizations representing six indigenous populations. The chairmanship is rotated every two
years between the Arctic States, as of 2015, the United States has assumed chairmanship.
Observer states
Observer states are approved by the council at ministerial meeting every two years. They receive
invitations for most council meetings, but have no voting rights. They primarily contribute with
their engagement in the council at the level of working groups; however participation in projects
and task forces by doing so is not always possible. The requirement for admittance reads
“recognizes the Arctic States sovereignty, sovereign rights, and jurisdiction in the Arctic” and
“recognizes that an extensive legal framework applies to the Arctic Ocean including initially, the
Law of the Sea, and that this framework provides a solid foundation for responsible management
of this ocean”. Current observer states are China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, South
Korea, the Netherlands, Poland, Singapore, Spain, and the United Kingdom. Non-governmental
observers include the UNDP, UNEP, the Nordic Council, and the Red Cross.
Security and geopolitical issues
These issues were left out of the mandate due to little relevance at the time of founding the
council. It aims to become a “mechanism for addressing the common concerns and challenges
faced by their governments and the people of the Arctic”, however it also explicitly states that it
“should not deal with matters related to military security”.
Russian Federation
Russia strongly opposes the internationalization of the Arctic, planning to deploy special military
forces in the region in order to “guarantee military security under various military and political situations”.
United States of America
The US supports the need for freedom of navigation in the Arctic Ocean, focusing on the fact that
its vessels have the right of international navigation both through the Northwest Passage and straits
along the Northern Sea Route.
Canada
Canada considers the attempts of the US and the EU for freedom of navigation in the Arctic as
questions to Canadian jurisdiction regarding navigation systems in the Northwest Passage. Canada
believes that the passage is part of its internal waters and thus should be regulated by Canadian national
law.
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Shanghai European Model United Nations 2016 | Research Reports Kingdom of Denmark
Denmark is engaged in a territorial dispute with Canada over the statute of the Hans Island in the
Kennedy Channel. Being the only Nordic country with both NATO and EU membership undermines its
generally supportive stance on arctic cooperation.
Norway
Being the only Scandinavian country with direct access to the Arctic Ocean, the primary points of
focus of Norway are issues of resource management, environmental impact, and maritime transport. It is
wary of Russia’s increasing military presence.
European Union (EU)
The European Union is petitioning to become a permanent observer of the Arctic Council.
However, it firmly opposes the concept of an “Arctic treaty”, stating that “the full implementation on
already existing obligations, rather than proposing new instruments should be avoided.” Its interest is to
keep the balance between the preservation of Arctic environment and the need for sustainable use of
natural resources.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
As five of its member nations are part of the Arctic States, NATO is relatively in favour of the
Arctic Council.
Timeline of Events
Date
Description of event
September, 1996
Ottawa Declaration, Establishment of the Arctic Council
December, 2001
Russia submits claim to the UN commission for extended continental shelf; the
claim is rejected and more evidence is demanded
November, 2004
The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment is released by the Arctic Council
March, 2008
Breaking the Ice conference on trans-Arctic shipping is held in Iceland
May, 2008
The Ilulissat Declaration is signed
NATO Parliamentary Assembly meets to discuss the role of organizations such
June, 2011
as NATO and the EU might play in relation to economic and strategic trends in
the High North
August, 2015
Russia resubmits bid with new arguments to the UN
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Shanghai Model United Nations 2015 | Research Reports Relevant UN Treaties and Events
•
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 10 December 1982
Possible Solutions
A treaty similar to the Antarctic Treaty is suggested as it would serve as an improvement or
extension of UNCLOS and would have more effect than the decisions of the Arctic Council. It would not
only focus on the question of forestalling the militarization of the Arctic, but offer a even broader
spectrum of solutions to the newfound issues of the Arctic.
Bibliography
< "UNCLOS and Agreement on Part XI - Preamble and Frame Index." UN News Center. UN.
Web. 14 Apr. 2016.http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/closindx.htm >
<"Ilulissat Declaration." Web. 14 Apr. 2016.
http://www.oceanlaw.org/downloads/arctic/Ilulissat_Declaration.pdf >
< "Obninsk, Kaluga Oblast, Russia." Home. Web. 14 Apr. 2016 http://www.arctic-council.org/ >
< "Continental Shelf - Submission to the Commission by the Russian Federation."UN News
Center. UN. Web. 14 Apr. 2016.
http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/submission_rus.htm >
< "Strategic Importance of the Arctic in US Policy." Web. 14 Apr. 2016. http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2009_hr/arctic.pdf >
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