MARITIME ISSUES IN
SOUTHEAST ASIA
Mohd Nizam Basiron
Research Fellow MIMA
GREETINGS
• My Name:
•
•
Mohd Nizam Basiron
Who Am I?
- Research Fellow at the Centre for Coastal
and Marine Environment, Maritime Institute
of Malaysia
- Trained in Ecology and Environmental
Policy
Analysis
How Are You?
OUTLINE OF PRESENTATION
• Objective
• Introduction
• Southeast Asia – a brief introduction
• Maritime Issues in Southeast Asia
• Straits of Malacca Case Study
• Conclusions
OBJECTIVES
• Provide broad-brush presentation of
maritime issues in Southeast Asia.
• Present case study of specific sea area to
illustrate issues.
INTRODUCTION
The oceans
Gave Earth the nickname the
Blue Planet
Cover slightly more than 71 per cent of the Earth
The oceans are the largest
depository of water on the planet
Provides Goods and Services
Human-Ocean Interactions
• The relationship started since time immemorial.
• Early human settlements date 40,000 years ago in
•
•
•
•
Southern Africa and Malenesia.
Coastal areas offered early settlers fertile land
and abundant protein.
Early navigators may have crossed from
Southeast Asia to Australia and New Guinea
40,000 years ago.
Maritime trade in Europe began 5,000 years ago.
2,000 years ago Sri Lanka and Maldives sent
emissaries to Rome.
Human-Ocean Interactions
• Two way.
• Humans affect and are affected by the
sea.
• Extends beyond extractive and
exploitative.
• Includes management measures.
SOUTHEAST ASIA AND ITS SEAS –
A BRIEF INTRODUCTION
• Southeast Asia is an excellent example of a region
•
•
•
where there is close inter-relationship between
humans and the sea.
4,000,000 sq. km of land area.
It encompass important seas:
- South China Sea
- Sulu Sea
- Sulawesi Sea
- Straits of Malacca and Singapore
- Andaman Sea
- Indian Ocean
- Lombok Straits
- Makassar Straits
Influences and is influenced by the sea.
Andaman Sea
South China Sea
Sulu Sea
Straits of Malacca
Sulawesi Sea
Indian Ocean
Total Population in Southeast Asia Countries (in millions)
Year
Country
1980
1990
1995
2000
2002
2003
Brunei
Darussalam
0.19
0.25
0.29
0.32
0.34
0.35
Cambodia
6.50
8.60
10.20
12.20
13.00
13.30
Indonesia
147.49
179.38
194.75
205.84
211.06
213.72
Laos
3.20
4.14
4.69
5.23
5.53
5.68
Malaysia
13.88
18.10
20.69
23.49
24.52
25.05
Myanmar
33.61
40.78
44.74
50.13
52.17
53.22
Philippines
48.10
60.70
68.62
76.50
79.50
81.08
Singapore
2.41
3.05
3.53
4.02
4.17
4.19
Thailand
46.96
56.30
59.46
61.87
62.80
63.08
Vietnam
53.72
66.23
72.00
77.69
79.88
80.90
Total
356.06
437.53
478.97
517.29
532.97
540.57
Source: United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
(Available online at unescap org/stat/statdata/apinfig htm)
Why the Seas of Southeast Asia are
Important?
• Trade routes.
• Ecosystems and habitats.
• Source of fisheries.
• Marine biodiversity.
• Hydrocarbon.
Trade Routes
• 9.5 million barrels of oil passed through
the Straits of Malacca in 1997.
• Expected to increase to between 19 and
20 million barrels by 2020.
• More than half of oil destined for
Northeast Asian economies passes
through the Straits of Malacca and the
Spratlys.
Ecosystems, Habitats and
Marine Biodiversity
• Centre of global coral reefs and mangrove
distribution:
- 34 % of world’s coral reef area
(100,000 sq. km)
- more than 40 % of world’s mangroves
(5.2 million ha)
• 20 of 50 seagrass species recorded worldwide.
- second most seagrass rich species area
• 4 species of marine turtles.
Fisheries
• Nearly 10 % of world capture fisheries.
• More than half of culture production.
• Major consumers of fish and other
seafood.
• Net exporters of fishery products.
• Close correlation between the sea, man,
economy and environment in Southeast
Asia.
• The relationship is also the principal cause
of problems in the seas of Southeast Asia.
Seafood as Percentage of Animal Protein
Consumed in Selected Countries
Country
%
Australia
6
Canada
10
China
19
Ghana
50
India
13
Indonesia
60
Ivory Coast
31
Japan
51
Madagascar
15
Morocco
24
Philippines
50
Senegal
38
United Kingdom
9
United States
6
Hydrocarbon
• South China Sea holds vast hydrocarbon
resources.
• At USD 20/barrel, interest in exploitation is
low, but…
• With oil prices at around USD
60/barrel, pressure to
exploit increases.
MARITIME ISSUES IN SOUTHEAST
ASIA
Navigational Safety
• Southeast Asian seas are at risk from
shipping activities.
• Risk will increase as world shipping
increases to support global economy.
• From 1978 to 2003, 888 incidents
occurred in the Straits of Malacca.
• Threats posed to ecosystems in the Straits
of Malacca and Spratlys are real and
growing.
Figure 1. Total number of ships passing through the
Straits of Malacca, (1999-2003)
70,000
T o ta l n o .
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
1999
2000
2001
Year
2002
2003
• Malaysia has spent nearly RM 250 million
to ensure safety of navigation in the Strait
of Malacca.
• A further RM 8 million annually in
maintenance.
• Investment justified given the risks
involved.
National Action
• Conducting
surveillance.
• Enforcing
national laws.
• Preparing for
disasters,
particularly oil
spills.
Eye in the Sky
Fisheries
Pollution Prevention
Navigational
Safety
Security/Anti Crime
Security
• Traditional security issues.
-
conflict between countries.
territorial or boundary disputes.
unresolved boundary issues in the South
China Sea, Sulawesi and portions of the
Straits of Malacca.
• Armed conflict has broken out at sea.
• Statement on the Code of Conduct of
Claimant Parties in the South China Sea
offers partial, ‘temporary’ solution.
Security
• Non-traditional security issues.
-
crime at sea (piracy, human smuggling,
gun-running)
- terrorism
- terrorism and piracy?
• Recent attacks by terrorists and pirates on
commercial shipping elsewhere showed the
risks involved.
Indonesia
79
Malacca St
12
Malaysia
3
Singapore St 7
Thailand
1
SCS
6
Vietnam
10
Environmental Degradation
• Loss and modification of ecosystems and
habitats
- 82 % of reefs degraded in ASEAN in
1994
- 88 % at risk (Reefs at Risk)
- between 12 and 57 % of mangroves
lost among SEA Countries
- between 20 to 50% seagrass areas
damaged
Environmental Degradation
• Causes
-
human impact largely responsible
*
conversion
*
development
*
destructive fishing
*
population increase
Environmental Degradation
• Decline in biodiversity
Global Threats
Overexploitation
Alteration of physical environment
Pollution
Introduction of alien species
Climate change
Local Threats
-Unlicensed gears
-Destructive fishing practices
-Encroachment
-Development in the coastal zone and on
islands
-Modification of habitats
-Land-based pollution
-Vessel-based pollution
-Ballast water discharge
-Aquaculture
-Ornamental fish
-Bleaching
-Natural disasters
Environmental Degradation
• Pollution
-
-
land-based
*
a major problem
*
many settlements lack sewerage
*
360 million lives on the shores of
the South China Sea
*
only 11 % of BOD generated is
treated
vessel-based smaller but potential for
disaster great especially in the Straits of
Malacca
transboundary pollution
OTHER ISSUES
• Lack of uniformity in ratification of
international convention.
• No regional instrument.
• Need to improve co-operation in marine
scientific research.
• Differing capacity in management.
• Transboundary crime.
• Natural disasters.
Oceans’ Impact on Man
• Epidemic and disease
-
In 1973 a major outbreak of cholera in Naples
was attributed to consumption of
contaminated shellfish. The cholera outbreak
of 1991 to 1995 in South America took 10,000
lives and began in the coastal cities of Peru.
• Natural disasters
-
flooding
coastal erosion
-
tsunami !
STRAITS OF MALACCA CASE
STUDY
Managing the Straits of Malacca: Issues
and Challenges
Outline of Presentation
• Introduction
• Straits of Malacca – vital statistics
• Straits of Malacca and Adjacent Water Bodies
• Issues in Managing the Marine Environment of the
•
•
•
Straits of Malacca
Challenges in Managing the Marine Environment
of the Straits of Malacca
A Note on the Role of User States
Conclusions
Introduction: The Straits of Malacca:
• Longest Straits used for international navigation.
• Important current and historical link for East•
•
•
•
•
West trade.
Connect Indian Ocean with South China Sea.
Important for socio-economy and environment of
littoral States.
Critical for world trade and movement of oil.
Of strategic value to superpower and emerging
powers.
Important source of fish for littoral States.
STRAITS OF MALACCA
VITAL STATISTICS
Characteristic
Figures
Length
About 500 nautical miles or 900 from Pulau Rondo to Koh Phuket (northen limit) to
Pulau Karuman and Tanjong Piai.
Longest Straits used for international navigation.
Width
Widest point - 220 nautical miles at northen limits
Narrowest point – 8 nautical miles around Riau archipelago
Marine and Coastal Ecosystems
Mangroves – 498,109 hectare
•Malaysia (111,409)
•Indonesia (386,100)
Coral Reefs
•Malaysia – fringing reefs in Port Dickson, Pulau Payar. Newly discovered reefs in
Pulau Perak
•Indonesia – some fringing reefs in northern Sumatera
Seagrass
•Malaysia – Langkawi, Port Dickson, Seberang Prai, Teluk Nipah (9 species)
•Indonesia – East coast of Sumatera (12 species)
•Singapore – Southern Island (11 species)
Fisheries landings
Malaysia – 489,026 metric tones (2000)
Indonesia – 440,000 metric tonnes (1993)
Population (1993)
Malaysia – 13,778,049
Indonesia - 10,930,408
Navigation (number of ships passing through as captured
by Vessel Tracking System at Port Klang)
Accidents (1978 – 2003)
Length of Traffic Separation Scheme
Total for 2003 – 62,334:
•VLCC/Deep draft craft (3,487)
•Tanker vessel (15,667)
•LNG/LPG carries (3,277)
•Cargo vessel (6,193)
•Container vessel (19,575)
888
240 km
Straits of Malacca: Economic Value (000,000
USD)
Indonesia
Malaysian
Singapore
Straits-wide
coastline
coastline
coastline
Coastline(km)
1,641
956
130
2727
Fisheries
456.39
341.11
4.03
801.53
Aquaculture
87.18
57.62
11.16
155.96
Mangroves
3766.10
1747.65
44.12
5557.87
Mudflats
0.03
31.58
0.03
31.34
Coral reefs
455.20
34.57
0.07
484.84
Seagrass
N/A
8.10
0.09
8.19
Seaweed
9.36
1.02
N/A
11.46
Beach
369.35
169.23
275.87
814.45
Sea Lanes
N/A
N/A
N/A
340
Total
4,687.22
2,173.61
333.37
7,534.21
Sources:GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Program for the Prevention and Management
of Marine Pollution in the East Asian Seas.
The Straits of Malacca and Adjacent
Water Bodies
The Straits of Malacca links the Indian Ocean with the South
China Sea.
Adjacent to the Andaman Sea.
Shares ecological characteristics with Indian Ocean and
Andaman Sea in terms mangroves species and coral species.
Is affected and will affect the environments of adjacent seas in
case of events such as pollution.
Example MV Nagasaki Spirit and MV Ocean Blessing collision in
1992 which occurred at the boundary of the Indian Ocean and
the Straits of Malacca.
The Straits of Malacca and Adjacent
Water Bodies
The heavy tanker traffic in the Straits of
Malacca could adversely affect the Indian
Ocean in case of accident.
Ports in the Straits of Malacca also play a role
in the exploitation of resources in the Indian
Ocean. Penang is the main landing port for
tuna caught by Taiwanese vessels in the Indian
Ocean.
With tuna landing increasing since 1993, role of
ports in the Straits of Malacca
is also expected to increase.
Issues in Managing the Straits of Malacca
-
-
-
Environmental Degradation
a perennial problem given rising coastal
population resulting in more pollution and
increasing pressure for more resources especially
fisheries resource
60,000 vessels passing through the Straits yearly
pose a potential threat from accidental oil spills
and intentional discharges
modification and destruction of habitats from
activities such as coastal land reclamation
Issues in Managing the Straits of Malacca
-
Environmental Degradation Symptoms
decline in quality of fisheries landings in the Straits
of Malacca
lower catch-per-unit-effort
loss of mangrove cover:
Malaysia (20 % overall), Indonesia (40% overall),
Thailand (60% overall)
-
increased pollution from land-based
sources
new problems such as introduction of
alien species
Challenges in Managing the Marine
Environment of the Straits of Malacca
-
-
Vessel-based Pollution Prevention
prevention of accidents through traffic
separation scheme and mandatory reporting
preparing for pollution by placing oil spill
control stockpile and national contingency
planning
enforcement and surveillance ongoing but
difficult as it is a factor of traffic volume, size
of sea area and time vs. availability of assets.
Challenges in Managing the Marine
Environment of the Straits of Malacca
-
Land-based Pollution Prevention
population and economic centres produce vast
amount of pollution
infrastructure lacking in general
need to address as a matter of urgency
implement GPA
Challenges in Managing the Marine
Environment of the Straits of Malacca
Biodiversity Conservation
- ecosystems and habitats are being degraded as shown by
mangroves statistics
- loss of biodiversity not monitored
- ecosystem protection could have
lessened impact of recent tsunami
- in parts of Penang mangroves
protected through local community
action helped minimise damage
- sustainable utilisation possible
- Large Marine Ecosystems approach?
Issues in Managing the Straits of Malacca
-
Navigational Safety
shipping is an inherently risky activity
in the Straits of Malacca the risk is multiplied
60,000 times not including cross-straits traffic
20,000 tankers of various types
from 1978 to 2003 888 accidents
have occurred in the Straits of
Malacca
Issues in Managing the Straits of Malacca
Navigational Safety
- piracy or crime at sea is a concern
- terrorism has been identified as a possible
threat
‘Piracy’ Incidents in the Straits of
Malacca and Singapore
• 1994
• 1995
• 1996
• 1997
• 1998
• 1999
• 2000
• 2001
• 2002
• 2003
• 2004
• 2005
6
4
5
5
2
32
80
24
21
30
46
19
A Note on the Role of the User States
User States should contribute to the
management of the Strait of Malacca but
except for Japan, many others are “freeriders”.
An initiative should be started to engage
the user states in discussion on improving
their contribution to the management of
the Strait of Malacca.
Navigational safety should be the focal
point of discussion.
Conclusions to Case Study
The utility of the Straits of Malacca belies its
socio-economic and environmental significance
to coastal States, local communities and its
linkage to adjacent water bodies.
Challenges of managing the Straits of Malacca
are manifold requiring multiple responses.
Unfortunately for the littoral States there is no
‘panacea’ to the problems.
Actions needed at country as well as regional
and international levels.
Cooperation vital but not always forthcoming.
CONCLUSIONS
• The sea is a vital element of Southeast
Asia’s economic, environmental and social
well-being.
• Goods and services are obtained from the
sea by Southeast Asian countries and
other nations:
- trade routes
- fisheries
- non-living resources
• Like any other maritime region, Southeast Asia
•
faces a myriad of maritime issues, principally:
- navigational safety
- security
- environmental degradation
But also:
- lack of uniformity in ratification of
international convention.
- no regional instrument.
- need to improve co-operation in marine
scientific research.
- differing capacity in management.
- transboundary crime.
- natural disasters.
• Various regional projects exist but co-
operation level is still low.
• A new outlook is needed if the seas in
Southeast Asia are to be managed
sustainably.
Thank You