•
Children's game and toy preferences:
A contemporary analysis
Marie E. Bathiche
Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology
McGill University
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A
the~is
submitted
t~
the
Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
of Master of Arts
•
Copyright, 1993.
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ACKNOWLEDGE~S
l am grateful to a number of people for their support and
encouragement during these past two years. First, l would
like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Jeff Derevensky, for his
asisstance and encouragement throughout. Hjs warm
personality and 'easy-going' nature made this experience
an enjoyable and positive one. l would also like to thank
the school principlt·s, Mrs Biro,
l',t".
Zél.patt..a êmd Mr.
Sharara, in the united Arab Emirates for both their
cooperation and involvement in this project. l am indebted
to aIl the children who participated and made t..his study
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possible. To Barbara Graves l wish to express my
appreciation for her valuable statisical advice. Special
thanks go to Amal Broub and my mother,
A~ine
who participated in the data collection.
Bathiche,
Finally, l wish
thank my dearest and best friend, Ziad Sifri, for his
loving support and patience, and my loving family and
friends for their continued encour'''igement and
understanding .
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i
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgernents
............................
i
Table of Contents ........................... ii
List of Tables .............................. i v
Abstract ....................................
v
Resume ...................................... vi
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Chapter l
Introduction ...
Chapter 2
Review of Literature ...........
t
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1
4
Children's 'roy and Game Preferences
4
Gender Differences
Parental Socialization
Biological and Hormonal Influences
7
8
12
Age Differences
14
Cultural Differences
United Arab Emirates
16
(U.A.E.)
Conclusion
Principle Objectives
Chapter 3
Method •....•••...•••...••...
Subjects
Instruments
The dernographic questionnaire
The revised games/toy list
Procedure
Chapter 4
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19
20
21
23
23
25
25
26
26
Reaul ta ..................... .
Current Game Preferences in the U.A.E.
Sex Differences
Developmental Trends
Comparison of children's preferences in the
U.A.B. and ln Canada.
Historical changes in children's gamû/toy
preferences
ii
29
32
36
38
41
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Chapter 5
Discussion .................. .
43
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
References
61
Appendices
68
Appendix
l'.ppendix
Appendix
At.;pendix
A:
B:
C:
D:
The Demographie Questionnaire
The U.A.E. games and toy list
The Canadian games and toy list
The thirty-four popular
games/toys
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iii
68
69
70
71
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LIST OF TABLES
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Table 1.
Demographie characteristics of the
U.A.E. sample .......................... 25
Table 2.
The ten most preferred games in
the U. A. E. . . • . • . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30
Table 3.
Categorization of the seventy
games/toys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30
Table
4.
categorization of the thirty-four
most popular games/toys ................ 31
Table 5.
Differences in males and females
preferences for the top ten games ...... 32
Table 6.
sex-specific and Unisex games/toys ..... 34
Table 7.
Ten games most favored by boys and
girls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35
Table 8.
Games/toys favored by children of
different age groups ................... 36
Table 9.
Twenty- eight games/toys rated
favorably by both oider and younger
children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37
Table 10.
The ten most popuiar games/toys
in the U.A.E. and Canada ............... 39
Table 11.
A comparison of sex preferences in
Canada and U .A. E. . . . • • • • . • . • • • • . . . • • . .. 40
Table 12.
Thirty common games/toys in 1993,
1992 and 1961. . . . . . . • . . • . • . . . . . . . . . . . •. 42
iv
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Abstract
Society's changing norms and cultural values are often
reflected in children's play activities and their choice
of toys and games. Empirical findings have revealed that
children's game preferences are influenced by several
factors including the child' s sex a;"1.d age. The main aim of
this study was to examine the game/toy preferences of
children living in two distinct societies. 'rhe game/toy
preferences of 336 (162 females, 174 males) children
living in a non-Western society, United Arab Emirates
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(U.A.E.),
w~re
examined and compared with the preferences
of 366 children living in Canada. Developmental trends and
sex differences were noted. This study also examined
children's current game/toy preferences in relation to
past reports (Sutton-Smith
&
Rosenberg, 1.961.). Results
suggest that children living in the U.A.E. and in Canada
share similar game/toy preferences however, differences
were found between the game/toy preferences of
contemporary children and those 30 years ago. The data are
analyzed and discussed in the light of societal's changing
norms and
v~lues,
advances in
changes in parenting styles and the
technolo~r.
The pEychological and educational
implications of the present findings are discussed .
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v
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Resumé
Les changements dans les normes et valeurs culturelles de
la société sont souvent reflétés dans les activités
d'amusements des enfants ansi que leurs choix de jouets et
de jeux. Des constatations empiriques ont indiqué que la
préférencé de jeux chez les enfants est iDfluencée par
plusieurs facteurs dont l'âge et le sexe de l'enfant. Le
but principal de
cet~e
étude fut d'éxarniner les
préférences de jeux/jouets des enfants vivants dans deux
sociétés distinctes. Les préférences de jeux/jouets de 336
(162 filJes, 174 garçons) enfants vivant dans une 80ciété
nOll-occidentale, les Emirats Arabes Unis (E.A.U.), ont été
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examiné et comparé a celles de 366 enfants vivants au
Canada. Les tendances dévelopmentales et la difference
entre les sexes furent notés. Cette étude a de plus
comparé les préférences courantes des jeux/jouets des
enfants à celles constatées dans des
é~udes
ultérieures
(Sutton-Smith & Rosenberg, 1961). Les resultats semblent
indiquer que les enfants vivant aux E.A.U. et au Canada
ont les mêmes préférences. Toutefois des différences
furent détectées entre les préférences courantes des
jeux/jouets des enfants relativement
a
celles des enfants
il y a 30 ans. Les observations ont été discuter dans les
contextes des changements relatifs
:.:lUX
nonnes et valeurs
de la société au style d'élever les enfants et à
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l'évolutions de la technologie. Les implications
psychologiques et pédagogiques sont discutées.
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Game Preferences 1
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Toys and games play an important role in both the
development and socialization of children. Through the
manipulatlon of toys and participation in games,
children develop behaviors and attitudes associaLed
with their play experience (Axline, 1974). The play
environment allows children to express their
personality, engage in different roles and develop
their views of the world. Consequently, toys and games
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have an important, albeit indirect, influence on
children. As such, determining children's toy and game
preferences can provide important insight inlo the
child's development (Coury & Wolfgang, 1984).
Various methodologies have been
~~ployed
to assess
children' s play and toy preferences. A number of theorists
and researchers have attempted, indirectly, to identify
children's toyand game preferences by asking parents and
others about children's playactivities (Giddings &
Halverson, 1981). Other researchers, using an experimental
or quasiexperimental approach, have observed the toy
preferences of children during free play situations where
selected toy items were provided (Jacklin, DiPietro &
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Maccoby, 1984; Power, 1985). In contrast, several
researchers have initiated naturalistic studies where
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Game Preferences 2
children were observed in thei r homes (Fagot
Rheingold
&
Cook, 1975 j Smith
1
L974 i
Daglishj 1977). Fi na ll;r
&
1
various studies have directly investigated chi ldrell ' s
preferences by examining their toy requests for Christmas
(e.g. Almqvist, 1989; Bradbard
Richardson
1983;
&
&
Simpson, 1982;
Parkman, 1983; Downs,
Robi nson
&
Morri s,
1986) .
Most of the available research on chi.ldren' s toy /gamE-}
preferences has focused on trying to establish the factors
that influence and deterrnine their choices (Block, 1976;
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Caldera, 1989; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974; Snow et al.,
1983).
General findings arising from such research
suggests that (a) preferences differ between boys and
girls,
(b) children's preferences are developmentally
related and change with age, and (c) children' s play
behavior is partially shaped by parental influences
(Almqvist, 1989; Lytton
&
Romney, 1991; Rubin, l''ein
&
vandenberg, 1983; Weisler, 1976).
Both children's preferences for toys/games and
parental attitudes toward play behavior, develop within a
society and culture. Thus, by considering the society in
which children live and the values it fosters, children's
play preferences can he better understood. rI'he general
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assumption ef Sutten-Smith and Rosenberg (1961), that
children's preferences are reflective of societal values
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Game Preferences 3
and culture, has prompted surprisingly little research and
investigation. Very few recent studies have actually
conducted surveys to examine the overall toy preferences
of children. The empirical findings have revealed that the
types of toys and ganles children prefer reflect the
stereotypes of society at any given time (LO & Derevensky,
1989: Masters, 1990: Sutton-Smith & Rosenberg, 1961:
Weisler, 1976). Thus, by examining the changes in
children's toy and game preferences, subtle changes in
society, culture and child development may be revealed
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(Sutton-Smith, 1961) .
The purpose of this research is (i) to review the
literature on children's toy and game preferences; (ii) to
review the factors that have been found to influence
children's toyand game preferences; (iii) to examine the
current toy and game preferences of children living in a
non-Western society; (iv) to validate the assumption that
children' s preferences serve as convenient markers of
societal's norms and culture by comparing the preferences
of children living in two different societiesj and (v) to
examine the changes that have taken place over time in
children's games by comparing current preferences with
those of past research (Sutton-Smith & Rosenberg, 1961) .
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Garne Preferences 4
CHAPTBR 2
Review of the Literature
Chilâren's Toy and Game Preferences
It is commonly assumed that children's toy
preferences and play characteristics are reflective of
society's changing norms and culture (Masters, 1990;
Sutton-Smith & Rosenberg, 1961). A 1irnited number of
surveys have been conducted over the past century to
determine if significant changes in the favorite games and
play of chi1dren have occurred. The questions raised by
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thls study can be best put in perspective by exarnining the
resu1ts of previous studies within the area.
Historical changes in the game preferences of
children have been extensively examined by Sutton-Smith
and Rosenberg (1961). In their study, the results of four
surveys conducted between 1896 and 1959 were compared and
the play activities that children favored over the
different years were exarnined. Their conclusions were
that: (a) sorne games were 1ess 'favored' by chi1dren
living in 1959 than chi1dren in 1896, (2) sorne games were
as 'popular' in 1959 as they were sixtY years before, (3)
certain games were gaining popularity in 1959, and (4) the
play preferences of girls were becoming more simi1ar to
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those of the boys during the sixtY year period .
A1though it seems inevitable that chi1dren's
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Game Preferences 5
preferences would evolve, due to social changes and the
invention and merchandising of new games, the most
important finding arising out of Sutton-Smith and
Rosenberg's study (1961) concerned the changillg
relationship between the sexes. It had generally been
assumed that boys and girls prefer different games and
activities. However, quantitative analyses of the game
preferences of children between 1898 and 1959 revealed the
growing unanimity between boys and girls. This similarity
was largely brought about by the changes in girl's
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preferences rather than boys .
The increasing incorporation of male preferred toys
and games by females was explained as resulting from the
liberalization of the role of women in North American
society. More recent studies have shown that the trend
toward similarity of play preferences between the sexes
continues to increase (Bensoussan, Bathiche, Catania, Del
Vasto, Marchesee & Derevensky, 1992; Lo & Derevensky,
1989; Mergen, 1991). Many of the traditionally malespecifie games are currently perceived as uniRex
supporting the notion that girls appear to have developed
broader game preferences. It is evident that there has
been a shift in the attitudes and preferences of children
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over the last thirty years and that the narrowing gap
between male and female gender role stereotypes are
(
-
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Game Prefexences 6
reflective of current societal gender-stereotypes and
expectations.
Sutton-Smith and Rosenberg's study (1961), remains the
only systematic comparison of the historical. data. Other
preliminary studies (e.g. Bensoussan et al., 1992; Lo &
Derevensky, 1989; Mergen, 1991) have been conducted but
are not as exhaustive and/or comprehensive. However, a
general finding arising from those studies was that
children's game preferences seemed to reflect societal
stereotypes at the time of the research.
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Changes in children's preferences over the years may
reflect societal changing norms and cultural values.
However, in comparing cross-generational studies there are
persistent methodological concerns which must be addressed
(Sutton-Smith & Rosenberg, 1961). First, each study is
carried out in a different gecgraphical locale. Second,
certain characteristics of the
s~~e,
such as the age
range vary in each study. Third, different methodologies
and techniques are employed by each study. Due to these
methodological issues, which may result in differences
between the studies, generalizations regarding historical
changes must be carefully and critically interpreted.
It is esseI.'tii=ll to consider how children's toy and
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game preferences develop since examining preferences in
isolation without taking into account the factors that
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Game Preferences 7
underlie those preferences, represents an incomplete
picture. The development of toy and game preferences is
influenced by a complex network of biological, social and
cultural factors.
Gender Differences
One of the factors that appears to influence
children's toy preferences is their gender. Children
reliably make gender-typed toy choices and display sextyped behavior by 18-24 months of age (Fagot, 1974i
Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974; Smith & Daglish, 1977).
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Researchers have consistently dernonstrated that
children tend to request gender appropriate toys
(Downs, 1983: Robinson & Morris, 1986) and that they
play with these toys rather than those stereotyped for
the opposite sex (Bradley, 1989: Caldera, 1989: Carter
& Levy, 1988: O'Brien & Huston, 1985).
The reason why children display early sex
differences in their toy preferences may be explained
by two major theories of socialization. According to
cognitive developmental theorists (Kohlberg, 1966:
Kohlberg & Ullian, 1974), children imitate same sex
models and engage in sex typed behavior which they
regard appropriate and consistent with their own gender
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identity. However, before the age of three, children do
not show much awareness of their own gender identity
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Game Preferences 8
(Thompson, 1975), thus, a cognitive developmentaJ
perspective can not solely explain the existence of
sex-typed play behaviors in toddlers and preschool
children.
A more plausible explanation for early sex typed
preferences has been suggested by social learning
theorists (Mischel, 1966, 1970). rncorporating this
theoretical framework, behavior is regarded as being
learned through modeling and reinforcement. In the
.,
domain of play, parents may directly influence their
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children's toy choices by selecting toys stereotypical
of the child's gender (Eisenberg et al., 1985; Snow,
1983; Tauber, 1979). Furthermore, parents appear to
reward children for sex appropriate behavior and punish
them for inappropriate behavior (Maccoby & Jacklin,
1974; Tauber, 1979). Thus, according te the social
learning theorists, the ideas of parents and their
reinforcing of 'appropriate' play behavior influences
children's toy and game preferences.
Parental Socialization. The view that sex-typed
behavior is brought about through direct shaping by
parents is widely held and accepted (Block, 1983; Huston,
1983; Jacklin, DiPietro, & Maccoby, 1984). Parents
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encourage sex-typed play and interests and discourage sex
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Game Preferences 9
inappropriat8 behaviors (Fagot, 1978; Maccoby & Jacklin,
1974). Langlois and Downs (l980) found that both mothers
and fathers rewarded 3 and 5 year olds for same sex toy
play. However, play behavior inconsistent with the child's
gender was reprimanded by parents (Tauber, 1979).
Although parents may 'directly' influence their
children's toy choices through rewards and
punislli~ents,
theyalso exert an 'indirect' influence through their
expectations. Pa.rents appear to have different
expectations regarding the personalities of their sons and
•
daughters (t-1accoby
&
Jacklin, 1974 i Rubin, provenzano,
&
Luria, 1974). They tend to assume the presence of
physical, psychological and social differences between
their children on the basis of their biological sex
(peretti
&
Sidney, 1984). Furthermore, parents expect
girls to be more gentle, delicate and less vigorous than
boys, while they expect boys to be more boisterous, strong
and active (Bloch, 1987 i Ma.cDonald,
&
Parke, 1986). As a
result of these expectations boys and girls are treated
differently.
An
interesting finding is that, although parents
have different expectations for their children, thel'e
appears to be greater pressure on boys rather than girls
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to behave in s8x-typed ways (Fagot, 1978; Lytton, &
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Game Preferences 10
Romney, 1991; Margolin, 1975). Researchers have
consistently found that girls' toy preferences are broader
than that of boys' with girls more likely to play with
masculine toys whereas boys fail to play with feminine
toys (Eisenberg et al., 1982; Fagot & Littinan, 1975;
Sutton-Smith, 1961). Almqvist (1989) found that boys were
more likely to request sex appropriate toys whereas girls
tended to request fe", sex- specifie toys. This finding is
consistent with other studies. For example, it was
observed that even at 20 months of age parents tend to
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provide their female infants with a variety of female as
weIl as male-specifie toys while this was not observed
among parents of male ehildren (Fein, Johnson, Koson, &
Wasserman, 1975).
The :ceason why parents exert greater pressure on
males to behave in ways consistent with their own gender
is not clearly understood. It may be due to the
possibility that society permits greater latitude for
girls to behave like boys than for boys to behave like
girls. This would lend credence to the assumption that
children' s preferences refleet soeietaJ values and
stereotypes (Sutton-Smith & Rosenberg, 1961). The changing
role of women in society may inf luence the manner in which
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parents slJcialize their children; thus, resulting in
broader play preferences for females.
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Game preferences Il
A revie:'l of the literature on the development of
sex-typed play reveals that not only do parents display
differential treatment of their
som~
and daughters, as
weIl as exert greater pressure on boys, but furthermore
therc is a difference between fathers and mothers in
their socialization practices (Lytton, & Romney, 1991;
Maccoby, 1974). Mothers have been traditionally seen as
the principal agents of socialization. However, more
recently, the central role of fathers in sex typing has
been recognized (Brenes, 1985; Lamb, 1982; Russel,
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1978). Interestingly, children whose fathers are absent
from the home tend to make less stereotypical choices
of toys and activities than those present
(Hetherington, Cox, & Cox, 1979; Santrock, 1970;
Stevenson & Black, 19G8). Furthermore, fathers tend to
purchase more sex-typed toys for children (FisherThompson, 1990, Palkovitz, 1984) and are more likely to
be punitive towards children for sex-inappropriate
behavior (Tauber, 1979). Thus, it appears that fathers
remain more concerned about their children's sex-typed
behavior and exert greater pressure than mothers (Lamb,
1982) .
In summary, based on adult's reactions to children's
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toy choices, it is evident that they ha,re specifie views
concerning the sex appropriateness of children's toys
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Game Preferences 12
(Masters & Wilkinson, 1976; Miller, 1987; Thompson, 1990).
Parents view particular toys as being more appropriate for
children af one sex rather than the other (Thompson,
1990). Furthermore, early sex-typed toy preferences
appear, ta a great extent, to be a reflection of parent's
sex-typed views.
Final~y,
children's preferences may be
influenced by parental purchases (Bradbard & Parkman,
1985). peretti and Sidney (1984) found that children two
to three years of age had toy preferences that were
strongly associated with their parent's chaices. Thus,
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children's toy choices appear to mirror parental
purchasing patterns.
Biolagical and Hormonal Influences. Although
parents appear to contribute to children's early sextyped toy preferences, another possibility is that
parents may simply be responding to their children's
preexisting innate tendencies toward particular
preferences. This is referred to as the 'evocative
genotype-environment effect' (Scarr & McCartney, 1983),
where the child"
& ~enotype
may elicit different
responses from the environment. Studies that support
such a notion have shown that 12-18 month ald infants
displayed greater preference and involvement when toys
•
were consistent with their own gender (Caldera, Huston
& O'Brien, 1989; Snow, Jacklin & Maccoby, 1983).
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Game Preferences 13
Parents, by providing sex-typed toys, might merely be
responding to the genetic predisposition of their
children.
Further evidence that children's sex-typed
preferences may be due to a biological component has
been supported by hormonal studies (congenital adrenal
hyperplasia). It has been observed that girls who are
exposed to heightened levels of male hormones
prenatally show greater preferences for male sex-typed
toys in childhood (Berenbaum & Hines, 1989). On the
•
other hand, the levels of prenatal testosterone were
found to be related to sex-specific activities in boys
(Finegan, Bartleman, Zacher & Mervyn, 1989). These
findings tend to support the possibility of parents
reinforcing preferences rather than creating them.
The presence of a biological component related to
the sex-typed preferences of children does not I,reclude
the importance of socialization practices in
influencing children's preferences. Although a genetic
predisposition may be contributing to children's sextyped preferences, parents nevertheless influence their
children's preferences. Children may be allowed to
express their own desires and wishes, however, it is
•
the parents who make the final purchasing decisions
(Rheingold & Cook, 1975).
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Game Preferences 14
The origin of sex differences in children's t.oy
preferences can not be exactly delineated. The sextyped views of parents, their actual purchasing
patterns and the biological predisposition of children
mayall contribute to children's sex differences. None
of these factors in isolation offers a complete
explanation of the development of sex-typed preferences
and the exact contribution of each factor can not be
precisely known. In general, it can be concluded that
boys' preferences differ from that of girls' and the
•
implication of this on children's cognitive and social
development must be considered.
Age Differences
Age is another factor that influences children's
toy and game
pr~ferences.
Research on developmental
changes in children's play preferences is very limited.
However, the structural changes in the play of children
has been discussed by several theorists (piaget, 1962;
Vygotsky, 1967).
The structural properties of children's play,
change with and reflect their development (Peller,
1952; Piaget, 1962; Vygotsky, 1967). Piaget (1962)
noted that an increase in cognitive competence results
•
in an increase in the complexity of play. As the child
develops cognitively, parallel changes occur in the
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Game Preferences 15
structure of his play. A summary of how play changes
structurally, might help understand children's
preferences at different ages.
According to Piaget (1962), pretend play dominates
the behavior of preoperational children (2 - 7 years).
Interactive pretend play increases with age and
declines during late kindergarten and early elementary
school years. However, solitary pretend play increases
during the early first grade years. Consequently, as
the child becomes cognitively sophisticated these
•
pretend activities are eventually replaced by more
complex games. During the concretE!! operational years
(7 - 12 years) children tend to increasingly engage in
games with rulesj thus, depicting their increased
cognitive sophistication.
An interesting question is whether children's
preferences reveal certain developmental trends.
Research has indicated that children's preferences
change as they mature from toddlers to school children
(Vieira & Miller, 1978). Studies have shown that, while
toys dominate the request of first graders, non-toy
items are requested by fourth graders (Almqvist, 1989).
By the age of 10 children may in fact be interested in
•
things other than tOYSj thus, suggesting a change in
the complexity of their play.
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Game Preferences 16
Sutton-Smith and Rosenberg (1961) described,
developmentally, the types of games in which children
engage. As such, sorne games were found to be played by
younger children while others characterized the play of
older children. For example, children under the age of
nine engage in imitative, singing, dialogue, leader,
and chasing gamesj whereas, individual and physical
skills, skilled pastimes, board and card games, and
major team sports were found to characterize the play
of children above 10 years of age. This finding lends
•
credence to the belief that as children develop their
preferences change becoming more complex in nature and
consisting of games rather than toys.
CUltural differences
The final factor which requires consideration in the
examination of children's toy and
ga~me
preferences is the
influential role of one's society and culture. Societies
and cultures differ widely in the socialization of infants
and children (Whiting & Child, 1953). However, most of the
knowledge of children and socialization has been generated
in Western societies. The development of human behaviors,
attitudes and values is greatly influenced by the society
and culture in which individuals live (Segall, 1990).
•
Thus, it would be unreasonable to assume that Western
children are representative of children around the world.
•
Game Preferences 17
Values and beliefs are fundamental to individuals and
differ cross-culturally. Hofstede (1983) identified
certain value dimensions on which aIl nations could be
compared and these are useful as a way of examining how
child rearing and socialization are influenced. For
example, societies which value success and achievement
(e.g. Japan) as opposed to interpersonal relations (e.g.
Sweden) tend to be more restrictive in their child-rearing
methods, placing greater pressure on children to succeed
and perform. Similarly, a society which fosters and values
•
individualism (e.g. USA) as opposed to collectivism (e.g •
Singapore) will vary in the way the children are
socialized (Alcock, Carment & Sadava, 1988; Hofstede,
1983) .
Cross-cultural investigators have identified several
parameters of socialization experiences that vary across
cultures. One important variable that exists in aIl
cultures but differs cross-culturally, is the raIe of the
family in the socialization of children (Bronfenbrenner,
1967) .
Family, is a concept that is universally
meaningful and valid. However, the detail of family
life varies greatly between cultures. The behaviors,
•
attitudes and beliefs that are valued by a specifie
society and culture are likely to be instilled in
•
Game Preferences 18
children by their parents. As such, methods of child
rearing and parental expectations will differ crossculturally. In Mexico and India parents expect obedient
children whereas in Canada and the United States,
children are taught and encouraged to be independent.
These culturally different child-rearing methods may,
in turn, influence the toys which parents regard as
appropriate and subsequently purchase for their
children.
A
•
society or culture in which family structure and
relationships are remarkably different than in Western
societies is the Middle East. Middle Eastern families
emphasize family solidarity and commitment, and display
greater interdependence than American families. In
Middle Eastern culture the social life, services, and
personal support that individuals receive depends
strongly on family connections (Bliram
&
Schwarzwa1d,
1987). Further.more, Middle Eastern families disp1ay
more restrictive and conservative socialization
practices. Fewer opportunities are given for the
development of autonomy in the child. Studies have
shown that Middle Eastern children enjoy 1ess freedom
and are more obedient than Western children. Final1y,
•
Middle Eastern families are larger than Western ones
and child-rearing becomes a shared responsibility
•
Game Preferences 19
allocated to aIl members of the family (Eliram
&
Schwarzwald, 1987).
The impact of culturally different family values
and child-rearing methods is likely to influence the
toys and games with which children play. As discussed
earlier, children's play preferences are reflective of
parental attitudes and preferences. However, despite
the significance of this, very few studies have
examined and compared the game and toy preferences of
children living in different societies and cultures.
•
Most of the knowledge on the game preferences of
children has been generated from research on children
in Western settings. The extent to which children
display sex differences in their game preferences and
the types of toys which children favor is likely to
vary cross-culturally.
The present study attempts to investigate how
environmental and cultural circumstances might affect
children's game preferences by comparing the
preferences of Canadian children and children living in
the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.).
United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.). The U.A.E. is a
small country, along the eastern persian Gulf coast of
•
the Arabian Peninsula. The discovery of ail resulted in
a considerable influx of expatriates between 1968 and
- -------
------------------------------c....,.,~..,..
•
Game preferences 20
1985 (Ghanem, 1992). The population in the U.A.E. is
approximately 1.6 million with three quarters being
foreigners, mainly Europeans, Middle-Easterners and
Asians. As a result of the greater heterogeneity of
population and frequent opportunity for inter-ethnie
contact the effect of acculturation is ameliorated.
The
U .A. E.
and Canada make an interesting
comparison in regard to their game preferences. Both
countries are highly industrialized and have a diverse
ethnic population. However many influences within the
•
U.A.E.
(e.g. religion, political power and economics)
tend to make it more traditional in terms of its family
values and attitudes. Furthennore, the prodigality of
oil has resulted in the U.A.E. being an affluent
society consisting entirely of individuals from middleto-high socio-economic backgrounds.
Conclusion
From the above review it appears that children's
preferences are influenced by a multitude of factors.
Childhood characteristics (e.g., sex and age),
biological predispositions and parental shaping aIl
seem to contribute and inf luence children 1 s toy and
game preferences. However, a factor which is likely to
•
supersede and influence the above mentioned factors is
the role of society and the values it fosters at any
•
Game Preferences 21
given time. Children's preferences, what parents regard
as appropriate, and what they actually purchase for
their children are aIl likely to be influenced by what
a certain society and culture regards as appropriate.
The extent of sex and age differences in children's
preferences is similarly influenced by societal
stereotypes and cultural values at any given time. The
f
inâing that sex differences in children' s game
preferences has decreased, provides credence to the
above belief that it is societal influences which is
•
the maj or force behind such changes .
Principle Objectives
The principal aim of this study is to examine the
game/toy preferences of children living in a
non-Wes~ern
society and to compare these with the preferences of
Canadian children. Since no other studies have examined
children's play preferences in non-Western societies, the
present study will largely be exploratory in nature. Sorne
of the questions intrinsic to the design of this study
comprise the following: (a) what are the current
preferences of children living in a non-Western society
(i.e. U.A.E.)? (b) to what extent do the preferences of
boys and girls living in the U.A.E. differ? (c) are there
•
developmental differences in the preferences of children
living in the U.A.E.? and (d) how do the above aspects of
•
Game Preferences 22
children's preferences differ from the preferences of
children living in a
•
•
W~stern
society (i.e. Canada)?
•
Game preferences 23
CBAPTBR 3
Ml..:.hod
Subjects
Two samples were used in the present study: (a) a
sample from the united Arab Emirates (U.A.E.), and (b)
a sample from Canada.
The U.A. E. sample consisted of three hundred and
thirty-six elementary school children (l62 females, l74
males) enrolled in grades 2 through 6. The chi ldren ,
whose ages ranged between 7 and
•
II
years were
predominantly Caucasians and from middle-to-high socioeconomic backgrounds.
The U.A.E. sample was recruited from four private
schools located in the city of Dubai in the U.A.E. The
schools included were: (a) The French school,
English school,
(b) "('he
(c) The Armenian school, and (d) The
Dubai International school. Although children of
diverse nationalities attended each of the schools,
enrollment in a particular school depended primarily on
the second language offered. In aIl four schools the
primary language of instruction was English.
'l'wo criteria had to be met for a child to be
included in the final sample: (i) both parents had to
•
be living in the same house as the childj and (ii)
children had to have been living in the U.A.E. for at
•
Game Preferences 24
least 2 years. Only seven children failed to satisfy
the abave criteria and were excluded from the original
sample.
The sample initially consisted of 31 different
nationalities which were then collapsed into six
groups. The final sample was comprised of:
(a) Middle
Easterners (N=135), (b) Europeans (N=llB),
(c)
~nericans
(N-12),
(d) Lacals (N=5B),
(e) North Africans
(N=3), and (f) Asians (N=10). The demographic
characteristics of the U.A.E. sample are presented in
•
Table
1 .
The
U.A.E.
sample was compared ta a Canadian sample
obtained from four schoals located in a suburb of Montreal
in Canada. The subjects consisted of 366 elementary school
children (185 boys, 181 girls) enrolled in grades 2
through 6. The children, who ranged in age from 7 to 11
years, were predominantly English speaking Caucasians from
low-middle ta upper-middle socioeconomic backgrounds. The
Canadian data has been previously reported (Bensoussan,
Bathiche, Catania, Del vasto, Marchese & Derevensky,
1992) .
•
•
Game Preferences 25
Table l.
Demographie characteristies of the
U.A.
Male
Female
7
8
Gander
Age
Il
174
162
65
82
105
66
18
Middle-Easterners
Europeans
Locals
Amerieans
Asians
North-Afrieans
International
English School
French School
Armenian School
135
118
58
12
10
3
138
123
51
24
9
10
National! ty
•
School
TOTAL N
.
E. sample
336
Instruments
Two questionnaires were employed in the present
study: (a) a demographie/background
~Jestionnaire,
and (b)
a revised games list.
The demographie/background auestionnaire is an 8-item
instrument developed by the author to obtain information
regarding the child's age, gender, grade level,
•
nationality, parental marital status, time spent in the
U.A.E. as weIl as the child's primary toy buyer. The
demographic/ background questionnaire was completed by the
•
Game Preferences 26
child with the help of a teacher when necessary (see
Appendix A) .
The revised games list consisted of 62 different
items, initially compiled in Canada (Bensoussan et al.,
1992) and revised by the author in a pilot study conducted
in the U.A.B. to yield a list of 70 items. This list was
used to evaluate children's prefarences for specifie toys
and games. It was further revised to take into account the
discrepancy which lnight exist between games favored by
children in the U.A.E. and children in Canada (see
•
Appendix B
&
C) .
Procedure
The procedure consisted of two steps: (a) the
compilation of a revised games list, and (b) the
administration of the revised games list to evaluate
children's preferences for specifie games.
In an initial pilot testing, 50 elementary school
children attending a private school in Dubai (U.A.E.) were
requested to list aIl the games/toys with which they are
familiar. AlI responses were then compiled. A total of 130
toys/games were reported. Variations of the popular video
games (e.g. Mario Brothers, Tetrus, etc.) were collapsed
into a single category (i.e. Nintendo). A pre-set
•
criterion was used, requiring that at least 10% of the
sample must have reported the game for it to be included
•
Game Preferences 27
in the final liste Cons equently, 70 items were eliminated
due to failure to meet the pre"set criteria. Finally, the
60 rernaining games/toys derived were combined with the
games list used in a previous study (Bensoussan et al.,
1992), to yield a 'revised' games list consisting of 70
games of which 59 were common.
Prior to conducting the actual study, each of the
school principals sent a cover letter and a consent form
to the parents explaining the rationale of
th~
study and
requesting participation l)f their children. When parental
•
agreement was obtained the questionnaires were then
administered during class-time with the cooperation of the
teachers.
Children were initially asked to complete the
demographie/background questionnaire. Older children (9-11
years) were able to complete the information
independently, however, younger children (7-9 years)
required assistance. Any demographic information which
children failed to provide was obtained from other
reliable sources such as school records or the child's
parents.
Upon complet ion of the demographic questiormaire the
revised games list was then given to the 336 children.
•
They were asked to rate their preferences for each game by
indicating whether they like or do not like the game
•
Garoe Preferences 28
using the following syrnbols: '+', or '0' respectively.
Children in the lower grades received assistance, whenever
necessary, from both their homeroom teacher and the
author. AlI children were reminded that they had to
complete the entire list and were net permitted to discuss
their respcnses with other classmates.
AlI children's names were replaced by a code number
to ensure confidentiality. The data obtained was then
coded by the author .
•
•
•
Game Preferences
2~
CHAPTBR 4
Results
Current Garoe Preferences in the U.A.E.
Cross tab analyses were conducted to reveal
children's preferences for each of the 70 games/toys
comprising the revised list. Each item was initially rank
ordered based on the sample's preference for each game/toy
and then classified into 'popular' versus 'less popular'.
Games/toys reported to be liked by 50 percent or more of
the entire sample (N=336) were designated as being
•
'popular' while those favored by less than 50 percent were
denoted as being 'less popular'. This procedure yielded 34
'popular' and 36 'less popular' games/toys. The top 10
games/toys that were reported to be most favored by the
entire sample are depicted in Table 2. (For a complet.e
list see Appendix D) .
All games/toys in the present study were categorized
into seven types (see Table 3). Six of these categories
were previously established by Sutton-Smith and Rosenberg
(1961). However, a new category of "computer games" was
added since they were widely reported by contemporary
children. The number of games/toys within each category
can be seen in Table 3 .
•
•
Game Preferences 30
Table 2
The ten most preferred games in the U.A.E.
•
GAMES
PERCENTAGE *
Swimming
91.07
Reading
81.28
Nintendo
80.36
Drawing
79.17
Gameboy
78.57
Monopoly
77.38
Tennis
76.19
Basketball
75.60
Skating
74.11
Cards
73.81
* percent age of children reporting a preference.
Table 3
Categorization of the seventy games
CATEGORIES
•
PERCENTAGE
N
Board & card games 18
25.7
Make-believe games 15
21.4
rndividual skill
14
20.0
Maj or sports
12
L7 .2
Skilled pastimes
4
5.7
Computer games
4
5.7
Chasinq qames
TOTAL
3
4.3
70
100
•
Game Preferences 31
An in-depth qualitative analysis of the specifie
categories of the 34 'popular' games was performed. The
majority of 'popular' games could be grouped into three
categories: skilled pastimes (e.g., roller skating and
skiing), major sports (e.g., football and
basketball) and
board and card games (e.g., Monopoly and cards). The
remaining popular games consisted of individual skills
(e.g., skipping and racing), computer games (e.g.,
Nintendo and Gameboy), make-believe games (e.g., school
and Magic Trolls) and chasing games (e.g., hide & seek).
•
The number of popular games in each category are presented
in Table 4.
Table 4
Categorization of the thirty four most popular games
CATEGORY
Skilled pastimes
•
N
Percentage
Il
32.4
Major Sports
7
20.6
Board & card games
6
17.6
Computer games
4
Il.8
Individual skill
3
8.8
Make-believe
2
5.9
Chasinq qames
1
2.9
•
Game Preferences 32
Sex Differences in children's game preferences.
The 70 games/toys were rank ordered and the
la
games/toys that were found to be most favored by the
entire sample were examined for gender differences. A chi
square analysis was conducted for each of
th~
la
top
games to deter.mine sex differences (see Table 5) .
Table 5
Differences in males and females preferences for the top
ten games
•
p
MALE
(%)
FEMALE
TOTAL
N2.
(%)
(%)
VALUE
Swimming
89.66
92.59
91.07
4.12
ns
Reading
74.71
88.27
81. 25
15.45
.001
Nintendo
90.23
69.75
80.36
24.56
<.001
Drawing
71.84
87.04
79.17
17.67
.001
Gameboy
85.63
70.99
78.57
11.27
.001
Monopoly 75.86
79.01
77.38
3.03
ns
Tennis
79.31
72.84
76.19
3.33
ns
BasketbaIl
Skating
86.21
64.20
75.60
24.41
<.001
71.26
77.16
74.11
10.90
ns
Cards
71.84
75.93
73.81
1. 59
ns
GAME
Out of the 10 games reported to be most favored by
the sample, there were five games on which males and
females significantly differed. Males reported a
•
significantly greater preference for games such as
Nintendo (p<.OOl), Gameboy (p<.005)
(a hand-held version
•
Game Preferences 33
of Nintendo) and basketball (p<.OOl), whereas females
reported a greater preference for drawing (p<.005) and
reading (p<.005).
Male-specifie, Female-specific and Unisex games.
Cross tab analyses were conducted ta reveal differences in
children's preferences for each of the 70 games. A
particular game was considered to be male-specifie if 50
percent or more of the males reported that they liked the
game, and female-specific if 50 percent or more of
females indicated that they liked the game. Games that
•
more than 50 percent of both sexes reported a preference
for were categorized as unisexe This procedure resulted in
a list of 14 male-specifie games (20%), 5 female-specific
games (7.1%) and 26 unisex games (41.4%) (see Table 6).
An
in-depth qualitative analysis of the specifie
categories of sex-specific and unisex games was perfor.med.
Overall, male-specifie games are competitive (e.g.,
football), rough (e.g., wrestling) and performanceoriented in nature (e.g., golf). They primarily consist of
sports related activities, games requiring physical
ability and pretend play activities. In contrast, femalespecifie games are more cooperative (e.g., skipping), non
competitive in nature, placing emphasis on verbal
•
expression and fantasy play (e.g., dolls) .
•
Game Preferences 34
Table 6
Sex-specific and Unisex games
MALE-SPECIFIC
FEMALE-SPECIFIC
llNISEX
Football
Baseball
Soccer-baseball
Golf
Guns
Flsh
Ninja turtles
Sakhr computer
Batman
Hockey
Surfing
Cricket
wrestling
Bingo
Magic tro Us
Barbie
Skipping
Dolls
Tag
Swilluning
Rcading
Drawing
School
Monopoly
Skflt i ng (',1rrh~
•
H ide ,<;, RCf'k
RollE'r Hkflt inq
Tennis
Gameboy
Racing
Snakes III LaddorB
Nintenùo
Basketball
VolJeybaJl
Scrabble
l.ego
Skatc-boanJ
Cyc llng
Snow-skilng
Frisbee
Remote control ('iU"
Water ski ing
Chcss
Seqa
Similarity between the sexes preferences. All 70
games were arranged by rank order of preference for males
and females separately. A rank order correlation
(Spearman's r) was conducted to examine unanimity in the
sexes game/toy preferences. Correspondence between the
sexes was r
=
.60 suggesting that the game/toy preferences
of males and females are moderately similar.
Although the large number of unisex games and the
•
correlation between the sexes in their game/toy
•
Game preferences 35
preferences indicates concordance among the sexes in their
preferences, there remains differences in the games
favored by males and females. Games were arranged by rank
order of preference for males and females separately and
the game preferences for each sex was examined. The ten
games that were reported to be most favored by both boys
and girls can be se:en in Table 7 .
Table 7
Ten games most favored by boys and girls
•
MALES
(N=174)
TOTAL
PERCENT
FEMALES
(N=162)
TOTAL
PERCENT
Nintendo
90.23
Swirmning
92.59
Swimming
89.60
Reading
88.27
Basketball
86.21
Drawing
87.04
Gameboy
85.63
School
80.25
Remote- cars
85.06
Monopoly
79.01
Football
82.76
Skating
77.16
Tennis
79.31
Cards
75.93
Skateboard
77.59
Hide & seek
74.69
Racing
77.01
ROllerskating 74.07
Monopoly
75.86
Tennis
72.84
Out of the 10 games reported to be favored by each
sex, three games were cornmon among both boys and girls:
•
swimming, Monopoly and tennis. The remaining games
preferred by males consisted primarily of sports {e. g.,
,
•
Game Preferences 36
football and basketba11) and computer games (e.g., Gameboy
and Nintendo). Fema1es, converse1y, appear to prefer
skilled pastime activities (e.g., reading and drawing) an1
games that are collaborative-bas,ed (e.g., cards and hide
and seek).
Develqpmenta1 Trends in Cbildren's Game Preferences
Cross tab analyses were conducted to reveal trends in
children's game/toy preferences as a function of their
developmenta1 age. Games/toys that were favorably rated by
50 percent or more of children within a certain age group
•
were considered to be popu1ar among that age group. For
purposes of analysis, children were divided into two age
groups: {il younger children, who were between the ages of
seven and less than 10, and (ii) older children, who were
between 10 and Il years of age.
Evident developmental trends were noted for specifie
games/toys. Out of the 70 games, 16 were found to be
differential1y favored depending on the chi1d's age
(see Table 8).
A1though sorne of the games/toys were genera11y
found to be 1ess popular by the sample, different results
were obtained when the chi1d's age was considered. For
examp1e, imitative games and toys which do not require
•
considerable physica1 skil1 such as 'p1aying do11s' and
'guns' are favorab1y rated by younger children but as
•
Game Preferences 37
chi1dren get older they lose their popularity. As weIl, as
chi1dren get older more complex games, in particular
sports related activities requiring well-developed
physical and motor ski11s gain popu1arity.
Table 8
Games favored by children of different age groups
•
YOUNGER CHILDREN
OLDER CHILDREN
(ages 7 to 9~;-=11~)________.__-r~(=a~es~1~0~&~o~1~d=e=r~)__________~1
Barbie
Catchba1l
Dol1s
wrest1ing
Guns
Cricket
Magic Trolls
Hockey
Mousetrap
Dodgeball
Sakhr computer
Operation
Skipping
Poker
Tag
Surfin
However, despite these age-related preferences
further analyses revealed that out of the 70 items, 28
were found to be popular among both aIder and younger
chi1dren (see Table 9).
Table 9
Twenty eight games rated favorably by both aIder and
younger children
•
Basketball
Cards
Cycling
Drawing
Fish
Football
Frisbee
Gameboy
Golf
Hide & Seek
Lego
Monopoly
Nintendo
Racing
Reading
Remote Control Cars
Roller Skating
Sega
Scrabble
School
Skateboard
skating
Snakes & Ladders
Snow Skiing
Swimming
Tennis
Volley- baIl
Water- Skiing
-----,
•
Game preferences 38
An examination of the results suggests that children
appear to like a
v~riety
of games from an early
age. Young children indicate a preference for specifie
team sport activities, board games, skilled pastime
activities and these games developmentally maintain their
popularity.
A comparison of children's preferences in the U.A.E.
and Canada.
The 60 common games were arranged by rank order of
•
preference for the Canadian and U.A.E. sample separately.
Both samples were matched for age, with individuals
ranging in age from 7 to 11 years. A rank order
correlation (Spearman's r) was conducted to examine the
extent to which the two samples were concordant in their
preferences. Correspondence between the samples was
r
=
.73 indicating
relat~vely
high agreement in the
preferences of children living in Canada and children
residing in the U.A.E. The 10 games most favored by each
sample are depicted in Table 10.
Out of the 10 games reported to be favored by each
group, eight games were identical. While children in
Canada (Montreal) reported to favor cycling and bowling,
•
children in the U.A.E. indicated a preference for tennis
and Gameboy.
•
•
Game Preferences 39
Table 10
The ten most popular games in the U.A.E. and Canada
U.A.E.
(N=336)
CANADA
(N=366)
Swimming
Swirnming
Reading
Cards
Nintendo
Nintendo
Drawing
Skating
Gameboy
Cycling
Monopoly
Basketball
Tennis
Drawing
Basketball
Reading
Skating
Bowling
Cards
Monopoly
Sex differences. Games were arranged by rank order of
preference for males and females in the Canadian sample. A
rank order correlation (Spearman's r) was conducted to
examine the extent to which the sexes were cognate in
their preferences. Correspondence between the sexes was
r = .59 indicating a similarity in the preferences of
males and females. This correlation is almost identical to
that found for the U.A.E. children where the correlation
between the sexes in their game preferences was found to
•
be r = .60. The ten games that were most favored by boys
and girls in each group are presented in Table 11.
•
•
Game preferences 40
Table Il
A comparison of sex preferences in Canada and U.A.E.
CANADA (N=185)
MALES
U.A.E. (N=174)
MALES
CANADA (N=181)
FEMALES
U.A.E. (N=162)
FEMALES
Basketball
Nintendo
Swinuning
Swinuning
Nintendo
Swimming
Reading
Reading
Soccer
Basketball
Cards
Drawing
Swimming
Gameboy
Skating
School
Football
Remote-cars
Drawing
Monopo]y
Hockey
Football
Cycling
Skating
Soccerbasebal Tennis
Nintendo
Cards
Dodgeball
Skateboard
Bowling
Hide & Seek
Skating
Racing
Monopoly
Rollerskating
Skiing
Monopoly
Skipping
Tennis
An
exarnination of the sexes preferences in both
countries indicates that although similar games are liked
by boys and girls sorne differences are evident. For
example, boys in Canada indicated a preference for games
and activities such as skiing, skating, dodgeball,
soccer-baseball, hockey and football, whereas males in the
U.A.E. preferred games and activities such as Monopoly,
racing, skateboarding, tennis, Garneboy and remote control
cars.
Similarly, the girls preferences differed with
•
respect to certain games. For example, girls in Canada
reported a greater preference for garnes and activities
,.., -
,
~' ~
•
Garne Preferences 41
such as skipping, bowling, Nintendo and Cycling whereas
girls in the U.A.E. indicated a greater preference for
'hide and seek', "pretend" school, roller-skating and
tennis.
Historical changes in children's 9ame/tqy preferences.
Children's game preferences in Canada and in the
U.A.E. were also compared to preferences of children three
decades aga (Sutton-Smith & Rosenberg, 1961). The 30 games
that were found to be common to aIl three studies were
arranged by rank order of preference and rank order
•
correlations (spearman's r) were conducted to examine the
extent of which children's preferences were analogous. A
correlation of r
= .24 was obtained between the
preferences of children in the U.A.E. and children in
Sutton-Smith and Rosenberg's study (196l) and a
correlation of r
= .44 was obtained between the
preferences of children in Canada and the American
children studied in 1961. Conversely, a correlation of
r
= .70 was obtained between children's preferences in the
U.A.E. and in Canada. The 30 games common to aIl three
studies are rank ordered and can be seen in Table 12.
An
•
examination of the results reveals that while
sorne of the garne/toys have gained popularity over the
years (e.g., skiing, soccer, drawing) other games/toys are
no longer as popular (e.g., cowboys, checkers, tag).
•
Game Preferences 42
Finally, sorne of the games popular tl1irty years age have
currently retained their popularity (e.g., swimming,
cards, basketball)
Table 12
30 Common games in 1993, 1992 and 1961
GAMES
U.A.E.
swimming
drawing
monopoly
tennis
basketbal
skating
cards
racing
school
rollerska
hide-seek
vOlleybal
soccer
cycling
chess
skiing
scrabble
baseball
fish
skipping
bingo
tag
cludo
house
doctor
wrestle
dOdgeball
dolls
check ers
cowbovs
91.07*
79.17*
77.38*
76.19*
75.60*
74.11*
73.81*
73.81
70.24
68.15*
67.86*
66.07*
61 .90
58.63*
58.33
55.65
55.36
55.06*
53.87*
50.00*
48.51
45.54
40.48
38.39
36.90
35.12
34.82
34.23
33.04
31.55
GAMES
CANADA
swimming
cards
skating
cycling
basketball
drélwing
monopoly
dodgeball
skiing
vol]eyball
racing
tennis
soccer
rollerskat
baseball
tag
checkers
hide-seek
chess
bingo
scrabble
wrestle
cludo
fish
skipping
school
doctor
house
cowboys
dolls
91.26*
89.34*
86.0'1*
86.07 *
84.70*
84.16*
81.15*
79.51
78.14
75.96*
75./j 1*
74.04*
72.13
71.58*
71. 04*
(%)
•
U.S.A.
ing
hide-seek
laq
swimlllinq
cl!ecker8
HH.~~!:>*
(% )
(% )
-
70.49
68.85
63.91*
63.93
63.11
~9.02
54.10
53.81
53.55*
52.46*
41.00
25.613
22.68
19.40
19.13
* games popular in aIl three studies
•
GAMES
cycl
C,lrÙS
HH. l'I''
B~) .', ':J
Hl.OO*
02. ï 1
81.0J"
baskcthall
bingo
skaL in<]
r"o] 1erBkal
racing
baReha J J
dodqeba Il
munopoly
iish
cowhoys
skippinq
voJ leyha 11
school
tennis
doctor
drélwing
scrabble
wresLle
house
dolls
c:hcss
cludo
succer
'/'/ ./12*
sk j inq
29.H'J
" 6 . ') 0
'16.61*
'7 fJ •
*
'/l.H9*
" 1 . Il 1*
l"
6<) • (,1)
6" .1) 1*
65.611*
6L,.1?
64.'Ji*
(, 1 . /. 1*
59.
~)/
513,112"
S 3. I)S
':lü.bil*
'1'J.i'l
Il"! .78
46.82
4':>.96
3'/ • (J 3
3', . fi
3':>.2J
•
Game Preferences 43
CHAPTBR 5
Discussion
The principal aim of this study was to examine the
game/toy preferences of children living in a non-Western
society alld te compare them with the preferences of
Canadian children. As previously mentioned, the present
study is largely exploratory in nature; thus, no specifie
hypotheses were tested. However, certain aspects intrinsic
to the design of this study concerning children's game/toy
preferences such as the extent of sex differences in
•
children's game/toy preferences, developmental trends and
cultural differences have been examined.
Current Game/TOy Preferences in the U.A.E.
Children in the U.A.E. reported a focused interest in
video games, board and card games, major team sports and
skilled pastimes. Today'S children appear to spend much of
their time in activities such as swimming, skating,
playing Monopoly and Nintendo and engaging in various
sports. These activities are similar in that they are not
governed by a set pattern of rules and any number of
children can participate in them. Thus, contemporary
children appear to prefer informaI games and activities.
Today's children seem to have lost interest in more
•
formally organized games involving a set pattern of
•
Game Preferences 44
rules. Singing games, team guessing and acting gantes,
dialogue games and parlor games were not reported by the
children in this study. A possible explanation of why suc Il
games might have lost their popularity with
contemporaL~
children might be due to the large number of children
required to participate in such games. Contemporary
families have significantly become smaller in the past 30
years and games such as 'drop the handkerchief' and
'London bridge' can not be played by a small nurnber of
children. As a result, other games that involve smaller
•
groups of children and permit individualized solitary play
have become popular (e.g. computer games and skilled
pastimes) •
However, children reported an increased preference
for major team sports (e.g. basketball, football) in whic.:h
a large number of children are required to participate. A
possible explanation, for the popularity of such
activities, might be that children are likely to spend
much of their time in school engaging in sport relaLed
games. Furthermore, team sports give rise to competition
which is common in school settings and is valued in
today' s society.
The increasing preference of children for informaI
•
group activities is consistent with recent research
{Bensoussan et al., 1392; La & Derevensky, 1989; Mergen,
or.:=~---------
~.
~
,
"
•
--
Game Preferences 45
1992). However, Sutton-Smith and Rosenberg (1961) had
speculated that the playing of formaI games would
eventually become of decreasing importance in the play of
future generations. They suggested that those games in
which the players have unequal power and assume different
roles reflect an earlier hierarchical society; thus, the
increasing preference of children for informaI group
activities is more in accord with the social world in
which they live. This finding validates the assumption
that children's game/toy preferences may serve as
•
convenient markers of societal changes .
Sex Differences in Children's Game/TQY Preferences.
The game/toy preferences of males and females were
found to be moderately similar. Traditionally, researchers
have shown that children tend to request gender
appropriate toys (Downs, 1983; Robinson
&
Morris, 1986)
and that they play with these toys rather than those
stereotyped for the opposite sex (Bradley, 1989; Caldera,
1989; Carter & Levy, 1988; O'Brien & Huston, 1985).
However, in the present study both boys and girls
indicated a liking for many similar games. A variety of
board and ca rd games, major team sports, computer games
and skilled pastimes were reported to be favored by both
•
sexes. The increased unanimity between boys and girls in
their game preferences has been recently supported
•
Game preferences 46
(Almqvist, 1989; Bensoussan et al., 1992, La & Derevensky,
1989; Mergen, 1991).
Although children reported a preference for llnisex
games, statistically significant differences were found
between the sexes in their pref erence for sllch games. For
example, Nintendo, Gameboy and basketball WAre more
favored by males, whereas females reported a greater
preference for drawing and reaàing. The finding that there
is a stronger affinity of boys than girls for video and
computer games is not surprising and is consistent with
•
other studies (Braun, Goupil, Giroux & Chagnon, 1986).
Computer games have been criticized of being biased
due to the skills and abilities they require. These skills
include abstract reasoning and visual and spatial
conceptualization. Although boys prefer manipulative and
spatial games, girls generally prefer verbal and social
activities. In order for computer games to be as popular
among females as they are among males, programmers must
develop games that are more attractive to fernales. These
would involve social games, games that are more
cooperative, and those less competitive and violent in
nature (Braun et al., 1986).
The fact that many of the games children reported
•
liking are unisex is a significant finding. It is evident
that there has been a shift in the preferences of children
•
Game Preferences 47
over the last thirty years given that many of the
traditionally male specifie games (e.g. major team sports)
are now preferred by both sexes, with girls showing an
augmented interest and awareness. This confirms and
extends the finding of the increasing incorporation of
masculine preferences by females (Sutton-Smith &
Rosenberg, 1961). The emergence of more unisex games
follows a trend set in the early 1960' sand may be
reflective of a changing society. Sorne of these changes
may be due in part to the development of more liberal
•
parenting styles, changes in the role of women, the
growing influence of the television and media, more
sophisticated child directed advertisements and advances
in video technology.
Although boys and girls have developed significantly
similar game preferences, there are still gender specifie
games. Overall, female-specific games were found to be
cooperative, non competitive in nature, placing emphasis
on verbal expression and fantasy play (e.g. skipping,
dolls, Magic Trolls). These characteristics of female
specifie games are unlikely ta be found in games favored
by boys and are likely to remain the central facets that
differentiate between the sexes.
•
The proportion of f emale specif ic games (i . e., 7 %)
has not changed since the 1960's but the total number of
•
Game Preferences 48
games girls reported a preference for, including the
unisex games has increased. Thus, girls appear to have
developed broader game pref erences and f ewer homogenous
interests. This finding is consistent with previous
research (Almqvist, 1989; Eisenberg et al., 1982; Fagot &
Littman, 1975) and suggests that there is less pressure on
girls to develop sex-specifie game/toy preferences.
Despite the evident shift towards unisex games and
the unchanged number of female-specific garnes, there has
been a significant increase in male-specifie games since
•
the 1960's (3% to 18%). Overall, male-specifie games were
found to be competitive, physically rough and performanceoriented in nature (e.g. football, wrestling, golf). They
primarily eonsisted of sports related activities and games
requiring physical ability and violence. It appears that
competitiveness, forceful physical contact, individual
physieal ability and violence are still elements
attraeti ve to males and disliked by females. This f indinq
that masculine rough play differentiates the sexes is
consistent with other studies (Bensoussan et al., 1992; Lo
& Derevensky, 1989; Mergen, 1991).
The nurnber of male-specifie garnes/toys has increased
sinee the 1960's, however, the nature of boys games has
•
not changed. This stability in the male gender role is
consistent with previous findings (Bensoussan et al.,
•
Game Preferences 49
1992; Lo & Derevensky, 1989; Sutton-Smith & Rosenberg,
1961) and suggests that males have a defined set of
standards for appropriateness of behaviors. Furthermore,
there is greater pressure on boys than girls to behave in
sex-typed ways (Eisenberg et al., 1982; Fagot, 1978;
Lytton & Romney, 1991; Margolin, 1975). Infant girls as
young as 20 months were found to be encouraged by their
parents to play with a variety of toys, while this
tendency was not observed among parents of male infants
(Fein, Kosson, Stork & Wasserman, 1975). The finding that
•
males adhere more closely to gender role stereotypes than
females lends credence to the belief that children's play
behavior is partly shaped by parental influences at an
early age. Thus, the differential treatment of boys and
girls by their parents may manifest itself in children's
games/toy preferences.
Although it appears that the increase in unanimity
between the sexes is largely due to the changes in girl's
preferences rather than boys, another explanation for the
increase in unisex,games originates from the occurring
changes in our society towards androgyny. Social
psychologists have been advocating the growth towards
androgyny (Ickes, 1981; Ickes & Barnes, 1977, 1978;
•
Sampson, 1977) and have supported their stance with
•
Game Preferences 50
evidence showing that the possession of both instrumental
skills (i.e., masculine) and expressive skills (i.e.,
feminine) lead to better interpersonal relationships. As a
result of this more egalitarian climate within today's
society, parents may be more likely to develop less sextyped child rearing behaviors thus influencing the
game/toy preferences of their children.
Developmental Trends in Children's Game/Toy Preferences
Evident developmental trends were noted for specific
games/toys. Imitative games and games/toys which do not
•
require mu ch physical skill, such as playing with dolls
and guns, were more favorably rated by younger children.
As children get older, more complex games, in particular
sports related activities, requiring well-developed
physical and motor skills gained popularity. This
developmental finding is consistent with other studies
(Almqvist, 1989; Vieira & Miller, 1976). As children
develop cognitively parallel changes occur in the
structure of their play (Piaget, 1962; Vygotsky, 1967).
Although developmental preferences were noted for a
few games/toys, several items were popular among bath the
younger and older children. Young children indicated a
preference for specifie team sport activities, board and
•
card games, computer games, skilled pastime activities aIl
which developmentally maintained their popularity. This
•
Game Preferences 5l
similarity in preferences may be the result of younger
children modeling the preferences of their Jlder siblings.
Another possible explanation rnight be that the structure
of children's play is becoming more campI ex at an earlier
age. Simplistic games, su ch as singing games, dialogue and
leader games (e.g. 'Farrner in the dell', 'Old witch' and
'Simon says'), which used to characterize young children's
play (Sutton-Smith & Rosenberg, 1961) no longer appear to
be popular among young contemporary children. This finding
may be a reflection of societal pressures on children to
•
develop more quickly. Contemporary children are being
pressured for early academic achievement, they are being
pressured to dress like adults and consequently are being
treated as adults (Elkind, 1988). Sirnilarly, toy and game
manufacturers may be
treat~ng
children as adults in the
marketing of their products and in the availability of
certain games/toys (e.g. Junior Monopoly and Scrabble for
Juniors). Finally, the media presentations of toys, which
tend to follow existing cultural stereotypes, may also
affect children's toy preferences in their child directed
advertisements (Schwartz & Markham, 1985).
Cultural Differences in Children's Game/Toy Preferences.
A relatively high agreement was evident in the
•
preferences between children living in Canada and those
residing in the U.A.E. The majority of games reported to
•
Game Preferences 52
be favored by each group were similar indicating no
cultural differences.
The similarity of children' s game preference in both
cultures may be explained by the heterogeneity of
population in the U .A.E. and the increased opportunity for
inter-ethnie interaction. Although Middle-Eastern culture
is more restrictive and conservative in its
socialization practices, this was not evident from
children's game/toy preferences. The presence of Western
values in the U.A.E., as a result of the numerous
•
expatriates residing and working in the Emirates, may have
resulted in a similarity in preferences between the two
samples. It is likely that extra familial agencies are
influencing children's upbringing (Eliram & Schwarzwald,
1987). Consequently, the impact of the family as a
socialization agent is weakened and children in the U.A.E.
have become exposed to the existing Western values.
Another possible explanation of why children living
in the U.A.E. and those residing in Canada share similar
game preferences may pertain to socio-economic factors.
The U.A.E. is an affluent society consisting entirely of
individuals from middle-to-high socio-economic
backgrounds. It is likely that the absence of any
•
financial constraints permits parents to purchase the most
recent toys and games on the market. Consequently,
•
Garne Preferences 53
children in the U.A.E. are readily exposed to European and
foreign products especially with the availability of
Western toy chains such as 'Toys RUs'.
The few games where diffeI'ences between the two
samples existed include dodgeball, hockey, tag, bingo and
poker. Dodgeball, hockey and tag are activities popular in
North American society and culture and are not as favored
by children in other societies. As for bingo and poker
1
bath are gambling activities. Gambling is not permitted by
certain prominent religions in the Middle-East and parents
•
in Middle-Eastern culture restrict and prohibit their
children from engaging in such activities. Thus, cultural
differences may explain sorne variations in children's
preferences for certain games.
Although not many cultural influences were evident in
children's game/toy preferences specifie dif.ferences
between the two samples suggest that other factors (e. 9 . ,
social context and climate) may influence children's
garne/toy preferences. Children in Canada, Montreal in
particular
1
reported to favor bowling whereas, children in
the U.A.E. indicated a preference for tennis. This can be
explained by the fact that children residing in the U.A.E.
do not have the opportunity and availability of bowling
•
alleys whereas tennis courts are highly accessible all
year round. Furthermore, the climate in the U.A. E., all
•
Game Preferences 54
year round sununer weather, allows children to engage in an
outdoor sport such as tennis and does not restrict them to
an indoor activity such as bowling. Sirnilarly, skiing
although popular among both samples, was ranked higher by
Canadian children and can be explained by the long winter
seasons in Canada. Thus, it can be seen that in addition
to cultural factors other situational variables are likely
to influence children's game/toy preferences.
Historical Changes in Children's Grume/TQy Preferences.
A cornparison of children's game preferences in both
.....
•
Canada and the U.A.E. to the preferences of children three
decades ago (Sutton-Srnith & Rosenberg, 1961) revealed that
there were 30 games/toys common in aIl three studies. An
examination of those common games/toys indicated that sorne
of the games popular thirty years ago have currently
retained their popularity. These include a variety of
sport activities, board and card qames and skilled
pastimes. Games
an~
activities such as Monopoly, cards,
'fish', swirrnning, basketball and tennis have remained
attractive to contemporary children and are universally
engaged in by children.
Conversely, sorne of the games popular in the past
have currently lost their popularity and are not as highJy
•
ranked. Games such as doctor, cowboys, tag and checkers
•
Game Preferences 55
have been currently replaced with activities such as
skiing, soccer, chess and scrabble. It appears that
children in the 90's increasingly prefer sport activities,
skilled pastimes as weIl as a variety of board games.
Although sports and board garnes were liked by children
thirty years ago they were net as popular or as highly
ranked as they currently are in the 90's.
Children's current preferences indicate that they
appear to have developed a preference for group oriented
games. Despite the increased preference for skilled
•
pastimes such as drawing, reading and skiing which allow
individualized solitary play, contemporary children do not
show an interest in activities that are largely solitary
in nature such as having a specifie hobby (Sutton-Sroith &
Rosenberg, 1961).
studies in
~lis
finding is consistent with other
which children reported an increased
preference for social group activities over solitary play
(Mergen, 1991).
The finding that children reported te prefer group
oriented garnes is not reflective of today's society.
Although Middle Eastern families emphasize family
solidarity, committment and interdependence the
heterogeneity of the population in the U.A.E. weakens the
•
predominance of such values. Contemporary children are
living in a society which encourages independence and
•
Game preferences 56
achievement (Elkind, 1988). Advances in technology and the
availability of computers have fostered alienation among
society's members. Both parents generally work and
subsequently have less time to spend with their children.
In addition, the increasing incidence of divorce in
today' s society has left many children without the support
of both parents and has forced many of them to assume
adult roles at an early age. As such, one would have
expected children's preferences to be more solitary in
nature. However, the apparent preference for board games
•
and team sports suggests that children continue to prefer
social activities and games that allow them to interact
with other individuals.
CONCLUSION
The main aim of this study was to examine the current
game/toy preferences of children living in a non-Western
society and compare them to the preferences of Western
children. The obtained findings suggest that despite
distinct cultural differences children's preferences were
similar suggesting that games/toys may be universal.
Overall, this study provides support that children's
game/toy preferences are reflective of the society in
which
•
th~y
live. Children's preference for unstructured
games/toys, their increased preference for unisex
games!toys and the unanimity in the preferences of younger
•
Game Pref erences 57
and older children aIl reflect contemporary societal
values and attitudes. Thus, the obtained results validate
the assumption that children's toy preferences serve as
convenient markers of societal's norms and culture at any
given time (Master, 1990; Sutton-Smith & Rosenberg, 1961).
The only finding in this study which was not
reflective of current societal values was children's
preference for group and social activi ties. However,
children' s reported preferences for such acti vities might
have befm an aspiration rather
•
t~an
a reality. It is
possible that children reported a preference for group
games due to the limi ted opportuni ty ta engage in such
activities. This may be due to the smaller number of
individuals constituting contemporary families.
Although an examination of children's self reported
toy preferences indicates that boys and girls are
increasingly choosing to play with similar toys, their
preferences are still influenced by their adherence to
traditional notions of sex appropriate attitudes and
behaviors. Despite changes over the last two decades in
opinions about women roles, traditional views of women as
expressive and men as instrumental are still common
(Schwartz
•
&
Markham, 1985) and this is evident in the
reported game/toy preferences of males and females
especially with respect ta computer games. Furthermore,
•
Game Preferences 58
television may provide sex-typed information about raIes
in program content and commercials thus influencing
children's attitudes and preferences.
Iou;>1ications
The present findings have important implications for
standard educational practices employed with children.
Research has shown that sex-specific toys enhance
different abilities in boys and girls (Block, 1983 i Serbln
& Canner, 1979; Thompson, 1990). Children who primarily
play with male- specifie toys score higher on measures of
•
visual-spatial ability and creativity, while children who
prefer female-specific toys have better developed verbal
abilities. It is important that both boys and girls are
encouraged to play with toys traditionally preferred by
the opposite sex given that toys provide educational value
by stimulating different abilities and skills. This fact
must also be considered by programmers and executives
employed by computer game companies who tend to be biased
in their development of games.
Another significant implication arising from this
study concerns the family unit. One of the earliest ways
in which children establish relationships with their
parents is through their play environment. The present
•
study indicates that contemporary children appear to be
favorably oriented toward group games and activities. By
•
Game Preferences 59
children's games/toys being more group oriented, the
cohesive and integrated nature of the family unit might
survive in a society which leaves little time for parents
and their children. In the process of playing together,
children and their parents become closer and are more
likely to stay together in a cohesive family system. Thus,
parents must take advantage of their children's game
preferences and invest time playing board and card games,
sport activities and computer games.
Strengths and Limitations
•
TWo limitations of the present study need to be
addressed. First, this study examined children's game
preferences exclusively. It is important for future
research to investigate children's actual play behavior
since the games/toys children report liking and what
children actually play with may be different.
Second, the samples used in this study were comprised
of primarily Caucasian, middle-to-high socio-economic
children and are therefore not representative of ethnic
children and those of various socio-economic levels. It is
likely that the economic status of parents and their
educational level plays a role in their selection of
toys/games. Future research cxamining the factors that
•
influence parents toy purchasing decisions is needed .
Furthermore, it is important for future research to
~, ...
•
Game Preferences 60
investigate children's preferences in the less wealthy
Middle-Eastern countries.
Despite the above mentioned limitations, this thesis
has several strengths. First, it examines an area which
has been greatly neglected by developmental psychologists
and educators. Toys and games play an important role in
the development and socialization of children. Thus,
studying children's game/toy preferences provides insight
into their development (Coury & Wolfgang, 1984). Second,
most of the studies on children and toys have been
•
conducted in a Western society. This study investigated
the preferences of children living in a non-Western
society and compared them with Western children. This
attempt to study children's game/toy preferences crossculturally can be used as a basis and direction for future
research. Third, comparative studies have been previously
criticized due to the different methodology employed in
each study. However, in the following thesis the
methodology employed in the U.A.E. study, the Canadian
study and the Sutton-Smith and Rosenberg (1961) study were
identicali thus allowing a valid comparison among the
studies. Finally, children in the U.A.E. sample and in the
Canadian sample were matched for age (developmental
•
level)
i
thus, strengthening the basis for comparisons .
•
Game preferences 61
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1
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Game Preferences 68
Appendix A: The Demographie Questionnaire
---.:,;
•
1.
l'lAME:
2.
AGE:
3.
SEX:
4.
SCHOOL:
5.
l'lATIONALITY:
6.
•
7.
(MlF)
Put a __À _ _ next to the people who live in
house:
rnother
brother
father
sister
grandmother
grandfather ____
uncle
aunt
~
How long have you been in DUBAI or in the U.A.E. Put
a __X__ next to the right answer.
more than 2 years
less than 2 years
less than
8.
l
year
Who buys most of your toys and garnes ? Put a __À __
next te the right answer.
•
mother
father
bath
others
•
•
Game Preferences 69
Appendix B: The U.A.E. Games and 'l'oys I-list
•
'f
•
•
•
This is a list of games and toys. Next to the games and toys you like very much
please put' +' if vou don't like the game or toy, please put a' 0 ' .
Barbie
Baseball
Basketball
Batman
Bingo
Blackjack
Blocks
Cards
Catchball
Checkers
Chess
Chinese Ball
Clue
Cowboy & Indians
Cricket
Cycling
Desert Combat
Desert Skiing
Doctor
Dodgeball
Dolls
Orawing
Fish
B'ootball
Frisbee
Gameboy
G.r. Joe
Girl Talk
Golf
Guns
Hide & Seek
Hockey
House
Lego
Magic Trolls
Monopoly
MouS et rap
Nintendo
Ninja Turtles
Operation
Patriot Games
petropoly
Pictionary
Poker
Racing/Running
Reading
Remote Control
Cars
Risk
Roller Skating
Sakhr Computer
Sega
Scrabble
School
Skateboard
Skating
Skipping
Soccer
Soccer/Baseball- - - Sorry
Snakes & Ladders- - - Snow Skiing
Startrek
Surfing
Swimming
Tag
Tennis
Volleyball
War
Water Skiing
Wrestling
•
•
•
Game Preference8 70
Appendix C: The Canadian Toys and Games List
•
This is a list of games and toys. Next to the games and toys you like very much
please put '+' if vou don 't like the game or toy, please put a' 0 ' .
Barbie
Pictionary
Baseball
Poker
Basketball
Racing/Running
Bingo
Reading
Blackjack
Roller Skating
Blocks
Sega
Bowling
Scrabble
Cards
School
Catchball
Skateboard
Checkers
Skating
Chess
Skipping
Chinese BalI
Soccer
Cl.ue
Soccer/Basebal1
Cowboy
•
&
Indians
Cricket
Snakes & Ladders
Cycling
Snow Skiing
Doctor
Startrek
Dodgeball
Surfing
Dolls
Swirrrrning
Drawing
Tag
Fish
Tennis
Football
Volleyball
Frisbee
\A7ar
Garneboy
Wrestling
G. 1. Joe
Girl 'l'alk
Golf
Guess Who
Guns
Hide
&
Seek
Hockey
House
Lega
•
----
Sorry
Monopoly
Mousetrap
Nintendo
Ninja 'l'Urt les
Operation
----
•
•
•
Game Pref erences 7 l
Appendix D: The Thirty-Four Ranked Popular Games and
r['OYD
•
Swimming
Baseball
Reading
Water Skiing
Nintendo
Fish
Drawing
Soccerbaseball
Gameboy
Sakhr Computer
Monopoly
Skipping
Tennis
Basketball
Skating Cards
Racing
School
Remote Control Cars
•
Roller Skating
Hide and Seek
Snakes and ladders
Skateboard
Volleyball
F'ootball
Sega
Lego
Cycling
Chess
Frisbee
Golf
Magic Trolls
Snow Skiing
Scrabble