DILUENTS FOR TURKEY SEMEN
Snedecor, G., 1956. Statistical Methods, 5th Ed.,
Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa.
Swanson, E. W., and H. J. Beardon, 1951. An eosinnigrosin stain for differentiating live and dead
bovine spermatozoa. J. An. Sci. 10: 981-987.
Terbush, E. L., 1952. The influence of diluent, dilution rate and antibiotic level upon sperm motility and bacterial numbers of fowl semen. M.S.
Thesis, Indiana.
van Tienhoven, A., and R. G. D. Steel, 1957. The
effect of different diluents and dilution rates on
fertilizing capacity of turkey semen. Poultry Sci.
36: 473^79.
Air Sacs in the Turkey
R. H. RIGDON, T. M. FERGUSON, G. L. FELDMAN AND J. R. COUCH
Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
and
Department of Poultry Science, Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College Station, Texas
(Received for publication July 3, 1957)
O
NLY one specific study on the respiratory system of the turkey has been
found. This consisted of two papers published in 1953 by Cover. Cover reviewed
the observations of previous investigators
on the chicken. He pointed out that in
general all reports agree on the number of
air sacs in the chicken (4 paired and 1
single) but they often have been named
differently. Disagreement centers around
the cervical or thoraco-cervical and the
posterior thoracic air sacs. Cover (1953b)
observed in the turkey that "the paired
posterior thoracic and thoraco-cervical
as well as the single anterior thoracic air
sacs are combined into a single large
compartment, the aggregate sac, which
communicates with the air passageways of
This investigation was supported by research
grants C-1469 (4C) from the National Cancer
Institute, and B-759 (C2) from the National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Blindness, of the
National Institutes of Health, Public Health Service.
the lung at its anterior ventral border.
There are two unions, one with a ventral
bronchus and another with an area of
several parabronchi. The combined sacs
have the same location and visceral relations as the individual sacs which were
described by McLeod and Wagers (1939).
In addition, however, numerous diverticula are present."
The axillary diverticulum in the
chicken, according to McLeod and Wagers
(1939) "is a large pouch leading from the
main sac behind the coracoid bone into
the axillary region, where it is covered by
the large, superficial pectoral muscle."
According to Bradley (1951), the axillary
sac in the chicken is a prolongation of the
clavicular sac and does not communicate
with the bronchi. Our interest in the structure of the air sacs of the turkey arose
after finding large hernias in the axilla in
sixteen out of twenty Broad Breasted
Bronze poults, five weeks of age (Rigdon
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Phillips, H. J., and H. L. Wiegers, 1952. Settling
rate of turkey sperm on a haemocytometer.
Poultry Sci. 31:681-684.
Qureshi, S. H., 1952. The effects of antibiotics alone
and with various diluents and hormones upon
in vitro survival and fertilizing capacity of chicken
semen. Ph.D. Thesis, Maryland.
Salisbury, G. W., G. H. Beck, I. Elliott and E. L.
Willett, 1943. Rapid methods for estimating the
number of spermatozoa in bull semen. J. Dairy
Sci. 26: 69-78.
Smith, A. U., 1949. The control of bacterial growth
in fowl semen. J. Agr. Sci. 39: 194-200.
53
54
R. H. R I G D O N , T. M . FERGUSON, G. L. FELDMAN AND J. R. COUCH
thoracic wall of ten normal turkeys of
varying age was dissected.
OBSERVATIONS
el al., 1958). This paper gives our observations on the air sacs of the Broad Breasted
Bronze turkey.
PROCEDURE
Latex, a rubber preparation,* was used
to study whether the respiratory tract
communicated with this cavity in the
axilla. Immediately after a young turkey
was sacrificed, the body was suspended
by tieing the head to a large ring-stand. A
cannula was p u t into the proximal portion
of the trachea and either red or blue latex
was permitted to enter by gravity from
an attached funnel. One to two hours was
necessary to fill the respiratory tract. The
trachea then was ligated and the entire
bird was p u t into a container of 4.0 percent formaldehyde and 4.0 percent acetic
acid. After fixing for twelve to twenty-four
hours the skin was carefully removed and
the carcass was returned for additional
fixation. Several days later the skeletal
muscles were carefully dissected. The
respiratory tract of six turkeys was filled
with latex. The axillary cavity in two
turkeys was injected directly with blue
latex from a needle and syringe. The
trachea was then filled with red latex. The
* The Poison Rubber Co., Garrettsville, Ohio.
There was no latex in the axillary cavities of the four turkeys in which the respiratory system was filled through the
trachea. There was no mixing of the two
FIG. 2. After the skin and the thin membrane on
the anterior surface are removed the cavity can be
easily seen. A small portion of the membrane is
shown adjacent to the wing on the left of the cavity.
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FIG. I. Cavity in the axilla covered by skin
of a bird six weeks of age.
In the Broad Breasted Bronze turkey,
five to six weeks of age, there is a space
in the axilla, 2-3 cms. in diameter, that is
formed by the thoracic wall posteriorly,
and laterally b y the margins of the pectoral and thoracic muscles. I t is covered
by a thin, transparent membrane in addition to the skin (Figure 1). In older birds
this area is less conspicuous since the subcutaneous fat and muscles cover it. When
the skin of the thoracic wall is carefully
dissected a cavity is present (Figure 2),
the walls of which are formed by a thin
transparent membrane. This membrane is
loosely attached to the surrounding fibrous tissue stroma and the muscle. Thin
septa cross the cavity to form varying
sized spaces. Branches of the brachial
plexus and the brachial arteries transverse
the cavity (Figure 3).
A I R SACS IN T U R K E Y S
colors of latex in the axillary cavities
when blue latex was injected directly into
the axillary cavity and red latex was used
to fill the respiratory system. Figure 4
shows the blue latex within the axillary
cavity of one of the turkeys.
Several diverticula filled with latex
were present in the axilla near the head of
the humerus and about the head of the
femur (Figure 5). These latex-filled diverticula were covered by a thin, transparent
membrane.
T h e air sacs in the turkey are shown in
Figure 6. The communications between
the lung and the different air sacs are indicated by arrows in Figure 7. In the latter illustration the greater part of the left
lung, and a portion of the clavicular,
thoracic and the smaller abdominal air sac
have been removed to show the location
of these communications.
T h e abdominal air sacs are the largest
paired air sacs in the turkey (Figure 6).
Both communicate directly with bronchi
in the lung b u t do not communicate with
each other. The outer surface of the larger
abdominal air sac (Figure 8) is smooth,
while the inner is very irregular (Figure
9). The latter results from the coils of
FIG. 4. Blue latex was injected directly into the cavity in the axilla and then the respiratory tract was
filled with red latex. The axillary cavity filled with blue latex is shown as 34. Note the diverticula 11 about
the femur 32, humerus 33.
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FIG. 3. The septa within the axillary cavity and
the blood vessels and nerves are shown in this
illustration.
55
56
R. H. RIGDON, T. M. FERGUSON, G. L. FELDMAN AND J. R. COUCH
FIG. 6. Latex fills the air sacs of this turkey: 1. lung; 2. depression in lungs produced by ribs; 3. sternum;
4. liver; 5. thoracic air sac; 6. lesser abdominal air sac; 7. diaphragm between thoracic and abdominal cavity;
8. greater abdominal air sac; 9. clavicular or cervical air sac; 10. kidney; 11. diverticula from greater air sac
about head of femur; 12. communication between lung and clavicular air sac; 13. communication between
the lung, the thoracic and the clavicular air sacs; 14. diverticula along intercostal nerves to thoracic vertebrae; IS. gizzard; 16. duodenum.
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FIG. 5. The respiratory tract was filled with latex. Observe the diverticula 11 about the head of the
femur 17, sternum 3, ilium 18, ischium 19, rib 20, scapula 21, articulation for head of humerus 22, coracoid
bone 23, branches of brachial plexus 24, diverticula in the axilla 25.
AIR SACS IN TURKEYS
57
tfP^,
FIG. 8. Lateral view of latex filled air sac: 1. lung. 5. thoracic air sac, 6. lesser abdominal air
sac, 8. greater abdominal air sac, 9. clavicular air sac.
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FIG. 7. The thoracic and abdominal wall has been removed to show the latex filled air sacs and their
communications. A portion of the lesser abdominal air sac, the thoracic air sac and the outer half of the left
lung have been removed; left lung 1, right lung 1A, liver 4, thoracic air sac S, lesser abdominal air sac 6,
greater abdominal air sac 8, clavicular air sac 9, gizzard 15, duodenum 16, heart 26, cervical vertebrae 27,
trachea 28, posterior diverticulum from the clavicular air sac 29, anterior diverticulum from the clavicular
air sac 30, proventriculs 31.
58
R. H. RIGDON, T. M. FERGUSON, G. L. FELDMAN AND J. R. COUCH
intestine. Many diverticula arise from the
larger abdominal air sac. These are shown
in Figures 5, 6, and 7 and are located
about the head of the femur and in the
region of the kidney. There are three
communications between the air sacs on
the right and left side of the body: (1)
through the single clavicular air sac, (2)
through the cervical vertebrae from diverticula from the right and left side of the
clavicular air sac, and (3) between the
two thoracic air sacs through communications located anterior to the ventral surface of the pericardium.
There are innumerable diverticula arising from the major air sacs. It would seem
that they occur wherever a major nerve
or blood vessel leaves the thoracic and
abdominal cavity. Diverticula are most
conspicuous about the intercostal nerves,
the brachial plexus and the head of the
femur and humerus. Many of these are
shown in Figures 5, 6, 7, and 8. A large
diverticulum (Figure 7—area 29) from the
clavicular air sac is located in the midthoracic region between the two lungs. It
extends posteriorly to the diaphragm.
Numerous other diverticula are present in
the area where the bronchi enter the lungs.
In one specimen we found a communication between the latex injected
directly into the axillary cavity and the
humerus (Figure 4). Several of the specimens had latex in the sternum, apparently
this extended directly from the thoracic
air sac into the bone. Latex was always
found in the cervical vertebrae. We did
not find a communication between the
greater abdominal air sac and the femur
in any of our latex injected specimens.
DISCUSSION
There are several interesting variations
between the air sacs in the turkey, as
shown by this study, and the chicken, as
described by McLeod and Wagers (1939)
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FTG. 9. Medial view of latex filled air sacs that is shown in Figure 8; 1, medial surface of left lung; 5. thoracic
air sac; 6. lesser abdominal air sac; 8. medial surface of greater abdominal air sac; 9. medial surface of clavicular air sac; 28. trachea; 29. posterior diverticulum from clavicular air sac; 39. right bronchus; 40. left bronchus.
AIR SACS IN TURKEYS
59
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and Bradley (1951). In the turkey there is considered as a single air sac. This confua large cavity in each axilla which does not sion in classifying the air sacs as to name
communicate with the respiratory tract. and number results from the anatomical
In the chicken, "the axillary diverticulum variations occurring in the cervical region
is a large pouch, leading from the main of different birds. The air sacs and diversac behind the coracoid bone into the ticula in this region of the duck are quite
axillary region where it is covered by the different to those in the turkey.
large, superficial pectoral muscle" (McThe vertebral air sac diverticula were
Leod and Wagers, 1939). There are several observed by us; however, Cover (1953b)
diverticula in this region in the turkey has a nice model showing their relation to
(Figure 5—-area 25); however, they do not the vertebrae. We did not observe any
communicate with the large cavity in the communications between the long verteaxilla. It should be emphasized that a bral diverticulum (Figure 7—area 29) and
very thin membrane separates these diver- the overlying vertebrae.
ticula from the large axillary cavity. In
A communication between the cervical
fact, there is a similar membrane on the air sac and the humerus was observed in
posterior surface of the axillary cavity one turkey. Latex was usually found in
separating it from the thoracic cavity.
the vertebrae and sterum indicating
In the turkey, there is a large clavicular pneumatization. No communications were
or cervical air sac, a pair of thoracic air observed with the femur either by us or by
sacs (these two air sacs communicate with Cover (1953b). The exact time that air
each other over the ventral surface of the sac diverticula enter the bones has not
pericardium) and two paired abdominal been established; however, Cover (1953b)
air sacs, a small and a large one. There- points out that the sternum and thoracic
fore, in the turkey we have a total of seven vertebrae are pneumatized in five week
air sacs and in the chicken nine, according old turkeys, and at 11 weeks the ribs,
to the classification used by McLeod and ossa coxarum, and the cervical lumbar and
Wagers (1939). Cover (1953b) in this sacral vertebrae are pneumatized.
summary of the air sacs in the turkey says
SUMMARY
"the nine air sacs are thin fibrocellular
extensions from the lung parenchyma.
In the axilla of the turkey there is a
The single anterior thoracic and the paired large cavity lined by a thin, transparent
posterior thoracic and thoraco-cervical membrane. Branches of the brachial
sacs connect with the air passageways of artery and vein and the brachial nerves
the anterioventral borders of the lung at transverse this cavity. There is no comtwo points. . . . These sacs are represented munication between the respiratory tract
in the turkey as a single compartment." and this cavity in the axilla.
According to Cover (1953b) there would
The air sacs in the turkey differ from
be only five air sacs in the turkey. It the description usually given for those in
would seem preferable to us to retain the the chicken. This variation occurs priterm thoracic air sacs since they are defi- marily in the clavicular or cervical and
nite paired anatomical structures along thoracic air sacs. It is suggested that seven
with the lesser and greater paired ab- air sacs be recognized in the turkey, a
dominal air sacs. The cervical or anterior single cervical or clavicular, a paired
thoracic air sac and the numerous asso- thoracic and two paired abdominal air
ciated diverticula in the turkey might be sacs.
60
R. H. RIGDON, T. M. FERGUSON, G. L. FELDMAN AND J. R. COUCH
REFERENCES
Bradley, 0 . C , 1951. The Structure of the Fowl.
J. B. Lippincott Co., Phila.
Cover, M. S., 1953a. Gross and microscopic anatomy
of the respiratory system of the turkey. II. The
larynx, trachea, syrinx, bronchi, and lungs. Am.
J. Vet. Res. 14: 230-238.
Cover, M. S., 1953b. Gross and microscopic anatomy
of the respiratory system of the turkey. III. The
air sacs. Am. J. Vet. Res. 14: 239-245.
McLeod, W. M., and R. P. Wagers, 1939. The
respiratory system of the chicken. J. Am. Vet.
Med. Ass. 95:59-70.
Rigdon, R. H., T. M. Ferguson, G. L. Feldman,
H. D. Stelzner and J. R. Couch, 1958. Spontaneous hernias in the axilla of the turkey. Poultry
Sci. 37: 169-173.
PAUL D. STURKIE AND KURT TEXTOR
Laboratory of Avian Physiology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey
(Received for publication July 5. 1957)
T) ATE of sedimentation of erythrocytes
•*• *• is dependent on two main forces: (1)
the force of gravity, causing the cells to
settle, and (2) the frictional resistance of
the surrounding plasma which holds the
cells in suspension. The role played by
each of these forces is related to a number
of factors, such as cell-size, shape and
number, specific gravity of the cells and
plasma, and composition of plasma. A decrease in specific gravity of plasma, or in
cell numbers, tends to increase sedimentation rate. Sedimentation rates are frequently determined by clinicians, and
when all aspects of the case are under review, may be of diagnostic significance.
The rate may be increased during infec* Paper of the Journal Series, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Rutgers University,
the State University of New Jersey, Department of
Poultry Science. Contribution to co-operative
project, "Physiological, Biochemical & Pathological
Changes in the Chicken in Health & Disease," supported by the Grange League Federation (GLF) of
Ithaca, New York. Co-operating personnel: Paul D.
Sturkie, Harold S. Weiss, Hans Fisher, Clarence S.
Piatt, Mary Sheahan (Poultry Dept.) and David C.
Tudor and Victor R. Kaschula (Animal Pathology
Dept.).
tions and in diseases associated with tissue
injury.
Less is known about sedimentation rate
in chickens, because few reports are available, and in most instances, the effects of
disease, age and sex have not been ascertained. Mean values ranging from 0.5 to 9
mm. per hour, with most of them falling
between 1.5 and 4, have been reported
(Swenson, 1951; Albritton, 1952; Goff
et al., 1953, and Gray et al., 1954). These
values are considerably lower than in
humans.
It is well known that such factors as
diameter of sedimentation tube, amount
of blood put in tube, position of tube, and
time influence the rate of sedimentation.
Most of the work reported in humans and
other mammals is based on blood held in a
vertical position (90°); the rate in chickens
under these conditions is quite slow and
the error in readings is large.
Washburn and Meyers (1957) have
shown that sedimentation rate of human
blood can be increased approximately 100
percent by positioning the tube at a 45°
angle. This report is concerned with the
effects of position of tube, and the in-
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Sedimentation Rate of Erythrocytes in Chickens
as Influenced by Method and Sex*