“Everyman’sanangel!”
APersonalExplorationofGinsberg’sHowl
EvaDunsky
SeniorThesisinEnglishLiterature
PoetsinCorrespondence
ProfessorSaskiaHamilton
InPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsfortheEnglishMajorandtheDegreeofBachelor
oftheArts,BarnardCollege,ColumbiaUniversity.December2016.
Dunsky 2
Introduction
WhenIwasthirteen,IreceivedmyfirstcopyofAllenGinsberg’sHowl:athin,black
andwhitevolumebelongingtothePocketPoetsseriesfromCityLightsBookstoreinSan
Francisco.“Youmightlikethis,”saidmydadnonchalantly.Hehadfounditlyingaround
whilecleaningouthisbookshelf.YoucouldsaythatIlikedit.Infact,youcouldevensay
thatitconsumedthegreaterpartofmyadolescence,envelopingmeinitselielilamma
lammasabacthanisaxophonecry.It’srollickingrhythmsandloftyincantationswhichin
themorningwerestanzasofgibberishmatchedtherhythmofmyowninnerturmoil;the
syncopatedbeatsliningupperfectly.WhenIwassixteenandmyfirstboyfriendbrokeup
withme(Igenuinelyandhonestlythoughtwewouldspendtherestofourlivestogether),
andthedevastationfeltsocompletelyheavyandall-encompassing,likeanelectricblanket
exceptwithnoneofthewarmth,myparentsaskedmeiftherewasanythingtheycoulddo
toalleviatethatpain(andperhapscutdownonsomeofthecryingjags).Aweeklater,I
walkedoutofthetattooparloraroundthecornerfrommyhousewithmyfirsttattoo—
howlwritteninloopycursive,thescriptofateenagegirl,onmyfoot.
AdolescenceishardandI’mstartingtorealizethatrarelydoesthepost-adolescent
timeframeoffermuchreprieve,especiallyifyouhavethenervousJewishconstitutionthat
Mr.GinsbergandIsoreluctantlyshare.Andyetinthemiddleofatumultuouslife,
Ginsbergwasabletoprovideuswiththisepicpoem—anultimatelyjubilantodeto
humanity.IthinkWilliamCarlosWilliamssaysitbestinhisintroductiontoHowl:
“Saywhatyouwill,[Ginsberg]provestous,inspiteofthemostdebasingexperiencesthat
lifecanofferaman,thespiritoflovesurvivestoennobleourlivesifwehavethewitand
thecourageandthefaith—andtheart!topersist”(Howl,8).
Dunsky 3
Ginsberg’searlylife
“Ihaven’ttoldyoumuchaboutmyself.Iam[the]smallestboyinclass.Hobbies–
stamps,coins,minerals,chemistryandmostofall(atpresent)movies.Theyaffordmegreat
pleasureandtheyareabouttheonlyrelieffromboredomwhichseemstohangaroundmelike
ashadow.”–JournalEntry,1938
AllenGinsbergwasbornin1926inNewark,NewJerseytoparentsLouisandNaomi
Ginsberg.Hisfatherwasaschoolteacherandapoetandhismother,animmigrantfrom
Russia,sufferedfromvariousmentalillnesses.Throughouthischildhood,Ginsbergsawhis
motherinternedinapsychiatrichospitalseveraltimes.Hismother’smentalillnessdeeply
affectedhimduringhisformativeyearsandbecameamajorthemeinhislaterpoetry—he
wouldgoontobecomeamouthpiecefortheexperiencesofthementally-ill,aswellas
dedicateapoemtohislatemotherentitled“Kaddish”(widelyconsideredtobeoneofhis
masterworks).Ginsberg,asmall,slight-of-buildchildwithdeepaffectationsanda
childhoodmadedifficultbyhismother’sillness,fosteredhispoetictalentsfromanearly
agebykeepingajournalandstudyingthepoetryofWaltWhitmaninHighSchool
(Charters,“AllenGinsberg’sLife”).AfterasuccessfulHighSchoolcareer,Ginsbergleftthe
suburbsofNewJerseyforNewYorkwhenhewaseighteenyearsold.
AfterHighSchool,heattendedColumbiaUniversityonascholarship.Thoughhe
citeshis‘GreatBooks’classwithProfessorLionelTrillingashavinghadamajorinfluence
onhislife,Ginsberg’sprimarysourceofColumbiaeducationcamefromoutsideofthe
classroom.ItwasatColumbiathatGinsbergmetfellowundergraduateLucienCarr,who
introducedhimtoWilliamS.Burroughs,JackKerouac,andNealCassidy,amongstothers.
Thesecreativesandsubversiveswentontoformthe“BeatGeneration”—atermcoinedby
Kerouacinthefallof1948todefinetheirsharedsenseofspiritualexhaustion,aswellas
Dunsky 4
theirdesiretorebelagainsttheconformity,hypocrisy,andmaterialismthattheysaw
manifestinAmericansociety(Charters,“AllenGinsberg’sLife”).
FollowingavisionhehadafterhearingWilliamBlackrecite“Ah,Sunflower,”
Ginsbergdevotedhisartisticenergiestothepursuitoftruththroughpoetry.Hewas
dissatisfiedwiththepoetryhehadbeenwritingatthetime—poetrymodeledonthe
lessonshehadlearnedinhisColumbiaclasses.Inordertoblowopenhismindandhis
writing,Ginsbergturnedtodrugs,experiencingMarijuana,Peyote,andBenzedrinewithhis
fellowBeats,holedupinJackKerouac’sHarlemapartment.
However,GinsbergsoonfoundhimselfimplicatedinacrimecommittedbyHerbert
Huncke.HunckeandafewofhisfriendshadstoredstolengoodsinGinsberg’sapartment,
andGinsbergwaschargedwithlarceny.Inlieuofarrest,theColumbiadeanallowedhimto
pleadinsanityandinsteadofbeingthrowninprison,Ginsbergwasinternedinthe
ColumbiaPresbyterianPsychiatricInstituteforeightmonths.ItwasherethathemetCarl
Solomon—anotheryoungwriterwhowasbeingtreatedfordepressionwithinsulinshock
therapy.Ginsberg,whowasalreadyfamiliarwiththepitfallsofmentalhealthcaredueto
hismother’stravails,formedastrongandlastingfriendshipwithSolomon,towhomhe
wouldlaterdedicateHowl.
“EternityoutsideofTime”:Ginsberg’s1950sJournals
“Todayaholiday.Idon’tknowwhich.Adreamanditsassociatedfragments.Last
nightIdreamed—Iamup,itismorningretracingmystepsinthemind,severalthoughts
severaldiscoveries.Thesymbolicconnectionbetweenthings…”
AjournalentryofGinsberg’sfromMayof1955—whenhewasinthethickofwriting
Howl.Hismotherhaddiedafewmonthsbefore,andalreadyhewasmullingoverwhat
wouldlaterbecomeKaddish.HisjournalsusethesameprosestyleasHowlitself,andmany
Dunsky 5
entriesreadasthoughtheycouldbepartofthefirstsectionofthepoem.Thejournals
includeextremelypersonalfragmentsofprose,aswellastherootsofseveralideasthat
wouldlaterbedevelopedfurtherinhispoetry.Atthismomentin1955,heisstruggling
withhissexualityandwiththeunrequitedlovehefeltforfellowbeatNealCassady,allthe
whilereelingfromthelossofhismother.Heistryingtoexpandonhisownpersonalstyle
ofpoetrywhilecomingtotermswithamassivepersonaleraoftransition.Inthejournals
thatIchosetolookat,datedfrom1954-1958,Ginsbergisatacrossroadsinhiscareer,and
isontheroadtodevelopinghisBeatstylepersona.
Asevidencedbytheexcerptatthebeginningofthesection,Ginsberg’snotionof
timeisspottyandnonlinear—andatthisjunctioninhislife,timeisagreatconcern,ashe
hasnotyetfoundBuddhismandisstrugglingwiththefinalityofhismother’sdeath.With
littletotiehimtoaspecificlocation,especiallyafterthedeathofhismotherandthe
untimelyendofhisColumbiacareer,hewasabletowanderfreely.Andwanderhedoes:
fromSanFranciscotoNewYorktoLosAngelestoTangiers,collectingscrapsofpoetryin
hisnotebookashealightedfromplacetoplace.Someofhisjournalsarepopulatedby
dreamsanddrug-inducedvisions—orashewritesontheopeningsectionofHowl,“with
dreams,withdrugs,withwakingnightmares…”(Howl,10).Thesethreeconditions—the
dreamstate,thedrugtrip,andwhatIargueistheunmitigatedsoberreality(i.e.,the
wakingnightmare),ceasetobedistinctfromeachother.Thejournalsintimatethat
Ginsberghimselfhasbeenremovedfromtime.
Forinstance,inthefollowingexcerptdatedDecember21st1956,itseemsasthough
Ginsbergissettingupaportraitofhisfellowsubwaygoersthatexistsoutsideoftime—
almostasthoughinhisjournal,heisimmortalizingthemashisownpersonalartistic
Dunsky 6
fodderratherthanplacingthemwithinthecontextoftheirownlives,say,completingtheir
morningcommuteorpickingtheirkidsupfromschool.Ginsbergwrites,“Strangefacedin
thesubway—theminuteIsatdownIrealizedIhadpowertoseethemstraightintheeye
anddigtheeternalmoment’smask—astheyridebydreamingrockedinthedarkwith
neonontheirfaces.”(JournalsMid-fifties1954-1958,321).
TimeisacomplicatedsubjectforGinsberg,asevidencedbythefollowingexcerpt
fromHowl:“whothrewtheirwatchesofftherooftocasttheirballotforEternityoutsideof
Time,&alarmclocksfellontheirheadseverydayforthenextdecade,whocuttheirwrists
threetimessuccessivelyunsuccessfully,gaveupandwereforcedtoopenantiqueshops
wheretheythoughttheyweregrowingoldandcried…”(Howl,16).Thisisindicativeofhis
ownpersonalhorrorandanxiety,hisfearoftimes’ravagingpotential,hisfirsthand
knowledgeofitsdevastatingeffectsonhismother,andlateronhisfriendCarlSolomon.In
thethirdpartofHowl,Ginsbergwrites“Ah,Carl,whileyouarenotsafeIamnotsafeand
nowyou’rereallyinthetotalanimalsoupoftime”(Howl,19).
However,somejournalentries,intypicalGinsbergfashion,takeamorepersonal
approachandcommentonhisownanxieties—abouttime,materialpossessions,love,and
countlessotherthingsthatplaguedhim.Forinstance,takethisjournalentryfromAugust
21st,1956simplyentitledDream:“IopenedaletterfromBurroughs—describinganew
project—acave—thecaveofreligiousmysteries,atouristattractioninVeniceofRome—
gonnamakeshowbizhistoryandreligioushistory—gottadieholy—anyoneenterscave
nevercomesoutalive,thefinalthrillrealdeathleaveyourpossessionsatthedoorwiththe
attendant—(higherturnoverinattendance,hardtokeepthemfromrushingscreaminginto
thecave)—Onlythegimmickisnobodydieswithoutmakingit—TheIllumination,Ecstasy,
Dunsky 7
SeeGodandDie—onlyproblemgettherightdrug—orwitchdoctor”(JournalsMid-fifties
1954-1958,309).JoanDidiononcesaid,“IwriteentirelytofindoutwhatI’mthinking,
whatI’mlookingat,whatIseeandwhatitmeans.WhatIwantandwhatIfear”(Didion,
“WhyIWrite”).ThisfeelsespeciallyapplicabletoGinsberg’sjournals,asheuseshisunique
humorandwittogivevoicetohisinneranxieties,manyofwhichappearinhislaterpoetry.
HowlPartI:“Alostbattalionofplatonicconversationalists”
“Isawthebestmindsofmygenerationdestroyedbymadness,starvinghysterical
naked,draggingthemselvesthroughthenegrostreetsatdawnlookingforanangryfix,
angelheadedhipstersburningfortheancientheavenlyconnectiontothestarrydynamointhe
machineryofnight…”
Howlchallengedconceptionsofwhatapoemshouldbe,bothbymanipulatingthe
poeticformandbyincludingcontentthatwasn’tseenasappropriateforpoetry.His
impetusfordepartingfrommoretypicalmethodsofpoetryismostclearlyseeninhis
relationshipwithLionelTrilling,theprofessorwithwhomhetooktheGreatBooksclassat
Columbia.Thoughmutualrespectwashigh,Ginsbergfeltcagedinbythemethodsof
literaryanalysisandwritingthatpervadedthecorecurriculum.Onearticledescribedthe
relationshipbetweenTrillingandGinsbergas“alifelongfriendshipthatwasalsoamortal
combat—overliteratureandpolitics,moralityandmaturity,liberalismandradicalism.”
(Kirsch,“LiberalFatherRadicalSon”).ThemoreGinsberglearnedaboutliterature,the
morehebegandelvingintohisownuniquestyleofpoetics.Thoughtheydisagreedon
almosteverything,GinsbergfoundanallyinTrilling,perhapsbecausetheywereboth
Jewish(TrillingwasColumbia’sfirsttenuredJewishprofessor—nosmallfeat).Ginsbergis
quotedassaying“IwasprobablyclosesttoTrillingbecausewewerebothJewishandhe
sortofempathizedwithme.”(Kirsch,“LiberalFatherRadicalSon”).Thisempathyran
Dunsky 8
deep,andthoughhistimeatColumbiawaslargelyunhappy,Ginsbergfoundsolaceinhis
relationshipwithTrilling.
OnceheleftColumbia,however,Ginsberg’spoetrywentinadirectionthatTrilling
couldn’tstand—hefamouslyhatedHowlandmuchofGinsberg’sotherworkfromthis
period.ItispossiblethatTrillingfeltattackedbytheflagrantanti-Columbiasentimentsin
thebeginningofthepoem.Ginsbergcriticizedintellectualculture,whichhefoundtobe
shallowandempty—Trilling,however,washighlyinvestedinthecultureofacademia.
Ginsbergwrites“whopassedthroughuniversitieswithradiantcooleyeshallucinating
ArkansasandBlake-lighttragedyamongthescholarsofwar…whowereexpelledfromthe
academiesforcrazy&publishingobsceneodesonthewindowsoftheskull.”(Howl,9).
Interestingly,someversionsofHowlhavethislinewrittenas“thescholarsofloveand
war”,ratherthanjustwar—perhapsanallusiontothecomplicatedandsometimes
contradictoryfeelingsGinsbergheldforTrilling.Eitherway,IbelievethatGinsbergowes
Trillingforprovidinghimwiththeimpetusandtheknowledgetobranchout.Ginsberg
foundhispointofdeparturefromothertypesofpoetry—hisforkintheroad—under
Trilling’smentorship.
Howlwassodifferentfromthepoetryoftheerathatitwouldevencomeunder
scrutinyastowhetherornotthepoemcouldevenbeconsideredliteratureduetoits
obscenecontent(butmoreonthatlater).Intermsofform,PartIharkensbacktoKing
James’BibleandthepoetryofWaltWhitman—it’scomprisedoflong,sparselypunctuated
burstsofthoughtthatserveasvignettesofGinsberg’sfellowangelheadedhipstersand
closestfriends.Howlisanode,adiatribe,astream-of-consciousness-drivenstringof
associativeleapsthatGinsbergmakesinanattemptto“[put]downherewhatmaybeleft
Dunsky 9
tosayintimecomeafterdeath”(Howl,20).Itisadesolatecryagainstrepressionand
madness,andyetitspulseisdefiantlyjoyous.Itisfullofcontradictions.Ittakes
permissionfromWhitman’s“Itislarge;itcontainsmultitudes.”
Ginsbergbeginsbyaddressingthepoem’ssubjects—theso-called“angelheaded
hipsters.”ItharkensbacktoAquinas’question:“howmanyangelscandanceonthehead
ofapin?”Howmanyangelscaninhabitasmallspace—adingyone-roomapartment,a
broken-downvan,acoldwaterflat—andfillitwiththeirexplosiveart?Wheredidthese
angelscomefrom,andwherearetheygoing?Ginsberg’scontemporariesdwelledinthe
spacebetweenangelsandhipsters—theseslouchingartistswholiveddoortodoorand
dosetodosewerealsochurningoutsomeofthemostinfluentialartoftheirgeneration.
Therefore,theregalityoftheterm‘angels’feelsperfectlyathomewiththecolloquial
‘hipster’—Ginsbergbreaksdowntheallegeddivisionbetweenthetwo,thusexpandingon
thedestructionofthesacred/profanedichotomythatcontinuesasathreadthroughoutthe
poem.
Whenhereferstohis“angelheadedhipsters,”heisnodoubtreferringtoCarl
Solomonandhisfellowbeats,thoughonalargerscale,heisappealingtoalloftheartists
andmadmenofthe1950swhodidnotfitsociety’smold.Whilethefirstpartofthissection
servesasaportraitofthelivesofhisfellowartists,thesecondpartfunctionsasawayfor
Ginsbergtodelveintohisownconsciousness.
Inthefirstpartofthissection,Ginsberglooksat“thebestmindsofhis
generation”—whotheywere,whattheydid,wheretheyhungout,andtheoveralllives
theyled.HehintsatthemultitudesofaspectsofAmericansocietythathavedestroyed
them,thoughhegoesmoreindepthwiththisthoughtinthesecondsectionofthepoem.
Dunsky 10
Hepaintsaportraitofhispeersbothinformandcontent—mostlinesbeginwiththeword
“who”whichisfollowedbyalongrollingthoughtthattumblesintothenextline.Itis
apparentthatGinsberg’sbestmindswerenotthecelebratedones—thedoctorsand
lawyers—thepeoplethatmostofAmericaheldupasashiningexample.Instead,theyare
dropouts,bums,travelers,dissidents,artists,andwriters—theydonotsettleinaplace,but
rathermovefranticallyforward,muchliketherhythmofHowlitself.Inthefirstfewlines,
Ginsbergwrites:“whopovertyandtattersandhollow-eyedandhighsatupsmokinginthe
supernaturaldarknessofcoldwaterflatsfloatingacrossthetopsofcitiescontemplating
jazz…”(Howl,9).Thesefellowartistswerewanderersmovingfromplacetoplace—
removedcompletelyfromtheproductionlineofAmericansociety.
Inthesecondhalfofthesection,Ginsbergusesanaphoratocreateaparallelsyntax
structureatthebeginningofeachline.Hefixatesonhisownartisticandsexual
frustrationsuntiltheycometoaheadtowardstheend.Thiscatalystinthepoemismarked
byaswitchfromtherepetitionof“who”atthebeginningofeachlinetoalinebeginningin
“with”,andlater,adirectaddresstoCarlSolomon,themantowhomthepoemisdedicated.
Ginsbergfollowsasectionthataddressesdeterioratingmentalhealthinwildstanzas
imbuedwithincreasinglysavageimagerywiththefollowingphrase:“withmotherfinally
******,andthelastfantasticbookflungoutthetenementwindow,andthelastdoorclosed
at4A.M.andthelasttelephoneslammedatthewallinreplyandthelastfurnishedroom
emptieddowntothelastpieceofmentalfurniture,ayellowpaperrosetwistedonawire
hangerinthecloset,andeventhatimaginary,nothingbutahopefullittlebitof
hallucination”(Howl,19).Thiscatalystlendsthesectionasenseoffinality,andatvarious
pointsthroughoutthepoem,Ginsberg’sangelheadedhipsterspauseindespairasthough
Dunsky 11
theycan’tgoon.Thisideaofbrokenness,ofthefinalstraw,ofman’sinabilitytogoon,
comesupagainandagainthroughoutthepoem—however,somewhereinthedepthsofthe
humanspirit,Ginsberg’sprotagonistsmustertheirstrengthandforgeinevitablyforward.
Theygoon,timeandtimeagain,inpursuitofsomeineffablething,orasGinsbergwrites,
“tofindoutifIhadavisionoryouhadavisionorhehadavisiontofindouteternity.”
(Howl,17).Andyet,thoughthepreviouspassageisfulloffinalityanddesolation,Ginsberg
leavesuswithanimageofhope—ayellowpaperrosetwistedonawirehangerinacloset.
Aburstofcolorinanotherwisegraylandscape.Andyet,eventhislittleburstofhope,this
flickerofpotentialredemption,isimaginary.
“Withmotherfinally******”—finally,afteralifetimeofagonyandinadequatecare.
Finally,afteraprotractedbattlewithundiagnosedschizophreniaanddepression.Finally,
afterherownsonsweremadetowatchherdisintegrate.Itiseasytoreadtheletters
replacedbyasterisksasf-u-c-k-e-d,anditverywellmightbewhatGinsberghadinmind.
Certainly,thereadingfits—afterreceivingalobotomy,NaomiGinsbergcouldverywellbe
describedashavingbeenfucked—fuckedbythemedicalprofessionthatposited
lobotomiesastreatmentandfuckedbythecountrythatwasmeanttotakeherin.
However,themissingletterscouldalsobereadasf-u-z-z-e-d.Ginsberg,a21-year-oldat
thetime,wasaskedtoauthorizehismother’streatment,andnotknowinganybetter,he
didso.Afterherlobotomy,hismother’sonceagilemind—amindheavilyinvestedinthe
worker’scause,whousedtotaketheyoungGinsbergtoIWWrallies—wasintatters.
Thoughshelivedanotherfifteenyears,hismother’smindwasdulledstatic,likethegrey
fuzzofatelevisionscreen.Finally—herlife’spathleadinguptoherlobotomywasnoteasy,
andneitherwasherlifeafterthesurgery.Ginsbergwasplaguedwithguiltforhaving
Dunsky 12
playedaroleinhismother’sdemise,andherlifeanddeathwereprevalenttopicsinmuch
ofhispoetry.Orperhaps,afinalreadingof“withmotherfinally******”hastheasterisks
signifyingnothing—asthoughthereisnowaytodescribeNaomiGinsberg’strialsthrough
writing.Herunimaginablesufferingcan’tbesetforthusingwords,evenbyherownson,
whowatchedherdailystruggle.Twodaysbeforeshediedinthehospitalin1956,these
wereNaomi’sfinalwordstoherson:“Thekeyisinthewindow,thekeyisinthesunlightin
thewindow—Ihavethekey—getmarriedAllendon’ttakedrugs.…Love,yourmother.”
(Ward).
HowlPartII:“AngelinMoloch”
“Molochwhosemindispuremachinery!Molochwhosebloodisrunningmoney!
Molochwhosefingersaretenarmies!Molochwhosebreastisacannibaldynamo!Moloch
whoseearisasmokingtomb!”
Molochthemetaphorforcapitalism!Molochthepersonificationofanxiety!Moloch
theworkingman’sbattle!Inmodernliterature,includingHowl,theterm‘Moloch’hascame
torepresentsomethingorsomeonerequiringagreatsacrifice.ForGinsberg,Moloch
incarnatesthecapitalistsocietythathefoundsotaxing.Itisaliving,breathingthing,made
terrifyingbyitslust,itsgreed,andtheenormousscaleonwhichitoperatesinAmerican
society.
Molochhasabodyofitsownthroughoutthepoem,whichmirrorsitsportrayalin
RabbinicaltraditionastheCanaanitegodofsacrifice—astatueofahornedfigure,halfman
halfgoat,heatedwithfireintowhichsacrificialvictimscouldbethrown.Moloch,
specifically,isthegodtowhomchildrenweresacrificed—athemethatresurfacesformany
Beatauthors.Faulkneroncesaidthat“inwriting,youmustkillallyourdarlings”,andthis
ideacomesupforGinsberg’sangelheadedhipstersagainandagainaswewatchforces
Dunsky 13
beyondtheircontroldemandintolerablehumansacrifice.Thissectionexpandsonthe
horrorsthattheyfaced.Molochisadestructiveforce,andthenatureofitsdestructionis
theveryenginethatdrivesit—thecapitalistmindset,whichlimitsmaninoneway,andthe
repressivepoliticalatmosphere,whichlimitsmaninanother.
SectionIIofthepoemfunctionsasadirectappealtoMoloch,“theheavyjudgerof
men”(Howl,21),beggingforlenienceandamoreexpansivenotionofhowoneshouldbe
abletoliveinAmericansociety.It’sanappealagainstarigidconceptionofmanhoodthat
GinsbergandtheBeatPoetsconstantlyfoughtagainst.It’sanacknowledgementofthe
difficultyofthelifeofanartist.Morethantheothersections,itreadswithadefeatist
pallor.Andyet,finally,likethepoemitself,thetoneisultimatelyredemptive.William
CarlosWilliamssumsuptheparadoxofHowlinhisintroductiontothepoem—howcanthe
workasawholebeanacknowledgementofincomparableloss,arallyingcry,andasongof
redemption?Williamswrites,“Itisahowlofdefeat.Notdefeatatallforhehasgone
throughdefeatasifitwereanordinaryexperience,atrivialexperience.Everyoneinthis
lifeisdefeatedbutaman,ifhebeaman,isnotdefeated.”(Howl,7).Andindeed,thoughthe
sectiondetailsunimaginablesacrifice,likethepoemitself,itendsonaredemptivenote:
“Breakthroughs!overtheriver!flipsandcrucifixions!gonedowntheflood!Highs!
Epiphanies!Despairs!Tenyears’animalscreamsandsuicides!Minds!Newloves!Mad
generation!downontherocksofTime!Realholylaughterintheriver!Theysawitall!the
wildeyes!theholyyells!Theybadefarewell!Theyjumpedofftheroof!tosolitude!waving!
carryingflowers!Downtotheriver!intothestreet!”(Howl,23).Thesefinallines
foreshadowthetoneandformofthepoem’sfootnote—crazyjubilance.
Dunsky 14
McCarthyismand1950ssociety
“Businessmenareserious.Movieproducersareserious.Everybody’sseriousbutme.
ItoccurstomethatIamAmerica.Iamtalkingtomyselfagain.”–Ginsberg’s“America”
The1950swasnotagoodtimetobeagay,radicallyleft-leaningcommunist
BuddhistpoetinAmerica.Ginsbergfoundhimselftransgressingagainstsocietalnorms
suchascapitalismandhomosexualitythroughbothhispersonallifechoicesandhispoetry.
AlongwithhisfellowBeats,Ginsbergcreatedacounterculturethatwasextremelyactive,
pulsingbeneaththeconformistfaçadeofAmericainthe1950s.
UnderstandingtheunderlyingtenantsofMcCarthyismhelpstocontextualizeboth
thecanonofBeatpoetryandHowlitself.HaroldBrodkey—oneofthegreatestshortstory
writerstohavelived—describestheeraassuch:“Moralcowardiceandpersonalsafetyand
corruptionandself-doubtandunlimitedgreedbecamenationalcharacteristicsandvirtues.
Nooneknewhowtoact.Itfeltasifthiswereacountryconsistingentirelyofrecent
converts,andeveryonewentontiptoe.”(Horowitz,“Culture,Politics,andMcCarthyism”,p.
102).Corruption,terror,anemphasisonthematerialasawayofstavingoffthevoid—fear
ofRussia,ofChina;ofallthingsforeign,ofdifference,ofthe‘other’thatwebelievedhad
managedtoinfiltrateAmericansociety.
Thoughitwasdifficulttopublishrevolutionarymaterialduringanerawhenthe
dominantdiscoursehadAmericansprioritizingtraditional(onemightevensayregressive)
moralandreligiousvalues(justlookattheHowlobscenitytrial),thiscounterculture
managedtoflourish.Itisdifficultandperhapsnotfruitfultostudythiscountercultureas
anisolatedphenomenon—afterall,acounterculturemustbecounteringsomething.The
BeatGeneration,andGinsberginparticular,wereverymuchproductsofanage—they
createdart,inconversationwithjazzmusiciansandotherpostWWIIauthors,asareaction
Dunsky 15
againstadominantnarrativethatthegovernmentwasforce-feedingthenation.Inhis
articleentitled“Culture,Politics,andMcCarthyism,”IrvingLouisHorowitzarguesthat“the
AmericansoilwashospitabletoacreativeculturaloutburstintheMcCarthyistperiod,and
astrongelementofliberalism,indeedradicalism,wasperhapsmoretypicaloftheagethan
onehadarighttoexpectgiventhepublicsentimentsofthetimes.”(104).Idisagreewith
Horowitzhere—Ithinkitwasinfactthepublicsentimentofthetimesthatgaverisetothe
BeatGeneration.ItfollowsthattheBeatwriterswouldwriteastheydid—includingthe
verytopicsthatthedominantdiscoursedeemednotonlyinappropriate,butalsounAmerican.Theirswasaverydeliberateproject—togivevoicetothevoiceless,andto
provideanarrativethatrancontrarytotheoneonthesurface.Tothisday,BeatLiterature
continuestosignifyrebellionagainstthestatusquo—afterall,whyelsewouldHowlbethe
numberonechoiceofbooktocarryaroundforthekidswhosmokeweedbehindthe
lockersduringlunchperiod?ItwillbeinterestingtoseehowBeatliteratureagesaswe
moveforwardandthelastofthegreatBeatspassaway.ThoughIbelievethataslongas
societycontinuestooppressmarginalizedgroups(andlet’sfaceit—wearen’tontrackto
stopthesedestructivepracticesanytimesoon),BeatLiteraturewillcontinuetooccupyits
rightfulspotintherevolutionistcanonofAmericanliterature.
HowlPartIII:“I’mwithyouinRockland”
“I’mwithyouinRocklandwhereyouscreaminastraightjacketthatyou’relosingthe
gameoftheactualpingpongoftheabyss”
SectionIIIdirectlyaddressesCarlSolomon,amanwhomGinsbergmetduringhis
stayattheColumbiaPresbyterianPsychologicalInstitutein1949.Ginsbergreferstothis
institutionas“Rockland”inthepoem,repeatingthephrase“I’mwithyouinRockland!”at
thebeginningofeachline.Inthissection,GinsbergshowsusCarlSolomon’sdescentinto
Dunsky 16
madnessasheexperiencesitasafellowpatient.Theirfriendshipwaspredicatedon
mutualfeelingsofagonyanddespair,andwhileGinsbergfindssimilaritiesbetweenhis
ownexperienceandSolomon’s,hemakesapointofdistinguishingbetweenthetwoby
manipulatingthestructureofthissection.
Inthefirstlineofthestanza,headdressesSolomon’smentalconditiondirectly:“I’m
withyouinRocklandwhereyou’remadderthanIam”(Howl,24).Ginsbergcreatesa
distancebetweenhisownlamentationsandthoseofCarlSolomon,furtheralludingtothe
isolationinherentinstruggleswithmentalhealth.Thoughtheyareinthesameplaceatthe
sametime,theirexperiencesaredistinct.
Laterinthissection,however,Ginsbergbrieflyswitchestothepronoun“we”,
bringingthetwomenbacktogetheragaininsomethingofafeverdream:“I’mwithyouin
RocklandwherewehugandkisstheUnitedStatesunderourbedsheetstheUnitedStates
thatcoughsallnightandwon’tletussleepI’mwithyouinRocklandwherewewakeup
electrifiedoutofthecoma…they’vecometodropangelicbombsthehospitalilluminates
itselfwallscollapseOskinnylegionsrunoutsideOstarry-spangledshockofmercythe
eternalwarishereOvictoryforgetyourunderwearwe’refree”(Howl,26).Whilethetwo
menareunitedbrieflyinthesestanzas,Ginsbergabruptlyswitchesbacktousing“you”in
theendinglineofthissection:“I’mwithyouinRocklandinmydreamsyouwalkdripping
fromasea-journeyonthehighwayacrossAmericaintearstothedoorofmycottageinthe
Westernnight”(Howl,26).ThisfinaldreamimageservesasareminderthatGinsbergand
Solomonhavebeenirrevocablyseparatedbyfateandcircumstance.
FootnotetoHowl:“Holy!Holy!Holy!Holy!Holy!”
“Holythegroaningsaxophone!Holythebopapocalypse!Holythejazzbands
marijuanahipsterspeace&junk&dreams!”
Dunsky 17
Inthissection,unlikeintherestofthepoem,Ginsbergusesshortburstsofphrases
punctuatedbytheword“Holy!”ThefootnoteactsasacounterparttoPartII,which
GinsbergpopulateswithexclamationsofMoloch!ratherthanHoly!,thoughheuses
anaphorainbothsectionstocreatetherhythm.Together,thesetwosectionsrepresentthe
sacredandtheprofane,butthefactthatGinsbergchoosestoendHowlonajoyousnote
leavesnodoubtinourmindsthatthetoneofthispoemisultimatelyredemptive:“Holythe
supernaturalextrabrilliantintelligentkindnessofthesoul!”(Howl,28)WhereMoloch
(society)hasthepowertodestroy;manandtheartthathecreates(twoearthlyyetholy
forces)havethepowertoredeem.
Ginsbergcontradictsthedesolationoftheartist’slifethat’sapparentinpartoneand
thedestructivepowerofsocietyandmadnessapparentinpartstwoandthreewiththe
solethingofferingtheartistsalvation—anabilitytoexperiencetheworldtoahilt.
However,accordingtoGinsberg,thoughtheyseewithblindersoff,evenartistsareunable
toexperiencetheworldintheentiretyofits“supernaturalecstasy”(Howl,12).William
CarlosWilliamswritesthefollowing:“Poetsaredamnedbuttheyarenotblind,theysee
withtheeyesofangels”(Howl,8).AccordingtoGinsberg,thisheightenedperception,
thoughitmakeslifedifficult,issomethingtobecelebrated.
Andcelebratehedoes—thoughtheartisticgiftcanfeellikeaburden,asevidenced
inPartI,itis,inessence,acauseforcelebration.Ifonewritespoetry,thenoneexperiences
theworldtoahilt—bothsadnessandjoy.Inthissection,Ginsbergmakesholyboththe
thingsweholdinthehighestesteemandthethingsthatwetendtolookonasprofaneor
castaside:“Theworldisholy!Thesoulisholy!Theskinisholy!Thenoseisholy!The
tongueandcockandassholeholy!”(Howl,27).
Dunsky 18
Hisphrase“holythebopapocalypse”(Howl,27)harkensbacktothefirstsectionof
thepoem,wherehewritesofan“elielilammalammasabacthanisaxophonecry”(Howl,
20).Translatedliterally,elielilammalammasabacthanimeans“MyGod,MyGod,why
haveYouforsakenme?”(biblestudy.org).Heisforsaken;defeatedeven,inthemidstofthe
apocalypse—butbop,jazz,andpeyotestillexist.Thesearethethemeslendingthissection
itsholyvibes.Inforsakenness,thereiscompany—thereisthepossibilityofredemption.
HowlonTrial:Whatis‘obscenity’anyway?
“LawrenceFerlinghetti,SanFranciscobookseller,poetandpublisher,wasthecentral
figureintherecentactionbythelocalCollectorofCustomswhoseized520copiesofthe
paper-boundvolume“HowlandOtherPoems,”byAllenGinsberg.Thebooks,seizedlast
March22,werebeingshippedtoFerlinghetti’sCityLightsBookShipbytheBritishprinter,
Villiers.AfirsteditionpassedthroughU.S.CustomsinOctober1956andwasreleasedwithout
incidentbyFerlinghetti.TheMarchshipmentwashaltedbyChesterMcPhee,Collectorof
CustomsforSanFrancisco…”
ThatisanexcerptfromtheSanFranciscochronicle,datedMayof1956.What
followedwasamaelstromofactivityculminatinginatrialtodeterminewhetherornot
Howlwasobscene.Peopledefendedthecollectionandattackedit,publishingtheirviews
inthelocalpapers—likethislady,whohasclearlyneverhadanorgasm:“Asaparentof
teen-agechildren,IwishtosupportMr.MacPheeinhisattempttokeepdirtybooksoutof
thiscountry.Ifthepeoplewhoopposethisfilthsitquietlybywhileaminorityof
liberalitiesshouttoopenthegatestoobscenebooksandpoemsitmaywellbethatthis
minoritywillsoonswampthecountrywiththefilthanddirtytheylovesowell.”–J.Leslie
Jensen(HowlonTrial,104).Countlesslettersofthissortpouredin—peoplewishingto
keepthebookshelvesfreeofobscenematerial,forthegoodofthecountry,fortheupkeep
oftheliterarytradition,andofcourse,fortheinnocenteyesofchildren.Ontheotherside
oftheargument,peoplepointedouttheproblemwithcensoringallliteraturedeemedunfit
Dunsky 19
forchildren.TheycomparedthepracticesoftheSanFranciscoCustomsofficetothe
Orwelliancharacter‘BigBrother’andlamentedthestateoffreeexpressioninAmerica.
ThefollowingisanexcerptfromanewspaperarticlewrittenbyWilliamHoganunderthe
byline‘AStupidPrecedent’:“Thepointisthatcopsareraidingthebookstoresand
presumably,withthisprecedentset,theliterarypartcanmarchintoanystoreintownand
arrestthepersonnelatwill.Notforselling‘HowlandOtherPoems,’butforselling
anythingmembersofthisOrwell‘BigBrother’agencydoesn’tlike.”(HowlonTrial,113).
Clearly,thiswouldn’tdo.Thereneededtobeadiscussionofwhatconstitutesliteraturein
ordertosetaprecedentgoingforththatwasn’t,well,stupid.Howlbecameacatalystfora
discussionaboutobscenityandwhatconstitutesaworthwhileliterarypiece—inshort,
whetherornotsomethingwithovertreferencestodeviantsexandpsychedelicdrugscould
possiblyhaveliterarymerit.
GayRightsMovement
“Whohowledontheirkneesinthesubwayandweredraggedofftheroofwaving
genitalsandmanuscripts,wholetthemselvesbefuckedintheassbysaintlymotorcyclists,and
screamedwithjoy,whoblewandwereblownbythosehumanseraphim,thesailors,caresses
ofAtlanticandCaribbeanlove”
Howlwasextremelyinfluentialforthegayrightsmovement—itservedasacallto
arms;aninjunctionforqueerpeopletotakeupspaceandpropelthemselvesintothe
commonvernacularduringaperiodofhistorywhenthegovernmenthaddeemedthem
mentally-illandwantedtoseethemerasedcompletelyfromtheAmericannarrative.
Ginsbergisresoluteinhisnotionthatqueerpeopleshoulddemandtobeseen—anotion
thatwouldlaterculminateintheGayPridemovement.VanEngendescribesGinsberg’s
mobilizingstrategyassuch:“Burstingfromwalls,screamingontheirkneesinsubways,
ballinginparks,wavinggenitalsonroofs,findingpleasureinthenightmareofthe
Dunsky 20
psychiatricwards,thecharactersinHowl…catalyzedAmericangaypridemovementsinthe
latertwentiethcenturythroughtheiropennessinthemidstofpunishingviolencetowards
gaymen.”(VanEngen,“HowlingMasculinity”).Hewantedtocelebratequeeridentityina
timewhennotonlywasbeinggaycondemned,butqueernessliterallyconnotedinsanity:
“InHowl,thescenesetinthepsychiatrichospitaldoesn’tspecificallymentionqueers,but
itscreativecitationsofpsychiatricpatientsrefertocontemporarygaymaleidentity,ifwe
takeintoaccountthat,inthe1950s,insaneconnotedhomosexualandviceversa.”(Van
Engen,“HowlingMasculinity”).Hiscelebrationofqueeridentityisinextricablyentwined
withhiscelebrationofinsanity—inessence,heiscallingattentiontoandcelebrating
(muchlikeWhitmandid)themyriadwaystherearetobeapersonintheworld.
13yearoldGinsbergfanatic—thefirstreadthrough
“Ithoughtyoumightlikethis.He’strulyoneofthegreatestwritersevertohave
lived.”Mydadwithdrew,unwillingtobesuckedintomyfesteringteenagemoroseness.I
remembersittingonourfadedgreencouchflippingthroughDVRrecordings,lookingfor
somethingtowatch.Restless,bored,mopeyforsomeindefinablereason.IturnedtheTV
offandsatinthecracklingsilence.Then,outofsheernecessityforanactivity,Ipeekedat
thefirstpageofthebookmydadhaddroppedinmylap—
Isawthebestmindsofmygenerationdestroyedbymadness
Ireadthroughtheentirepoemunpausing,andthenIreadthroughitagain.Twilightcame
andwent—Ididn’tnotice.Eventually,afterseveralhoursandathirdreadthrough,itgot
toodarktoread—soIflippedonthelightandbegantomemorize.
WhenIwenttosleepthatnight,theairinmyroomhadshifted.Ididn’thavethe
languageyettodefineit,butsomethingwasdifferent.WhenIwokeupthenextmorning,
Dunsky 21
Howlwasmyfirstthought—IlayinbedsilentlyrecitingthepassagesIhadmemorized
beforeIstartedmyday.
Iorderedseveralmorecopies.Ibroughtthemtoschool.Ishowedmymiddle
schoolfriends,breathlessandgiddyandafraidfortheirreactions(fuckedintheassby
saintlymotorcyclists??).MyU.S.Historyteachercaughtmereadingitunderthetableand
confiscatedit—twice(sorryMr.Greenfield;nothinglikethehubrisofamiddleschooler
whothinksshe’sfoundanewandbettercurriculumthantheoneyou’reteaching).
Istartedhighschool.MydesiretomemorizeHowlcontinuedtoconsumeme—each
dayI’daddanotherstanzatomyrepertoire.WheneverIhadasparemoment,Iwould
jumptoapageandstartrecitinginmyhead.Icouldn’tfallasleepwithoutcompletingafull
run-through,lyinginbedandstaringupattheceilingwiththePocketPoetseditiononmy
pillowforreference.SomenightsIsleptbetterthanothers.
WhenIhadfinallymemorizedthewholething,Ikeptittomyself.IknewthatHowl
didn’tneedmetoprotectit,andyetthat’swhatIwantedtodo.Iwantedtokeepitsafeand
nothavetoarticulatewhatitwasthathadenrapturedme,becausearticulatingthingsis
scaryandhardandwhatifIfail?Iwantedtobeateacher,apublicist,lateralawyerfora
briefsecond—Ididn’twanttobeawriter.Ididn’twantthecrushingpressureof
articulationonmyshoulders.Instead,IwantedtokeepHowlclosetomybreastlikea
personalsecret.
“WhatthoughtsIhaveofyoutonight,WaltWhitman”:Ginsberg’sInfluences
“WhatthoughtsIhaveofyoutonight,WaltWhitman,forIwalkeddownthesidestreets
underthetreeswithaheadacheself-consciouslookingatthefullmoon.”–Ginsberg’s“A
SupermarketinCalifornia”
Dunsky 22
Influenceistricky.IlovereadingthroughGinsberg’searlyworkandthenflippingto
thewritinghedidinhisfinaldays(someofwhichwaspublishedposthumously).Asan
intenselypersonalpoet,Ginsberg’sCollectedPoemsreadslikeajournalofself-discovery—a
kunstlerromanofalost,neuroticboyfindingpeaceinacommunityofsimilarlychaotic
minds.AsGinsbergstraysawayfromconventioninhispersonallife,sodoeshispoetry,
andwiththat,formfollowscontent.Ginsberg’spoetrygrowslessstructuredandbranches
outfromitstightverses.Ifyoulookclosely,youcanpinpointthemomentwhenhe
discoveredWhitmanandLorcaandbeganexpandinghisownconceptionofpoeticform.
Fromthere,hewentontodevelopastyleofpoetrythatwasuniquelyhisown—thestylein
whichHowliswritten.
WaltWhitman’spoetryheavilyinfluencedthatofAllenGinsberg,bothintermsof
contentandpoeticform.Firstly,GinsbergfollowedinWhitman’sfootstepsintermsof
glorifyingandcelebratinggaysexandthemalebodyingeneral—topicsthathadpreviously
beenconsideredtaboo.Whereasbeforethefemalebodywasthemainsiteofsexualityin
literatureandart,Whitmanexpandedthisconcepttoincludemalesaswell.AsSelby
states,“ForbothWhitmanandGinsbergthisprocessbywhichpoetsbecomepopular
heroesandAmericaapoetictextreliesupondiscoursesofsexandsexuality,especiallygay
sexuality”(63).Readinthecontextofthegayrightsmovementofthe1960s,thepoetryof
Whitman(andlaterGinsberg)servesasarallyingcryfornotonlynormalizinggay
relationships,butcelebratingthemaswell.
HowlandVirginity(myown)
Howlwasalwaysapersonalthing.LikeImentionedbefore,Iwantedtokeepitas
somethingthatIdiduniquelyforme.ExplainingitsmeaningwasataskthatIdidn’tfeelup
Dunsky 23
to,likeIdidn’thavetheauthoritytoexplainusingwordssomethingthatIfeltsoviscerally.
Atthesametimethough,Iwantedthechancetoreciteitwhilesomeonecheckedmefor
errorsormissedlines—soIaskedmyboyfriendtobethatperson.Nointerruptions,no
comments,noopinions—Iwantedhimtositquietlyandlistentome(somethingthathe
hadgrownaccustomedtodoing)andtakenotessothatIcouldcorrectmymistakes.
ThefirsttimeIrecitedHowltosomeoneelseinitsentiretywasaprolificnightof
firsts—itwasalsothenightIlostmyvirginity.Welaythereafterwards,feelinggypped.
Thewholethingwas,inaword,unpleasant.Inanotherword—uncomfortable.Thebody
didnotfinditselfsungelectric.Instead,wefoundourselvesatsomethingofanimpasse.
“Youfinishedmemorizing,right?”heasked.Ihadfinishedtheweekbefore,instead
ofstudyingformyACTexam.
“Yeah,but…”Ifiddledwiththeedgeofmypillowcase.
“No‘buts.’We’retryingnewthingstonight.Ithinkyoushouldreciteittome.”SoI
did—Ihandedhimoneofmyworn-wearyPocketPoetseditionandguidedhimtothefirst
page.Igavehimapencilandaskedhimtocirclemymistakes.
“Ready?”
“Isawthebestmindsofmygeneration…”
Howlisacelebrationofthebodyinallitsbeaten-downglory.Itisacelebrationof
whatthebodyiscapableof.Itisanodetopleasure,topain,andtotheirintersection.On
thenightthatIfirstrecitedHowloutloudtoanotherperson,thesethemesbecame
abundantlyclearinawaythattheyhadn’tbeenbefore.HowGinsberginhabitedthebody
sofully,seekingpleasureandembracingpain,inthesamewaythatHowlitselfcelebrates
thesetwopoles.Forme,thisisthebeautyofHowlandGinsberg’spoetryasawhole—the
Dunsky 24
moreIgrewandthemoreIexperienced,themoreIunderstood.Howlhasunfoldedforme
likeacontinuousscroll,muchlikethescrollonwhichKerouacwroteOntheRoad—themes
becameapparent,andasIbegantoexperiencemoreoflife’sofferings,Howlhasbeenalong
fortheride.
Conclusion
ItishardtowriteaboutAllenGinsberg.NotbecauseIhaven’tbeenstudyingthe
minutiaeofhislifefromanearlyage,orbecauseIdon’tknowwhatIwanttosayabout
Howl.ItishardtowriteaboutAllenGinsberg,especiallyinanacademiccontext,becauseat
thispoint,itisdifficulttoviewhispoetryassomethingotherthananextensionofmyself
andmyadolescence.Asacollegewriter,IhavealwaysstrayedawayfromusingGinsberg
inmyacademicessays—eversinceanEnglishprofessortoldmethatitwasnotappropriate
tociteHowlinthetitleofeverysingleessay;especiallythoseon19thcenturyAmerican
Womenwriters(shewastotallyright,andIwastotallyresentfulofthatfact).Therewasa
wholewideworldofliteraturetodiscoveroverthecourseofmycollegecareer,andwith
thisinmind,IbranchedoutandawayfromBeatpoetry.ComingbacktoHowlnow,inmy
seniorthesis,ismywayofcomingfullcircle.I’vedecidedthatmaybebeingawriter
wouldn’tbetheworstthing.I’vefiguredoutthatyoudon’thavetoarticulateeverything
perfectly—thatsometimesjustputtingpentopaperisenough.Instudyingtherootsof
Ginsberg’swork,it’sbecomeapparentthatevenGinsbergwasnotalwaysGinsberg—his
stylehasevolvedandchangedincountlessways,andaslifehappenedtohim,hewasable
todevelopapersonalstyleamidstthechaos.Perhapsthisistheanswertothefundamental
contradictionofHowl—thatitisbothacryofdefeatandaredemptivecelebration.Though
lifehappenstoGinsberg,andoftenitdefeatshim,theveryactofturningitintoartiswhere
Dunsky 25
theredemptioncomesin.Hisstylewasnotborninavacuum—rather,itdevelopedfroma
lifelivedfully.I’dliketoquoteoneofhisearlierworkshere,titled“AnEasternBallad”:
Ispeakoflovethatcomestomind:
Themoonisfaithful,althoughblind;
Shemovesinthoughtshecannotspeak.
Perfectcarehasmadeherbleak.
Ineverdreamedtheseasodeep,
Theearthsodark;solongmysleep.
Ihavebecomeanotherchild.
Iwaketoseetheworldgowild.
Dunsky 26
Bibliography
“AllenGinsberg.”Biography.com.A&ENetworksTelevision,23Sept.2015.Web.12Dec.
2016.
“Moloch–Easton’sBibleDictionaryOnline.”BibleStudyTools.N.p.,n.d.Web.15Dec.2016.
Caveney,Graham.ScreamingwithJoy:TheLifeofAllenGinsberg.NewYork:Broadway,
1999.Print.
Charters,Ann.“AllenGinsberg’sLife.”ModernAmericanPoetry.IllinoisEnglish
Department,n.d.Web.23.Nov.2016.
Didion,Joan.“WhyIWrite.”TheNewYorkTimesBookReview,5Dec.2016.
Ginsberg,Allen.Howl,andotherpoems.SanFrancisco:CityLightsBookstore,1956.Print.
Ginsberg,Allen.CollectedPoems,1947-1980.NewYork:Harper&Row,1984.Print.
Ginsberg,AllenandGordonBall.JournalsMid-fifties,1954-1958.NewYork:HarperCollins,
1995.Print.
Harkavy,Ward.“TheScaryDaysWhenThousandsWereLobotomizedonLongIsland.”
VillageVoice.N.p.26Oct.1999.Web.30Nov.2016.
Horowitz,IrvingL.“Correction:Culture,Politics,andMcCarthyism.”TheIndependent
Review,vol.1,no.2, 1996,pp.310–310.
Kirsch,Adam.“LionelTrillingandAllenGinsberg:LiberalFather,RadicalSon.”
Vqronline.org.2009.Web.14Dec.2016.
Morgan,Bill,andNancyJ.Peters.HowlonTrial:TheBattleforFreeExpression.San
Francisco:CityLights,2006.Print.
Selby,Nick.“AllenGinsberg's‘Howl’:SexualityandPopularHeroismin50sAmerica.”Revue
Françaised'ÉtudesAméricaines,no.68,1996,pp.62–70.
Dunsky 27
VanEngen,Dagmar.“HowlingMasculinity:QueerSocialChangeinAllenGinsberg’s
Poetry.”BostonCollege,n.d.Web.15Dec.2016.