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Federalism as a consequence of cultural clashes?
The example of Belgium and Germany
Nicolas Gridelet, Simon Pommer
English Track , June 2004
Introduction
international decision-making process. This contradicts to
At first the question: “What is federalism?” must be asked.
the need of governments to be nevertheless still
Every culture or single person might interpret the term
responsive to their citizens and primary attachments such
differently. If we apply a definition from an encyclopaedia,
as linguistic and cultural ties, religious connections,
the following statements can be found: “In etymological
historical traditions or social practices. Federalism helps to
terms the word "federalism" comes from the Latin
reconcile those two opposing movements. Sometimes it is
i
"foeddus", which means "federation", "alliance" or "treaty".
claimed that federalism can only work in homogeneous
Since the times of Montesquieu in the 18th century
societies with the same religion and language. In the
federalism describes a community consisting of several
following it is tried to examine whether federalism can be
states which emphasise their right of taking part in the
seen to a certain extent as a consequence of cultural
decision making process and self-determination within the
differences and whether it even promotes the deepening of
community. Additionally it should be noted that a
cultural differences. This is investigated by means of the
federation (”organisation formed by merging several
examples of the two federal countries Belgium and
groups or parties”ii) differs from confederation which is just
Germany and how the cultural differences within those
a loose union of states. Furthermore there exist different
countries are reflected within their federalist frameworks.
views about what is meant by federalism. According to the
American understanding federalism attempts to counteract
German Federalism
separatist tendencies and the main aim is to strengthen
Personally for myself as a German federalism is the
federal institutions. In Europe however, federalism defends
allocation of competencies, power and responsibilities
the autonomy of the constituent states. Federalism can be
among more or less independent regions of a country.
considered as a framework for the distribution of the
In contrast to Belgium or Spain, Germany might at first
government’s
or
sight appear to be a rather unified country as it shares the
procedures. In order to arrange federalism on a scale it
same language. But nevertheless decentralisation has
can be said that a federal state can be located between a
deep roots in the German history.
loose
power
confederation
concerning
and
certain
unitary
policies
centralist
state.
Federalism is one possible form of a community living
Historical background of federalism in Germany
together and encourages different cultures to live together.
The tradition of regional governments can be dated back to
Thus it reconciles ”extensive solidarity and desires for
the foundation of the German empire in 1871. It had a
iii
of
strong dynastic approach and was dominated by Prussia
democracy Tocqueville puts the advantages of federalism
autonomy” .
The
liberal
thinker
and
advocate
(two thirds of the area of state and inhabitants). Most
in the following words: ”The federal system was created
financial revenues derived from contributions of the
with the intention of combining the advantages which result
affiliated states and thus the Empire existed at the
iv
from the magnitude and smallness of nations.”
The
disadvantage of the constituent states.
necessity of federalism as an organisational system is that
After WW I the Weimarer Republic comprised several
nowadays
partly unequal regions (Länder) [e.g. Prussia: 41,8 million
exist
pressure
of
increasing
world-wide
interdependence (e.g. economic market globalisation)
inhabitants;
which creates a demand for greater influence in the
inhabitants; 1 council seat], whereas the ”the central
26
council
seats
Lippe:
188,000
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government became the dominant player”, which still
meant that the regions existed at the expense of the
central state. When the Nazis gained power in 1933 the
leading principle was not only political conformity. During
their reign the federal system was substituted by strict
centralism. After 1945 Germany was divided into four
occupation zones and the allies controlled domestic and
external affairs. ”All major German political forces wished
to re-establish a new federal system. Political activity was
resumed on the regional level, i.e. in the Länder, leading to
the foundation of the Federal Republic of Germany in
1949.”v
The Soviet occupied zone of Germany on the
other hand was converted into the German Democratic
Republic (GDR) and represented only a weak form of
federalism. In Western Germany the support of a federal
organisation of the state increased: “In a survey carried out
in 1952, only 21 per cent of the population said they were
in favour of a federal structure. By 1983 this figure had
risen to 75 per cent and only eight per cent still objected.“vi
Current federalist approach
Since the reunification of Germany (3. October 1990)
Germany consists from an administrative point of view of
sixteen semi-autonomous regions (Bundesländer) as
illustrated by the map below.
Germany carries the principle of federalism even in its
official name (Federal Republic of Germany). It must be
mentioned that this administrative structure only partly
reflects the regional differences as there exist cultural
variations and rivalries even within those regions (e.g.
Bavaria: Franconia Old Bavaria / Baden-Württemberg:
Baden Schwaben). Due to this even within the regions
there exists again a federal structure (e.g. Bavaria which is
divided into seven government districts with their own
authorities). The tension between diversity and unity
requires to establish the correct power balance between
the federal government and the federate entities. “While in
a unitary, centralised state the authority conventionally is
separated into executive, legislature and judiciary, in the
federal
state
this
horizontal
balance
has
to
be
supplemented by a vertical one.”vii As a consequence the
German Constitution ( =
ˆ the Basic Law) distributes the
responsibilities and functions of the state on a territorial
basis between the federation and the regions. "The
exercise of governmental powers and the discharge of
governmental functions shall be incumbent on the
Bundesländer insofar as this Basic Law does not otherwise
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prescribe or permit."viii Due to this the federal government
German culture is the main influential factor for the
only has authority in areas which are specified in the Basic
federalist structure of the country. Before going further one
Law. The ”Bundesländer” which have no right to resign
should seek for a definition of culture – various
from the federation have to act in a pro federal way with
encyclopedias provide different definitons of the term: ”The
The federal
system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviours,
government has a more legislative role whereas the
and artifacts that the members of society use to cope with
majority of administrative work is done by the regions. This
their world and with one another, and that are transmitted
is proven by the fact that the region goverments employ
from generation to generation through learning.”x ; ”Culture
more
government.
are the social and religious structures and intellectual
Concerning legislation authority, it depends whether the
manifestations that characterize a society”xi. What would a
regulations shall be valid for all regions (civil and criminal
foreigner say if some asks him to describe the German
law, commercial law, nuclear energy, foreign affairs,
culture?
defence, monetary matters and key elements of taxation)
stereotypes. Germans are fond of order, rules, punctuality,
or not. In this fields the federal goverment possesses
travelling and are conscientious. The country is famous for
exclusive jurisdiction. Most aspects of education, culture,
its folk festivals (e.g. ”Oktoberfest” in Munich), beer and
municipal law and police matters, regulation of radio and
high quality products. These are only rather superficial
television and church affairs are subject to the regions.
German cultural features. Greater attention must be payed
The regions have their own parliaments which are
towards the composition of the entire German country.
regularly elected by popular vote. The responsible party or
Germany is of regional diversity and still today people in
coalition chooses a minister which selects a cabinet to
the various regions keep up their specific identities which
carry out the various functions. The clearest manifestation
are based on culture, history and tradition. People on the
of the federal system is the Bundesrat (consists of
Frisian Islands in the North Sea have different customs
representatives appointed by the Land governments), the
and traditions then farmers living in the Bavarian Alps (he
second chamber of the Federal legislature, in which the
might have even more in common with an Austrian). They
Land governments also exercise power at the national
probably even would have problems to talk to each other
level. “Here they have an important say in the Federal
due to their heavy dialects. Every region, sometimes even
legislature, more than half of all bills passed by the Federal
single towns have differing accents and dialects of the
the guidance of loyalty to the federation.
civil
servants
than
the
federal
ix
These
answers
are
often
dominated
by
Parliament, the Bundestag, require their approval.”
German language.
Additionally the Bundesrat takes part in the appointment of
hardly ever had a central structure. Additionally it must be
Throughout its history the country
judges for the federal court. Nevertheless there exist
considered that from a geographical point of view the
concurrent powers between the federal government and
German boarders changed frequently due to various wars
the regional governments concerning including areas such
and different rulers. Located in the centre of Europe
as civil law, refugee and expellee matters, public welfare,
Germany boarders many other countries (Poland, Czech
land management, consumer protection, public health, and
Republic,
the collection of vital statistics (data on births, deaths, and
Luxembourg, Netherlands and Denmark) which also left
marriages). In the fields of public service regulations,
and leave their (cultural) traces especially in the boarder
regional planning, nature conservation and mass media
regions. The Bundesland Saarland for instance was only
the federal government provides only the general political
several decades ago belonging to France and today
guidelines which are then worked out more detailed by the
shares the boarder with the ”Grande Nation”; thus a
“Bundesländer”. Germany can be called a unitary federal
French influence is recognisable. Another factor is that
Austria,
Switzerland,
France,
Belgium,
because the federation is
Germany was not famous for being a melting pot such as
strengthened at the expense of the constituent states;
the U.S. or in Europe France. Although it must be
particularly when legislation is concerned.
considered that since the 1960´s when there was a lack of
state [unitas (lat.)
=ˆ unity]
workforce,
there
live
many
Turkish,
Greeks
or
Why is Germany a federalist country?
Yugoslavians in Germany. Those ”minorities” also had a
After having explained the political federalist concept of
cultural impact – e.g. the Germans nowadays even seem
Germany one must examine the root of the German
to prefer the Turkish Kebap to the grilled ”Bratwurst”. Thus
affection towards federalism. One might conclude that the
Germany can be considered as a patchwork of many
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different cultures. In times of internationalisation and
unification is also referred to in the national hymn ).
globalisation people are seeking for authorities which are
”Preserving diversity in unity is the essence of a federal
close to their everday´s problems. Also in business habits
system.”
certain
recognized.
European Union in which regional pecularities can be
Entreprises often consist of different (more or less
preserved, which is important for the essence of a federal
independent) compartments and decisions are achieved
system.
federalist
approaches
can
be
xv
Most of Germans would favour a more federal
through consensus. This makes it often difficult to take
quick decisions. Also cultural life (culture in its closer
Belgian federalism
meaning) is organised federally – due to historic reasons
many cities possess an own theatre, orchestras and
The term « federalism » makes me thinking about two
choirs. In contrast to other European centralist countries
things: the end of the united state and the adjective
such as France or Great Britain regional urban centres
complicated. Belgian federalism could be viewed in the
play in Germany (e.g. Munich, Hamburg, Ruhr Basin) a
next century or even before as the first main official step to
more influential role and there is not the only focus on the
the separation of the country. It’s also, according to many
capital Berlin as it is the case in France with Paris for
jurists one of the most complicated political system
instance. Nevertheless there is also another cultural
regarding the size of the country and its population.
separation within Germany between the Western part and
the former GDR. Despite the reunification in 1990 the wall
Historical background of federalism in Belgium
in the heads of people (reffered to as ”Wessis” and
”Ossis”) continues to exist. The separation during forty
Even if the first organisations asking the end of the
years has left its traces. Westerners dominate government
Belgium as a united state appeared during WWI when
and business where as people from the East tend to have
Flemish soldiers were upset to obey to French-speaking
lower incomes and face higher unemployment. There is
officers and buried with French-written graves, the first
also a mismatch in body language for instance: ”
step to a federal state was made in 1962 with a law settling
Easterners ... tend to stand close when talking, while
a new linguistic border within the country.
Westerners feel crowded and back away.”xii Another
The Constitution which has not been fundamentally
aspect from the former separated city Berlin proves that
modified since its adoption in 1831 was revised in 1970
the reunification is not yet completed. ”Only 2.1 percent of
and included the notion of “cultural communities”. The
marriages in 2000 were between residents of the old
prime minister declared then: “Daddy’s Belgium had
xiii
eastern sector and residents of its western part.”
lived”xvi. Later, in 1980, 1988, and 1993 the Constitution
All in all it is difficult to desribe an overall German culture
was changed again. Each time more power, rights and
which is valid to the same extent for every part of the
autonomy were given to the federate entities.xvii The notion
country. It is a rather a conglomeration made up by the
of Region appeared also during those revisions. If the
many various regional influences which form the German
community’s system was asked by the Flemish who
culture as a whole. Due to the experiences of the history it
wanted to rule cultural and educational matters by
is important for Germany to distribute and seperate powers
themselves, the Walloons replied by asking a regional
that one part of society does not get to influential and rules
system to rule the infrastructures, economic development,
over others. This aspect is not only to be recognized in the
agriculture, water, energy supply and arrangement of the
political organisation but also in fields of business,
territory by themselves. Because complicated consensus
education and others. Despite being made up of several
is probably the most representative feature of the Belgian
differing regions why does the German federal system
political culture, both systems were finally adopted. It could
function? ”Germans see themselves as integral parts of
be easily summarize: “if you give something to one you
the whole society...” and ”...each must subordinate some
have to give something also to the other one”. And this
(cultural) individuality so that all of society benefit.”xiv; in
principle was in application each time that the Constitution
order to promote the German effort. Although being of
was rewritten. To modify the “Belgian Fundamental
different ethnic backgrounds, the German citizens share
Charter” we need such a quorum that deputies and
an outlook to the nation (often referred as fatherland) and
senators of both parts are required. So, each time long
desire for unification (e.g. reunification in 1990 and wish for
negotiations between the parties took place until finally a
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complicated consensus was settled to determine the new
regions”xviii.
competences of the communities and regions before the
communities: French, Flemish and German. The third one
formal vote at the parliament.
defines the three regions: Wallonia (3 millions of
Because educational and cultural competences belong
inhabitants), Flanders (6 millions) and Brussels-Capital (1
now to the communities, it can only deepen the differences
million). In our most fundamental law, the federal aspect
within the country. So, federalism in Belgium is first a
takes immediately the first role, even before the principles
consequence of the clash but risks to make it even bigger.
of monarchism (which is considered as neutral and as the
The
second
one
defines
the
three
symbol of the nation as a whole) and, democracy, citizen’s
Current federalist approach
rights… This probably reflects the importance that Flemish
gives to the “right of the ground” and the need they have to
The first article of our Constitution is short and says only
affirm
their
cultural
identity.
“Belgium is a federal state composed by communities and
Three regions: Flanders (North), Brussels-Capital (Middle) and Wallonia (South)
Representing the three communities on a map is much harder because communities are not totally definite on geographical
criteria. The Flemish community is fully competent on the territory of the Flanders as well as the French community is fully
competent on the territory of Wallonia. Concerning Brussels-Capital, only the institutions which are linked to these communities
are ruled by them (like schools for instances because education is a community’s competence). The German community (in
green on the second map) is located exclusively on a small part of Wallonia. As Flemish wanted to appear as an independent
unit as much as possible, they merged the Flemish community and the Flemish region. Concretely, the Flemish authority
possesses all competences for matter regulated by federate entities in the Flanders and only for some flemish community linked
institutions in Brussels.
In each federate entity there is a parliament directly elected by citizens and a government chosen by theses parliaments.
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the culture. The south (nowadays Wallonia, French
Federal
speaking) was a part of the Roman Empire while the north
parliament regarding to the proportion of the population
(Flanders, Dutch speaking) was substantially influenced by
they represent but most of the senators are directly
the German’s tribes. With the collapse of the Roman
elected.
Empire and subsequently the rising of the Merovingians
Each
community
sends
senator(s)
to
the
and after Carolingians the whole country adopted the
The federal authorities regulate matters like public
Catholicism. When Charlemagne’s empire was divided by
finances, fiscal policy, army, police, justice, international
his three grand-sons, “Belgium” was of course divided as
relations (with some nuances).
well. The city of Liege and its far surrounding became a
principality, vassal of the Holy German’s empire for eight
Why is Belgium a federalist country?
hundreds years while the rest of the country was
successively occupied by the French, the Spanish, the
If Belgium has ever existed as a complete independent
Austrians, again the French and the Dutchxix.
entity before the 1830’s revolution, it was only during a few
“principalian spirit” still exists, as well in the Flemish than in
centuries until the roman invaded and occupied the
the French part of the former principality. Because of that,
country. This means that during at least 18 centuries,
another division on the axe “west-east” appeared. If some
Belgium has been often divided and always ruled by others
Walloons living close to the French border in the west feel
countries. Can we talk about a deep-rooted national
French, people from Liege or Namur would rather prefer to
identity and national culture instead of an artificial state
be independent in case of separation. Moreover, Flemish
formed according to the political influence of France,
would never accept to become Dutch citizens. Even
Germany and England in such conditions? The truth is
people from the German speaking part wouldn’t be glad to
The
probably somewhere between. The first and the main
join Germany tomorrow if they could decide. The strange
division of the country still remains in the language and in
thing is we share the languages of our neighbours but we
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don’t want to belong to any of them. This is probably due
Even if in Belgium the division within the country is deeper
to the old culture-tradition of freedoms insides the cities.
(it has to be taken into consideration that Belgium is even
During the middle-age, many freedom-charters were
smaller than the German region Bavaria in size and in
accorded by the lords. The first of this kind in Europe was
population), the approach concerning political federalism is
xx
and was followed by many others
almost the same in both countries. Both in Belgium and in
everywhere in Belgium. Most of cities, even the small ones
Germany the federate entities enjoy similar competencies
were used to be mainly regulated by their own councils.
(to an extent which is justifiable from a logical of view).
These freedoms were often symbolised by a monument so
In Germany there are less strong ”separation-tendencies”
called “flight of steps”. That’s why “Belgians” did not suffer
in comparison to Belgium; although the country is
made in Huy in 1066
to belong to big empires/kingdoms at this time: they were
composed of many different cultural backgrounds they
vassals but ruled by themselves for matters that people
have one common ”roof” with the “fatherland” with which
regarded as important. This is also the probable
they can all identify. In Belgium an important percentage of
explanation of today’s situation: all Belgians are euro
the Flemish population (at least 25%) even votes for
enthusiasts (belonging to a big union is not a problem for
separatist parties (e.g. “Vlaams-Blok”). In Brussels, this
us) but not nationalists, really rather regionalists.
could be after the regional election of June the major
Furthermore, we have to mentions two specific cases:
Flemish party of the capital and might block some
Brussels and the Ardennes (south east, along the border
institutions of this region thanks to mechanism of
with Luxembourg).
protection given to the Flemish minority. It exists in
Brussels is originally and geographically Flemish but for at
Wallonia a party so named “Réunion Wallonie-France”
least 250 years French is much more spoken than Flemish
even if today they are below the 2% in Wallonia. In
within the city. Those peoples cannot be described as
Germany there exists mainly nation-wide parties whereas
belonging to one community/region or to another one.
in Belgium there are only federate parties. Each big
Concerning the Ardennes, this area has its own culture
political trend is divided into the French wing and the
and traditions. They have their own dialects, are more
Flemish wing. On top of that, most of Flemish parties show
conservative and show less their emotions to people from
their Flemish identity in their names: VLD (Vlaams Liberal
other areas. Of course, they considered themselves as
Democrats), CD&V (Christians, Democrats & Vlaams),
Walloons, but definitely you can’t assimilate them as
Vlaams-Bloks, etc. The division is so deep that a citizen of
people from Liege or from the west part.
Wallonia cannot vote for a Flemish party in a federal
Because Belgium is more an addition of areas with their
election
own specificities and traditions than a homogeneous
governmental coalition is “symmetric” (liberal-socialist of
nation, it couldn’t survive as a united state. Only a few
both parts) which means that the political orientation is still
things like food (beer, chocolate or mussels-chips),
more important at this level than the communitarian
customs of holidays (Walloons go on the Flemish sea-side
orientation.
an Flemish to the Ardennes), or national tragedies
are the areas of media and sport. Belgium has no national
(Dutroux matters
biggest
media, the two main communities have even their own
demonstration ever seen in Belgium) can really let a
media, even if sometimes some of them share common
national conscience appear. If Belgians rose up all
facilities and infrastructures, they will process sensitive
together against the Dutch in 1830, it’s because they
community matters information in different ways.
followed
by
one
of
the
and
vice-versa.
But
nevertheless,
the
Two further illustrations of the dual-division
shared some fundamentals like Catholic religion or
Additionally the Belgian national teams (e.g. football, judo)
liberalism and willingness of autonomy that Dutch, at the
are divided into “two cliques” and there remains the
opposite of the previous occupants, stupidly spoiled. But
problem of selecting a coach of one of the two
because of this willingness of autonomy, Belgians can be
backgrounds. In Germany such problems are almost
only ruled for some matters by close councils.
unknown, even between the former Western part and the
GDR.
Comparison of the federalist approaches of Germany and
The common German language (it has only different
Belgium
dialects and accents) is another example for a lower extent
of cultural division in comparison to Belgium with its three
official different languages. It can be said that German
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federalism does not promote cultural separation; moreover
(http://www.germanembassy-
it holds the regions together. Despite continuing political,
india.org/news/98apr/gn04.htm)
economic and administrative integration it is doubtful
-http://www.pco-bcp.gc.ca/aia/default.asp?
whether also a cultural integration across Europe could
Language=E&page=pressroom&sub=speeches&doc=199
take place in the future.
60930_e.htm
As there are already within countries movements which
-U.S.
oppose the idea of a united Europe Cultural integration
http://countrystudies.us/germany/151.htm
within Europe, a federal or a confederate approach would
-
probably be the only sustainable long-term solution for an
http://www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/anthropology/cours
integrated Europe.
es/122/module1/culture.ht ml
Library
of
Congress:
-http://www.mbteach.org/esfep/Ron/Cultural.pdf
General conclusion on federalism
-http://www.detnews.com/2004/nation/0404/22/a14d129681.htm
Although different approaches to the concept of federalism
-Understanding
due to different contexts of the countries exist, as
Symphony”
illustrated above at the examples of Germany and
-http://www.freeessays.cc/db/38/pwr167.shtml
Belgium, federal states share common basic features.
-
Undoubtedly federalism distinguishes the political culture
http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=S%
which ”...is a particular way of thinking in regard to how
26(8(%2FQQ3*%0A
political and economic life ought to be carried out by a
-
xxi
country's government.”
The source of the political culture
is the general culture of a society with its conventions,
Global
Cultures
–
“The
German
http://fr.encyclopedia.yahoo.com/articles/cl/cl_736_p0.html
-
habits, history and traditions. But not any population with
http://www.senat.be/www/webdriver?MIval=index_senate&
its distinctive characteristics can have its own state (it is
M=1&LANG=fr
estimated that there are around 3,000 ethnic or tribal
http://www.lonelyplanet.fr/destinations/europe/belgium/hist
ory.htm
http://www.huy.be/Services_Comm/Tourisme/Musee_de_l
a_Charte/corps_musee _de_la_charte.html
-http://www.ins.be
-http://www.rtbf.be
groups in the world) as fragmentation would become
unlimited. Federalism is a framework which makes the
cohabitation of cultures possible and promotes tolerance
among the citizens. The concept of federalism proves that
minorities and cultures can live together within a single
political structure and single state. ”It reconciles extensive
solidarity and desires for autonomy”xxii. Thus it encourages
the moral principles of tolerance and solidarity.
Consequently federalism attempts to find a balance
between
pressures
of
globalisation
and
autonomy.
Federalism enables the cohabitation of cultures which is
necessary as neither cultural separation nor total cultural
i
http://www.germanembassy.org.uk/notion_and_historical_backgrou.html
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/federalism
iii
http://www.pcobcp.gc.ca/aia/default.asp?Language=E&page=pressroom&sub=sp
eeches&doc=19960930_e.htm
iv
http://www.pcobcp.gc.ca/aia/default.asp?Language=E&page=pressroom&sub=sp
eeches&doc=19960930_e.htm
v
article by Dr. Heinrich-Dietrich Dieckmann, German Ambassador
to India
http://www.germanembassy-india.org/news/98apr/gn04.htm
vi
http://www.germanembassy.org.uk/notion_and_historical_backgrou.html
vii
article by Dr. Heinrich-Dietrich Dieckmann, German Ambassador
to India
http://www.germanembassy-india.org/news/98apr/gn04.htm
ii
assimilation are morally acceptable.
Sources:
-http://www.germanembassy.org.uk/notion_and_historical_backgrou.html
-http://www.thefreedictionary.com/federalism
-article by Dr. Heinrich-Dietrich Dieckmann, German
Ambassador to India
viii
U.S. Library of Congress:
http://countrystudies.us/germany/151.htm
article by Dr. Heinrich-Dietrich Dieckmann, German Ambassador
to India
ix
Euro–limes – numer 1(5) – styczeń 2005
www.euro-limes.ae.krakow.pl
Katedra Studiów Europejskich Akademii Ekonomicznej
w Krakowie
http://www.germanembassy-india.org/news/98apr/gn04.htm
x
http://www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/anthropology/courses/122/m
odule1/culture.html
xi
http://www.mbteach.org/esfep/Ron/Cultural.pdf
xii
http://www.detnews.com/2004/nation/0404/22/a14d-129681.htm
xiii
http://www.detnews.com/2004/nation/0404/22/a14d129681.htm
xiv
Understanding Global Cultures – “The German Symphony”
xv
article by Dr. Heinrich-Dietrich Dieckmann, German Ambassador
to India
http://www.germanembassy-india.org/news/98apr/gn04.htm
xvi
translated from French “La Belgique de papa a vécu”.
xvii
http://fr.encyclopedia.yahoo.com/articles/cl/cl_736_p0.html
xviii
http://www.senat.be/www/webdriver?MIval=index_senate&M=1&LA
NG=fr
xix
http://www.lonelyplanet.fr/destinations/europe/belgium/history.htm
xx
http://www.huy.be/Services_Comm/Tourisme/Musee_de_la_Charte
/corps_musee_de_la_charte.html
xxi
http://www.freeessays.cc/db/38/pwr167.shtml
xxii
http://www.pcobcp.gc.ca/aia/default.asp?Language=E&page=pressroom&sub=sp
eeches&doc=19960930_e.htm