National Unit Specification: general information
UNIT
Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
NUMBER
D254 13
COURSE
SUMMARY
Environmental geology is the study of geological factors (eg subsidence; groundwater quality;
problems of waste disposal; slope stability) relevant to our health, safety and welfare. This unit seeks
to develop:
•
•
•
knowledge and understanding of how human activities affect the geological environment
appreciation of the need to use resources and the physical environment in an enlightened
manner
understanding of the role that geological studies can play in environmental planning and
protection
OUTCOMES
1
2
3
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding related to environmental geology.
Solve problems related to environmental geology.
Collect and analyse information related to environmental geology obtained through practical
work.
RECOMMENDED ENTRY
While entry is at the discretion of the centre, candidates would normally be expected to have attained
the Higher units ‘Minerals and Rocks’ and ‘Economic Geology’.
CREDIT VALUE
1 credit at Advanced Higher.
Administrative Information
Superclass:
RF
Publication date:
April 2000
Source:
Scottish Qualifications Authority 2000
Version:
01
© Scottish Qualifications Authority 2000
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational purposes provided that no profit is derived from
reproduction and that, if reproduced in part, the source is acknowledged.
Additional copies of this unit specification can be purchased from the Scottish Qualifications Authority. The cost for each
unit specification is £2.50 (minimum order £5.00).
CORE SKILLS
Information on the automatic certification of any core skills in this unit is published in Automatic
Certification of Core Skills in National Qualifications (SQA, 1999).
Unit specification – Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
2
National Unit Specification: statement of standards
UNIT
Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
Acceptable performance in this unit will be the satisfactory achievement of the standards set out in
this part of the unit specification. All sections of the statement of standards are mandatory and cannot
be altered without reference to the Scottish Qualifications Authority.
OUTCOME 1
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding related to environmental geology.
Performance criteria
a)
b)
c)
The description of the environmental effects of the use and misuse of physical resources is
correct.
The description of the geological effects of human activities is correct.
The description of the role of geological studies in protecting the environment is correct.
Evidence requirements
Please refer to Evidence requirements for the unit at the end of the Statement of Standards.
OUTCOME 2
Solve problems related to environmental geology.
Performance criteria
a)
b)
c)
d)
Relevant information is selected and presented in an appropriate format.
Information is accurately processed using calculations where appropriate.
Valid conclusions are drawn and explanations given are supported by evidence.
Predictions and generalisations are made based on the available evidence.
Evidence requirements
Please refer to Evidence requirements for the unit at the end of the Statement of Standards.
Unit specification – Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
3
National Unit Specification: statement of standards (cont)
UNIT
Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
OUTCOME 3
Collect and analyse information related to environmental geology obtained through practical work.
Performance criteria
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Field and laboratory procedures are described accurately.
Relevant measurements and observations are recorded in an appropriate format.
Recorded field and laboratory information is analysed and presented in an appropriate format.
Conclusions drawn are valid.
Field and laboratory procedures are evaluated with supporting argument.
Evidence requirements
Please refer to Evidence requirements for the unit at the end of the Statement of Standards.
EVIDENCE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE UNIT
Outcome 1
Evidence is produced which demonstrates successful achievement of all of the performance criteria.
A closed book test would be an appropriate instrument.
Outcome 2
Evidence is produced which demonstrates successful achievement of all of the performance criteria.
A closed book test would be an appropriate instrument.
Outcome 3
Evidence should consist of the following:
i)
ii)
The candidate’s record of practical work, showing that a minimum of six hours of field and/or
laboratory work has been completed to an appropriate level of achievement.
An environmental geology report of about 1,000 words, illustrated by means of diagrams
and/or photographs. Recording, presentation, content, observation, analysis and interpretation
should be of an appropriate level.
Unit specification – Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
4
National Unit Specification: support notes
UNIT
Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
This part of the unit specification is offered as guidance. The support notes are not mandatory.
While the exact time allocated to this unit is at the discretion of the centre, the notional design length
is 40 hours.
GUIDANCE ON THE CONTENT AND CONTEXT FOR THIS UNIT
Water resources
The water cycle
Precipitation, interception, evapotranspiration and run-off
Groundwater resources
Infiltration and percolation. Water table and zone of aeration.
Capillarity.
Primary and secondary porosity and permeability.
Aquifer and aquiclude. Recharge area. Specific retention and specific yield.
Secondary porosity and permeability result from the fracturing and solution of the rock after it has
formed. Porosity (%) = specific yield (%) + specific retention (%).
Head of water. Hydraulic gradient. Velocity of groundwater movement. Darcy’s Law. Hydraulic
conductivity
The hydraulic gradient is the slope of the water table. The velocity of groundwater flow is
proportional to the gradient:
velocity ∝ height (head)/horizontal distance
which can be written:
v ∝ h/l
The proportionality constant K is the hydraulic conductivity or coefficient of permeability: v = Kh/l.
The relationship is known as Darcy’s Law. The units of K are metres per second or metres per day.
Wells. Artesian springs. Piezometric or potentiometric surface
Surface water resources
Springs. Throughflow and base flow. Hydrographs.
River regulation schemes. Environmental effects of reservoir construction (eg loss of land, sediment
loss to agriculture, increased erosion below dam).
Good examples of river regulation are provided by the Dee, North Wales, and the Colorado, USA.
Unit specification – Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
5
National Unit Specification: support notes (cont)
UNIT
Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
Uses of water
Public water supply. Industrial and agricultural uses.
Abstractive and non-abstractive use.
Use of surface water and groundwater. Conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater. Artificial
recharge of aquifers.
River augmentation.
At times of high discharge, water from the Thames is injected into chalk and Tertiary sands in the Lee
Valley north of London. The water is purified before injection to ensure that the aquifers are not
contaminated. The Severn provides an example of a regulated river whose flow is also augmented
with groundwater from Triassic sandstones.
Effects of over-extraction from surface and groundwater sources.
Environmental effects of water use: subsidence caused by groundwater extraction; saline intrusions;
salinisation of soil resulting from irrigation; effects of water transfer
The effects of extracting too much water from rivers is well known by the fate of the Aral Sea. So
much irrigation water has been extracted from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya that the Aral Sea does
not receive enough water to replace water lost by evaporation.
Over-extraction of groundwater is common in many parts of the world. For example, in Mexico City,
the water table is falling at a rate of about 3.4m a year. In Beijing, the water table is falling by about
2m a year.
Over-extraction of groundwater is accompanied by subsidence, eg about 9m in Mexico City; up to
10m in the San Joaquin Valley, California. Venice suffered a small amount of subsidence (15cm to
1970) which exacerbated winter floods. This subsidence has now been almost halted.
Over-extraction of groundwater near coasts allows salty or brackish water to intrude beneath the lens
of fresh groundwater. In the Netherlands, fresh groundwater extracted from coastal dunes allowed
saline water to enter the polders. Artificial recharge prevents saline intrusion. In Israel and the USA,
sewage effluent is pumped into the zone between the fresh and salty groundwater. This forms a
barrier to saline intrusion.
When irrigation water evaporates, salts accumulate in the soil. Increased salt levels in soil have
caused problems in many areas. For example, in India about 15 million hectares of irrigated land
have been severely damaged. Water supplied by the Snowy Mountain Scheme in Australia has led to
salinisation of soils in the Murray irrigation area. In the USA, water drained into the Colorado from
irrigated areas raised the salinity of the river to unacceptable levels. Much salinised land had to be
retired from production.
Water transfer on a small scale takes places in Britain (eg from Wales to Birmingham). On a large
scale, about half of the water used in southern California is transferred from the Colorado River.
Most of this water is used for irrigation. The effect of water transfer on the Aral Sea has already been
mentioned.
Unit specification – Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
6
National Unit Specification: support notes (cont)
UNIT
Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
Water quality:
Types, sources and effects of main contaminants in surface water and groundwater. Heat pollution
Main pollutants and impurities
Type: organic material. Source: sewage, farms, food processing. Effect: reduces oxygen content of
water.
Type: inorganic chemicals. Source: fertilisers, mining, industry. Effects: fertilisers cause excessive
growth of aquatic plants; nitrates may cause gastric cancer and methaemoglobinaemia (water-well
cyantosis) in babies; some metals are highly toxic; mine water may be strongly acidic; plant nutrients
and toxic metals may contaminate groundwater.
Type: organic chemicals. Source: detergent from domestic and industrial sources; herbicides and
pesticides from farms. Effect: harmful to aquatic life.
Type: silt. Source: erosion, industry, mining, quarrying. Effect: reduces light penetration into
water, reduces volumes of reservoirs.
It should be noted that groundwater contamination is long lasting.
Heat pollution describes the return of heated water to the sea, rivers and lakes after the water has been
used as an industrial coolant. Warm water can hold less oxygen than cold water. Plant and animal
communities may be altered.
Effects of human activities
Deep mining
Subsidence caused by coal mining. Effects of subsidence
Room and pillar mining: collapse of pillars, eg in Bathgate 1975-7; roof collapse of rooms; crown
holes. In Scotland, pillars are usually called ‘stoops’.
Longwall mining: effects of depth of mined seam (d) and thickness of seam (f). The approximate
amount of subsidence(s) is given by:
s=
4t
d+4
Angle of draw, limiting line. The subsidence bowl or area of influence extends outside the area of the
coal panel by a distance approximately equal to 0.7 × the depth to the seam. As the wave of
subsidence passes along, the ground suffers extension then compression. Coal should not be extracted
too close to the ground surface and it should not be removed from beneath large buildings, rivers and
major transport routes.
Unit specification – Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
7
National Unit Specification: support notes (cont)
UNIT
Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
Effects on water quality
Mine water may be acidic because sulphuric acid is formed by the bacterial oxidation of sulphide
minerals. Acidic water readily dissolves iron and toxic metals such as aluminium, copper, lead and
zinc. Water running from mines may also contaminate surface supplies. See, for example, the effects
of water from the Wheal Jane Tin Mine, Cornwall, on the River Carnon.
There are also many places in Scotland (eg Keithing Burn, Inverkeithing, Fife; North and South Esks,
Midlothian; River Avon, West Lothian; River Devon, Clackmannanshire) where streams are coloured
by iron oxide precipitated from mine water. In all, water from more than 100 abandoned mines is
polluting Scottish rivers.
Opencast mining quarrying
Effect on landscape. Associated noise, dust and traffic movements. Mitigation of adverse effects.
Site restoration.
Trend towards superquarries
The following steps may be taken to reduce the adverse impacts of opencast sites and quarries:
Machinery can be fitted with silencers; sprinklers can reduce dust; water bowsers can clean haulage
roads and lorries leaving the site may have their tyres cleaned; lorry loads are covered over; and
embankments of topsoil round the site may reduce visual impact and noise.
Opencast coal sites have a limited lifespan (typically 5-10 years). They are then restored for
agricultural, silvicultural or recreational use. Quarries may be restored, flooded for recreational use or
used as rubbish dumps.
Superquarries like the one at Glensanda in Argyll may become increasingly important. Such quarries
allow vast quantities to be produced and cheaply transported to areas of greatest need, eg south-east
England.
Effects on water quality
Quarries and opencast coal mines have little adverse effect on water quality. The use of settling
ponds and peripheral ditches prevents fine-grained material from entering streams. After site
restoration of opencast mines, there may be some seepage of toxic metals from the fill material into
the groundwater. Water pollution may be caused by ore mining because toxic metals may enter
streams and groundwater from tailings.
Petroleum extraction and transport
Subsidence. Spills and leaks
Oil extraction may cause severe subsidence. For example, extraction from the Wilmington Oil Field,
Long Beach, California, produced a subsidence bowl of 76 km2 with a maximum subsidence of 9m.
Gas extraction has caused subsidence in the Po Delta, Italy, and at Niigata, Japan.
Marine oil slicks come from tanker accidents, oil platform blowouts, leaking pipelines, and from
tankers cleaning their tanks.
Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas. Methane entering the atmosphere comes from many sources
such as rice paddies and coal seams. It has been estimated, however, that about 15% of atmospheric
methane comes from leaking pipelines.
Unit specification – Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
8
National Unit Specification: support notes (cont)
UNIT
Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
Civil engineering
Rivers: effects of damming and channel engineering
Dams modify the flow of a river and act as sediment traps. For example, in 1920 the discharge of the
Colorado River varied from 50 to 2600 m3 s-1. The result of damming and water extraction means that
the discharge below the Hoover Dam now varies from about 200 to 400 m3 s-1. Since the Hoover
Dam was built in 1935, Lake Mead has been more than half filled with sediment. (On the other hand,
the Derwent Valley Reservoirs have lost only about 1% of their capacity in 60 years). Below the
Hoover Dam, the loss of suspended load caused the river channel to become deeper and narrower.
The Aswan Dam on the Nile traps rich sediment which would have been deposited on Egyptian fields.
Farmers now have to use expensive artificial fertilisers. The lack of sediment below the dam has
caused increased bank erosion and the delta is being reduced in size because not enough sediment
arrives to replace material removed by wave action.
Examples of dam failure could be studied:
St Francis Dam, California (1928): The dam was built in a fault zone. Weak conglomerate was on
one side of the valley while schists sloping into the reservoir were on the other side. The rising water
table dissolved away the cement in the conglomerate. This rock collapsed taking one side of the dam
with it. Soon after, the schists slid into the valley and the other side of the dam collapsed. The middle
of the dam remained standing. This is a good example of where not to build a dam.
Malpasset Dam, France (1959): The dam failed because of slippage on the foundations. The mica
schist bedrock formed a weak wedge overlying joints filled with clay.
Puentes Dam, Spain (1802): The reservoir was built on alluvium. On being filled, the water had
reached a depth of 47m when the plug of alluvium under the dam blew out. The dam emptied in less
than an hour.
The main purposes of river channel engineering are to improve navigation and to reduce flooding.
Rivers are modified by the construction of artificial levees or dykes; the straightening, deepening and
widening of river channels; and by the construction of structures (eg walls and wing dams) to prevent
bank erosion. These measures increase the speed of flow. Deposition on the flood plain is prevented
and rates of channel bed erosion may be increased.
Coasts: effects of coastal works on erosion and deposition
Structures (eg groynes, jetties and sea walls) which interfere with processes of erosion and sediment
movement may cause beach starvation and increased erosion in downdrift areas. Dredging may also
have far-reaching results. Between 1897 and 1902, the removal of 660 000t of shingle from below
the beach at Hallsands, Devon, caused the loss of the protective beach and the eventual destruction of
the village.
Unit specification – Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
9
National Unit Specification: support notes (cont)
UNIT
Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
Slopes: study of the processes which cause slope failure.
Changes in slope stability resulting from engineering and mining
Main forms of slope movement: rotational and planar slides; rock fall; mudflow; solifluction.
How slope stability is affected by cuttings and by loading.
Examples of slope failure could be studied:
Aberfan colliery tip failure, Wales (1966): This was the result of dumping spoil above a spring. The
spoil heap developed a rotational slip followed by a flowslide and mudflow. 114 people were killed.
Frank Slide, Canadian Rockies (1903): Partly the result of mining in the toe of the slide. 37 × 106 m3
of rock buried the mining town. 70 people were killed.
Po Han Road Slide, Hong Kong (1972): Partly the result of cutting into the slope to make a
construction site. In the main slide, about 25 × 103 m3 of material moved about 300m in less than a
minute. A 13 storey tower block was pushed over. 67 people were killed.
Agriculture
How agriculture and silviculture affect rates of erosion.
Soil conservation measures.
Desertification. Measures to reduce or prevent desertification
Agricultural activities reduce the infiltration capacity of soil. This means that more water is available
for surface run-off so erosion is increased. The removal of trees and other vegetation leaves bare
ground susceptible to raindrop impact and wind deflation. In the USA it has been estimated that soil
loss from cropland is about 5t per hectare per year. Iowa once had about 40cm of rich topsoil. Now it
has only half as much.
Removing trees may increase surface run-off by 20-40%. In Oregon, areas where trees have been
completely removed produce 100 times more sediment than areas where felling has been selective. In
part of Tennessee clear felled areas produced 10t of sediment per hectare per year. The excess of
sediment may cause streams and lakes to become silted up.
The effects of wind erosion could be considered by study of the causes and effects of the Great Plains
Dust Bowl (1933-37).
Soils may be conserved by various means, such as: contour ploughing; construction of terraces;
planting windbreaks; crop rotation; greater use of organic fertilisers; strip farming; no-till agriculture;
and building of check dams. Desertification is caused by a combination of factors including
overgrazing, trampling, increased cultivation around deserts, salinisation, and the removal of trees and
other vegetation. The area of deserts may increase quite rapidly, eg during 1958-75 the edge of the
Sahara shifted south in places by 100km. Over the last 50 years the area of the Sahara has increased
by about 650 000 km2. The following measures may be put in place to reduce desertification:
appropriate modes of irrigation; afforestation; use of shelter belts; stabilisation of sand dunes; soil
conservation; limited grazing; careful use of water resources; and programmes of education for local
people.
Unit specification – Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
10
National Unit Specification: support notes (cont)
UNIT
Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
Recreational activities
These result from increased use of the countryside and coastline for leisure pursuits
Examples: Building ski roads, and clearing trees and bulldozing to make ski slopes increase erosion
and the likelihood of landslides in mountainous areas.
Off-road vehicles damage soil and cause increased erosion.
Artificially placing sand on beaches and the use of groynes to retain sand. Dune belts are damaged by
continual trampling.
Damage to coral reefs by tourists and by tourist related industries has, in places, resulted in an
increase in coastal erosion.
Waste disposal
Disposal of domestic and industrial waste. Landfill sites.
Containment of leachates. Use of safe removal of methane.
In the UK more than 20 × 106 t of domestic waste and more than 80 × 106 t of industrial and
commercial waste are produced every year. Partly because of the changing nature of waste, the
volume of waste has increased by 45% since 1955. Most rubbish is tipped as landfill in old quarries
and opencasts.
Some sewage effluent and liquid industrial wastes are also dumped in landfill sites.
Leachates are chemicals which are dissolved from the landfill material. (Leachate is also used to
describe the liquid which seeps through the landfill). To prevent toxic leachates from entering the
groundwater the landfill site may be sealed by the use of thick polythene and/or clay liners.
Landfill gas (mainly CO2 and CH4) is produced by the decomposition of organic matter in the landfill
material. The gas may be vented through pipes or used as fuel. At present, about 250 commercial
landfill gas schemes are operating worldwide. To make generation of this biogas worthwhile, a
landfill site has to contain at least 100 000 t of rubbish.
Disposal of nuclear waste. Geology of good repository sites
Low-level wastes have extremely low levels of radioactivity. Gases (Mainly isotopes of H, Ar, Kr,
Xe, Rn) are vented to the atmosphere. Liquids are discharged into rivers or into the sea. Solids (old
equipment, laboratory glass, protective clothing, etc) go mostly into concrete lined vaults at Drigg,
Cumbria.
Intermediate-level wastes have medium levels of radioactivity. They include material such as
claddings separated from spent fuel, isotopes used in medicine, and materials used in industry and
defence. At present, 90 000 m3 of this material exists in the UK. It is being held at power stations or
in licensed stores. This material will go into a repository to be opened near Sellafield.
High-level wastes are very radioactive materials produced by reprocessing spent fuel. The waste is
formed into glass blocks. About 400 m3 of this type of waste is produced every year. It will be held
at Sellafield indefinitely.
Nuclear waste repositories are best placed in impermeable rock such as clay, salt deposits, igneous
rock or metamorphic rock. Salt and some clays are plastic so they are self-sealing. Clays would
readily absorb any ions which escaped from the repository. Igneuous and metamorphic rocks are
stable and they would not be affected by heat from the waste canisters.
Unit specification – Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
11
National Unit Specification: support notes (cont)
UNIT
Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
Geology in environmental planning and conservation
Instances should be considered where geological considerations may influence environmental
planning and conservation
Environmental planning: investigation of a potential landfill site; prevention of sterilisation of sand
and gravel deposits; study of slope stability; detection of areas of potential subsidence; protection of
water resources.
Environmental conservation: sympathetic mining and quarrying in scenic areas; underground
placement of pipelines and generator halls; reduction of adverse effects of stream channelisation.
Conservation and problems of resource usage
Conservation of physical resources.
Alternative sources of energy: geothermal, solar, wind, wave, tidal, hydroelectric. Fuel from plants
and wastes
Geothermal energy: in hyperthermal areas (eg Larderello, Italy; Geysers field, California; Wairakei,
New Zealand), steam is used to drive generators. In semi-thermal areas (eg Paris Basin; central
Southampton) hot water is used for space heating. It should be noted that the Hot Dry Rock Project in
Cornwall was closed down in 1994.
Solar, wind, wave, tidal, hydroelectric energy: here, it should be realised that these forms of energy
may contribute to our energy needs. The advantages and disadvantages of their use should be briefly
considered.
Wood provides about 15% of the world’s fuel consumption. Biomass may be converted into other
fuels such as biogas, alcohol and hydrocarbons (produced by fermentation), and char (produced by
pyrolysis). The UK produces about 16 × 106 t of combustible domestic rubbish every year. In some
countries, about 40% of domestic rubbish is burned for space heating or electricity generation. In the
UK less than 10% of domestic rubbish is so used.
Enhanced greenhouse effect. Acid rain. Recycling
It should be realised that there is a considerable natural greenhouse effect. The warming effects
produced by greenhouse gases are as follows: H2O 20.6 °C; CO2 7.2 °C; O3 2.4 °C; N2O 0.8 °C; CH4
0.8 °C; other gases 0.6 °C. (total 32.4 °C). Enhanced global warming over the last 100 years has
been estimated to be of the order of 0.3-0.6 °C.
Highly acidic oxides of sulphur and nitrogen are produced when fossil fuels are burned. Very acidic
groundwater leaches toxic metals such as aluminium from the soil. The combined effects of high
acidity and toxic metals kill fish and trees. The acid rain also washes calcium from soils and speeds
up the chemical weathering of limestone.
Unit specification – Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
12
National Unit Specification: support notes (cont)
UNIT
Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
GUIDANCE ON APPROACHES TO ASSESSMENT FOR THIS UNIT
Outcomes 1 and 2 may be assessed by means of an integrated end-of-unit assessment. The following
approximate percentage mark allocations are recommended. (Note that the numbers given express a
ratio of marks allocated. Candidates would not be expected to undertake test items with the actual
mark allocations shown).
Outcome 1
PC
a)
b)
c)
(knowledge and understanding)
Environmental effects of the use and misuse of physical resources
Geological effects of human activities.
Role of geological studies in protecting the environment.
Outcome 2
(problem solving)
60%
(25)
(25)
(10)
40%
PC
a)
b)
c)
d)
Selecting and presenting information.
Processing information.
Drawing conclusions and explaining.
Making predictions and generalisations.
(5)
(10)
(15)
(10)
Outcome 3
Collect and analyse information related to environmental geology obtained through practical work.
PC
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Field and laboratory procedures are described accurately.
Relevant measurements and observations are recorded in an appropriate format.
Recorded field and laboratory information is analysed and presented in an appropriate format.
Conclusions drawn are valid.
Field and laboratory procedures are evaluated with supporting argument.
Outcome 3 should be assessed by means of the following:
1
The candidate’s record of practical work, showing that a minimum of six hours of work has
been completed to an appropriate level of achievement in the field and/or laboratory. The main
recommendation is that field studies should be carried out, possibly augmented by laboratory
work. Field work might include studies of aspects of: subsidence; quarrying and opencast
mining; waste disposal; geology and planning; urban geology; urbanisation and stream flow;
slope stability; soil erosion; etc. Laboratory work could involve the study of water samples,
porosity and permeability. Models could be used in the laboratory to show the effects of stream
channelisation and of cutting into slopes.
Unit specification – Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
13
National Unit Specification: support notes (cont)
UNIT
2
Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
An environmental geology report of about 1,000 words, based, if possible, on a local case
where studies involving environmental geology have been involved. Where no local case
exists, the report may be based on simulated information or on a case study from another area.
The report should be illustrated by means of diagrams and/or photographs. Recording,
presentation, content, observation, analysis and interpretation should be of an appropriate level.
SPECIAL NEEDS
This unit specification is intended to ensure that there are no artificial barriers to learning or
assessment. Special needs of individual candidates should be taken into account when planning
learning experiences, selecting assessment instruments or considering special alternative outcomes for
units. For information on these, please refer to the SQA document Guidance on Special Assessment
and Certification Arrangements for Candidates with Special Needs/Candidates whose First Language
is not English (SQA, 1998).
Unit specification – Environmental Geology (Advanced Higher)
14